LitCovid-sentences  

PMC:7795931 / 11939-23731 JSONTXT 2 Projects

Annnotations TAB TSV DIC JSON TextAE Lectin_function

Id Subject Object Predicate Lexical cue
T65 0-2 Sentence denotes 2.
T66 3-10 Sentence denotes Methods
T67 12-16 Sentence denotes 2.1.
T68 17-52 Sentence denotes The Model of Information Disclosing
T69 53-185 Sentence denotes The information dissemination system resp. behavioral response system is embedded in the information network resp. physical network.
T70 186-221 Sentence denotes Both networks are given as follows.
T71 222-400 Sentence denotes Information network: the network has (N+1) nodes, first N are individual nodes representing N individuals denoted as i,i=1,2,⋯N, and one government information node denoted as j.
T72 401-619 Sentence denotes The degree of an individual node i is denoted as yi, which obeys a power-law distribution, that is, Fyi∝yi−v, where F(·) is the CDF and yi satisfies ϵ≤1∕yi≤1, where ϵ is a small constant to avoid the degree to blow up.
T73 620-704 Sentence denotes Degree and degree distribution are concepts used in graph theory and network theory.
T74 705-807 Sentence denotes A graph (or network) consists of a number of vertices (nodes) and the edges (links) that connect them.
T75 808-903 Sentence denotes The number of edges (links) connected to each vertex (node) is the degree of the vertex (node).
T76 904-1201 Sentence denotes The degree distribution is a general description of the number of degrees of vertices (nodes) in a graph (or network), and, for random graphs, the degree distribution is the probability distribution of the number of degrees of vertices in the graph, which usually assumes a power-law distribution.
T77 1202-1261 Sentence denotes Throughout the following analysis, we take v=−1 and ϵ=0.01.
T78 1262-1508 Sentence denotes The government node j (representing real-world government) discloses information to every individual node and can only obtain information from n1 (n1≪N) (The notation “≪” means that the number n1 must be far less than the number N.) random nodes.
T79 1509-1626 Sentence denotes The neighborhood of an individual node i is the set of all other nodes (including j) it connects with, denoted as Oi.
T80 1627-1789 Sentence denotes Physical network: the physical network has M nodes, including n2 “special” nodes defined as the “gathering spots”, which predisposes these nodes to this epidemic.
T81 1790-2085 Sentence denotes Mt denotes the distribution of locations of all N individuals during period t, and M0 is the initial distribution that can be viewed as the “home” for every individual (node), thus at the beginning of each period t the individuals move from M0 to Mt and return back to M0 at the end of period t.
T82 2086-2197 Sentence denotes Home coordinates M0 and gathering spots are randomly assigned and different from each other, so we have N+n2<M.
T83 2198-2425 Sentence denotes Suppose there are n3 random nodes, each with identical initial information ξ, who disseminate information at the outbreak of disease; n4 random nodes are initially affected by the public crisis, representing the “patient zero”.
T84 2426-2497 Sentence denotes Without loss of generality, we unitize the information between 0 and 1.
T85 2498-2568 Sentence denotes The rules for information dissemination in each period are as follows.
T86 2569-2577 Sentence denotes Stage i.
T87 2578-2625 Sentence denotes Individual nodes send information to neighbors.
T88 2626-2790 Sentence denotes Each node that has information at the beginning of each period sends its information to all its neighbors, so all (N+1) nodes might receive information from others.
T89 2791-3062 Sentence denotes As information is spontaneously [19], rapidly, and extensively [22] misrepresented during transmission, and most people do not send more accurate information than they receive [17,18], we assume that information gets distorted and misrepresented during each transmission.
T90 3063-3208 Sentence denotes Thus, the actual amount of information received is δxi due to information decay, where δ∼U(0,1), and we assume xi∈0,1 without loss of generality.
T91 3209-3218 Sentence denotes Stage ii.
T92 3219-3271 Sentence denotes Individual nodes receive information from neighbors.
T93 3272-3425 Sentence denotes Each node might have multiple information sources, and it merges the information from all its neighbors weighted by their degrees (and including itself).
T94 3426-3577 Sentence denotes Each individual updates its information based on Equation (1) at each period before the government intervenes:(1) xi,t+1=∑k∈Oiδxk,tyk+xi,tyi∑k∈Oiyk+yi.
T95 3578-3588 Sentence denotes Stage iii.
T96 3589-3645 Sentence denotes The government node censors and screens the information.
T97 3646-4021 Sentence denotes The government has a threshold XD once it receives information from individuals (otherwise, the government would not act in this stage), the government will screen out all individuals with above-threshold information at the beginning of current period, among whom the government pinpoints the nearest ones and takes the maximum amount of information they carry denoted as xd.
T98 4022-4031 Sentence denotes Stage iv.
T99 4032-4070 Sentence denotes Government node discloses information.
T100 4071-4276 Sentence denotes The government is not able to intervene until it censors and screens the information; thus, there is a lag between receiving information and disclosing, which as we can see in Figure 4e, increases with XD.
T101 4277-4441 Sentence denotes After the lag (otherwise, the government would not act in this stage), the government shall disclose xd to all nodes in each period with a weight of λ, where λ∈0,1.
T102 4442-4494 Sentence denotes The higher the λ, the more credible the information.
T103 4495-4503 Sentence denotes Stage v.
T104 4504-4546 Sentence denotes Individual nodes update information again.
T105 4547-4736 Sentence denotes The government intervention switches the updating rule to (2) xi,t+1=λxd+(1−λ)∑k∈Oiδxk,tyk+xi,tyi∑k∈Oiyk+yi, which is also the final amount of the information after government intervention.
T106 4737-4926 Sentence denotes In addition, we assume that the amount of information of initial information holders (those who have information in period 0) is constant, i.e., they do not apply for Equations (1) and (2).
T107 4927-5119 Sentence denotes In short, in the first period, only a few people disseminate information, which will be randomly decayed in each subsequent period, this process simulates the misrepresentation of information.
T108 5120-5238 Sentence denotes Twitter data show that there was a significant heterogeneity in the behavioral response to the COVID-19 epidemic [52].
T109 5239-5613 Sentence denotes Some people, once informed about the epidemic, wear a mask and practice social distance to not expose themselves to the virus—while others panicked, herded, and behaved irrationally because of bad news, exemplified by flocking to churches for psychological comfort [53], to supermarkets for daily supplies [54], and taking radical actions like repeated hospital visits [55].
T110 5614-5924 Sentence denotes Thus, in this paper, we group the population by susceptibleness to irrational behavior caused by information described by an exogenous parameter—individual threshold XI that distinguishes whether an individual is panic-prone or non panic-prone by comparing it with the amount of information the individual has.
T111 5925-6013 Sentence denotes An above-threshold (under-threshold) information denotes a (non) panic-prone individual.
T112 6014-6197 Sentence denotes For a panic-prone node, we assume its probability of going to gathering spots instead of maintaining the original trajectory is 1−x·,a, where x·,a is the amount of information it has.
T113 6198-6284 Sentence denotes For a non panic-prone node, we assume that its probability of not moving is r·,N=x·,a.
T114 6285-6736 Sentence denotes Thus, the behavioral routine is as follows (see Figure 1 for a simplified example): a node moves along with its path with a maximum radius d1, and the actual distance it moves obeys a uniform distribution in (0,d1); this node will randomly choose one of the gathering spots if intending to go to one in this period; every individual node follows this routine, then we have an evolving geographical distribution Mt of the population moving in period t.
T115 6737-6877 Sentence denotes The uninfected will contact everyone within the maximum infection radius d2 and there is a probability μ of being infected for each contact.
T116 6878-7182 Sentence denotes Throughout the simulation analysis, we focus on the impact of three key parameters, the initial information (ϵ), individual threshold (XI), and disclosing threshold (XD), which are the most important quantities to measure the impact of government intervention on the coupled information-disease dynamics.
T117 7183-7449 Sentence denotes The initial information is the source of all information, which denotes the medical awareness of the virus; the individual threshold is a parameter to distinguish the population by groups set above, the smaller it is, the higher the level of public health awareness.
T118 7450-7584 Sentence denotes Disclosing the threshold, chosen by the government, measures its relative priority to speed and accuracy in information dissemination.
T119 7585-7674 Sentence denotes One of the objectives of our experiment is to ascertain the optimal disclosing threshold.
T120 7675-7887 Sentence denotes Government prioritizes speed more as its threshold is lower, “0“ means that government discloses the information immediately upon receipt; “1” means that government only discloses completely accurate information.
T121 7889-7893 Sentence denotes 2.2.
T122 7894-7935 Sentence denotes The Experiments of Information Disclosing
T123 7936-8225 Sentence denotes The simulation steps will be: (Figure 2 brief overviews these steps):Generate a random information network and a random physical network, the former illustrates the information relationship between people, and the latter records the coordinates of people M0 and gathering spots on the map.
T124 8226-8288 Sentence denotes Assign values to initial information and individual threshold.
T125 8289-8555 Sentence denotes The initial information is the source of all information, which denotes the medical awareness of the virus; the individual threshold is a parameter to distinguish the population by groups set above; the smaller it is, the higher the level of public health awareness.
T126 8556-8598 Sentence denotes Assign values to the disclosing threshold.
T127 8599-8733 Sentence denotes The disclosing threshold, chosen by the government, measures its relative priority to speed and accuracy in information dissemination.
T128 8734-8823 Sentence denotes One of the objectives of our experiment is to ascertain the optimal disclosing threshold.
T129 8824-8884 Sentence denotes Government prioritizes speed more as its threshold is lower.
T130 8885-8977 Sentence denotes Generate random individual nodes with initial information and random initial infected nodes.
T131 8978-9071 Sentence denotes Enter period 1. (a) Each individual node with information sends out information to neighbors.
T132 9072-9158 Sentence denotes (b) Each individual node will update its information (weighted) based on Equation (1).
T133 9159-9325 Sentence denotes (c) The government initiates a censoring and screening and enters stage d after a lag period, only for the first time does it receive the above-threshold information.
T134 9326-9411 Sentence denotes If the government never receives above-threshold information, skip c, d, and go to e.
T135 9412-9557 Sentence denotes (d) Government discloses information to the public, which induces another round of information update for individual nodes based on Equation (2).
T136 9558-9751 Sentence denotes (e) The population is grouped into infected and healthy people by health status, and into panic-prone and non panic-prone by how much information one has compared with the individual threshold.
T137 9752-9898 Sentence denotes (f) Each individual node moves in a physical layer following the routine of the subgroup it is in with probability based on its final information.
T138 9899-10041 Sentence denotes (g) Reset the infection status of healthy individual within the transmission radius of an infected one according to the infection probability.
T139 10042-10138 Sentence denotes Return to step 5, initiate a new round for 50 times, that is, run the experiment for 50 periods.
T140 10139-10203 Sentence denotes The data show a stability after 40 periods, so we stopped at 50.
T141 10204-10268 Sentence denotes Output the final overall infection rate at the end of period 50.
T142 10269-10393 Sentence denotes Repeat steps 4–7 for 50 times to reduce the randomness, record the mean, and standard deviation of the final infection rate.
T143 10394-10635 Sentence denotes Reassign for the disclosing threshold discrete values that equally divide the interval 0,1 into 11 parts, and repeat steps 3–8 for each value, that is, 11 times, to find the final infection rates for different disclosing threshold scenarios.
T144 10636-10821 Sentence denotes Reassign for initial information a discrete array 0.4,0.6,0.8,1.0, and reassign for an individual threshold the same values reassigned for the disclosing threshold in the previous step.
T145 10822-10864 Sentence denotes Then, repeat steps 2–9, that is, 44 times.
T146 10865-10957 Sentence denotes Now, we have conducted an experiment with a full parameter space for each initial condition.
T147 10958-11139 Sentence denotes A total of 484 different conditions were simulated for 24,200 repetitions of the experiment, each lasts for 50 periods, which adds up to a total of 1,210,000 periods of experiments.
T148 11140-11223 Sentence denotes They essentially cover all possible scenarios under different external constraints.
T149 11224-11312 Sentence denotes Table 1 lists the definitions, values, and distributions of all parameters in the model.
T150 11314-11318 Sentence denotes 2.3.
T151 11319-11368 Sentence denotes The Model and Experiments of Information Blocking
T152 11369-11513 Sentence denotes We assume the government will suppress any transmission of information under XB; thus, XB=0 denotes the special case in the previous discussion.
T153 11514-11720 Sentence denotes Combining the blocking threshold with other initial conditions above, we have a new parameter space simulation with a total of 5324 different scenarios simulated and a total of 266,200 repeated experiments.
T154 11721-11792 Sentence denotes Each group lasts for 50 periods, for a total of 13,310,000 experiments.