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PMC:7281378 / 54944-76590 JSONTXT 11 Projects

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Id Subject Object Predicate Lexical cue
T432 0-4 Sentence denotes 3.5.
T433 5-48 Sentence denotes Influenza Viruses in Swine in North America
T434 50-56 Sentence denotes 3.5.1.
T435 57-63 Sentence denotes Canada
T436 64-184 Sentence denotes Shortly after a respiratory disease outbreak in swine in Manitoba, an autopsy was done on a dead swine on March 1, 1967.
T437 185-348 Sentence denotes The histopathology confirmed the bronchitis in the deceased swine and a strain of IAV designated as “S/Manitoba/647/67” was characterized using IAV antisera [234].
T438 349-492 Sentence denotes The first report of H1N1 virus in Canadian swine appeared in Quebec during 1980s–1990s when five genotypes of H1N1 virus were identified [235].
T439 493-614 Sentence denotes Since then several studies have reported H1N1, H1N2 and H3N2 viruses in Canadian swine [236,237,238,239,240,241,242,243].
T440 615-797 Sentence denotes Another study reported nine isolates of swine influenza viruses with an antigenic variant from the sick swine having proliferative pneumonia in Quebec, Canada during 1990–1991 [244].
T441 798-959 Sentence denotes In a retrospective diagnosis, only one formalin-fixed paraffin embedded swine lung tissue collected during 1991 was found IAV positive with immunohistochemistry.
T442 960-1091 Sentence denotes This investigation suggested that immunohistochemistry can be useful in retrospective diagnosis of the swine influenza virus [245].
T443 1092-1272 Sentence denotes The broncho-intestinal pneumonia in lung tissues of dead swine was reported on a swine farm which exhibited disease symptoms including coughing, weight loss, and labored breathing.
T444 1273-1478 Sentence denotes Interestingly, before the onset of the disease symptoms, this farm conducted a routine serological surveillance of influenza virus which identified H1N1 virus in only one of the twelve swine samples [246].
T445 1479-1601 Sentence denotes Following this surveillance, a three-month old swine from the same farm was found positive for avian influenza virus H4N6.
T446 1602-1662 Sentence denotes The complete genome of this H4N6 virus was reported in 1999.
T447 1663-1733 Sentence denotes This was the first ever report of an avian-origin H4N6 virus in swine.
T448 1734-1977 Sentence denotes The proximity of the swine farm to a natural lake where several wild bird species including waterfowls which were reported to visit frequently might be the reason behind the introduction of this avian influenza virus strain to the swine [246].
T449 1978-2134 Sentence denotes Later three avian-origin H3N3 influenza virus isolates were recovered from swine in eastern Ontario exhibiting weight loss and coughing during October 2001.
T450 2135-2243 Sentence denotes On a nearby farm located approximately 30 kms away, another H3N3 virus isolate was recovered from the swine.
T451 2244-2312 Sentence denotes There was no recorded movement of the swine between these two farms.
T452 2313-2416 Sentence denotes Since these were avian-origin H3N3 viruses hence the role of birds in transmission cannot be ruled out.
T453 2417-2566 Sentence denotes Later, on a third farm, where an influenza like disease had been affecting mainly the nursery piglets, an H1N1 virus was recovered in May 2002 [247].
T454 2567-2781 Sentence denotes Reassortant H1N1 and H1N2 viruses were detected in swine nasal swab or lung tissue samples obtained from three-week old piglets and sows exhibiting typical influenza-like symptoms in Ontario during 2003–2004 [248].
T455 2782-2952 Sentence denotes First triple-reassortant (avian/classical swine/human triple-reassortant) H3N2 viruses from four swine and one human nasal samples were identified in Ontario during 2005.
T456 2953-3156 Sentence denotes The phylogenetic analysis determined that all the virus sequences were 100% identical to each other which apparently emerged from triple-reassortant H3N2 viruses reported in US based swine in 1988 [249].
T457 3157-3316 Sentence denotes One more report of triple-reassortant H3N2 (trH3N2) viruses appeared on the swine farms located in Saint-Hyacinthe, Assomption and Saint-Foy during early 2009.
T458 3317-3464 Sentence denotes The trH3N2 viruses identified in this study were determined to be closely related to North American/Canadian trH3N2 viruses reported earlier [250].
T459 3465-3668 Sentence denotes Later A(H1N1)pdm09 and H1N1 viruses having internal genes of triple reassortant H3N2 virus were reported in swine in four provinces including Manitoba, Alberta, Saskatchewan and Quebec during 2009 [251].
T460 3669-3818 Sentence denotes The first evidence of A(H1N1)pdm09 virus in Canadian swine appeared in 2009 after the human workers at a swine farm developed influenza-like illness.
T461 3819-3931 Sentence denotes The investigation identified that two farm workers along with 56 swine were positive for the A(H1N1)pdm09 virus.
T462 3932-4007 Sentence denotes Transmission of A(H1N1)pdm09 virus from human to swine was suggested [252].
T463 4008-4145 Sentence denotes The same year 17 more swine were detected with A(H1N1)pdm09 virus after a respiratory disease outbreak hit the Alberta swine farms [253].
T464 4146-4307 Sentence denotes A reverse zoonotic transmission of A(H1N1)pdm09 virus to swine from a human subject who visited Mexico and returned to the swine farm was reported in April 2009.
T465 4308-4471 Sentence denotes As a result, ten swine having severe disease were sacrificed for necropsy which identified lesions in the bronchioles corresponding to the influenza virus disease.
T466 4472-4537 Sentence denotes Virus isolation and sequencing identified the A(H1N1)pdm09 virus.
T467 4538-4710 Sentence denotes Additionally, A(H1N1)pdm09 virus was identified in two more human subjects who were exposed to the swine hence indicated the occurrence of zoonoses on the swine farm [254].
T468 4711-4815 Sentence denotes Later during summer 2009, ten more A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses from five swine herds in Manitoba were reported.
T469 4816-4934 Sentence denotes Virus shedding was observed up to 20 days post-infection after the appearance of the clinical symptoms in swine [255].
T470 4935-5166 Sentence denotes This observation was in agreement of a previous report which documented the experimental infection of swine in the laboratory and determined that virus shedding occurs until 11th day after appearance of the clinical symptoms [256].
T471 5167-5331 Sentence denotes Another investigation reported nine A(H1N1)pdm09 and four H3N2 viruses after an influenza-like disease outbreak on a Quebec based swine farm in December 2010 [257].
T472 5332-5627 Sentence denotes The effect of microclimatic conditions on the transmission dynamics of swine IAV in the barns was studied which observed that high relative humidity in the environment during summer months suppresses the aerosol transmission of the droplets which in turn decreases the transmission of IAV [240].
T473 5628-5900 Sentence denotes The high relative humidity in the environment would facilitate the generation of larger droplets which do not tend to shrink easily and hence are less likely to be aerosol transmitted to a longer distance as they fall on the ground quickly after their formation [240,258].
T474 5901-5987 Sentence denotes As a result, a lower transmission of IAV is observed usually during the summer months.
T475 5988-6106 Sentence denotes On the contrary, the IAV transmission increases during winter months when relative humidity is relatively lower [258].
T476 6108-6114 Sentence denotes 3.5.2.
T477 6115-6128 Sentence denotes United States
T478 6129-6258 Sentence denotes The IAV was first isolated from the nasal discharge of a swine in the United States in 1931 [34] and from the human in 1933 [35].
T479 6259-6536 Sentence denotes The first report of human-origin IAV in swine appeared in the United States on 24 May 1937 after an unexpected result was observed when the serum sample of a sick swine obtained from a State Prison Farm located in New Jersey neutralized the antibodies of human influenza virus.
T480 6537-6667 Sentence denotes A series of investigations made a strikingly new observation that swine had suffered from a human strain of influenza virus [259].
T481 6668-6823 Sentence denotes Serological investigations conducted during 1950s suggested that the weight loss and mortalities among swine were due to swine influenza viruses [260,261].
T482 6824-6948 Sentence denotes Swine influenza viruses were isolated from febrile swine at nine occasions during 1965–1968 in Wisconsin and Nebraska [262].
T483 6949-7062 Sentence denotes Additionally, swine influenza antibodies were also detected in swine sera samples collected from six farms [262].
T484 7063-7336 Sentence denotes A virological surveillance conducted in Memphis, Tennessee and Madison, Wisconsin during May 1976 to June 1977 successfully isolated 478 influenza viruses from swine nasal swabs collected at abattoirs; approximately 300 of which were characterized to be swine H1N1 viruses.
T485 7337-7469 Sentence denotes Additionally, the serological surveillance identified that 21% of the 9400 swine sera samples had swine H1N1 virus antibodies [263].
T486 7470-7618 Sentence denotes A small percentage (1.4%) of swine sera samples were found positive for the swine H3N2 viruses which was further confirmed by virus isolation [263].
T487 7619-7740 Sentence denotes Interestingly, this study identified inter-species transmission of swine influenza viruses between human and swine [263].
T488 7741-7884 Sentence denotes A novel swine-origin H1N1 virus termed as “A/New Jersey/76 (Hsw1N1)” was detected at Fort Dix Army training camp in New Jersey in January 1976.
T489 7885-7945 Sentence denotes The outbreak was localized and was limited to Fort Dix only.
T490 7946-8110 Sentence denotes As a result, 230 soldiers were found infected with this novel virus; 13 of which had severe respiratory disease with one death due to viral pneumonia [264,265,266].
T491 8111-8270 Sentence denotes Since this novel swine-origin H1N1 virus quickly disappeared from Fort Dix hence the epidemiology and the origin of the disease could not be ascertained [264].
T492 8271-8389 Sentence denotes The H1N1 and H3N2 virus antibodies were detected in swine sera collected from an abattoir in North-West United States.
T493 8390-8486 Sentence denotes Interestingly, a higher IAV seroprevalence was observed during the Fall and early winter months.
T494 8487-8620 Sentence denotes Virus isolation and sequencing identified that the H1N1 viruses were closely related to the classical H1 swine influenza virus [267].
T495 8621-8777 Sentence denotes Classical swine-like H1N1 and triple-reassortant H3N2 viruses were identified in swine samples collected across 23 states in the USA during 1998–1999 [268].
T496 8778-8954 Sentence denotes The Minnesota Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory (MVDL) detected large number of H1N1, H1N2 and H3N2 subtypes of IAV in swine samples during 1998–2001 and again during 2007–2009.
T497 8955-9048 Sentence denotes Interestingly, some of the samples were co-infected with H1N1 and H3N2 viruses [269,270,271].
T498 9049-9274 Sentence denotes A second-generation reassortant H1N2 virus having genes from a reassortant H3N2 and classical H1 swine influenza viruses was obtained from the lung tissue samples of a dead sow at an Indiana swine farm in November 1999 [272].
T499 9275-9458 Sentence denotes A novel subtype of H3N1 virus termed as “A/Swine/Minnesota/00395/2004 (H3N1)” was identified during a severe respiratory disease outbreak on a swine farm in Minnesota in October 2004.
T500 9459-9750 Sentence denotes Sequencing observed that the HA gene of this strain was closely related to swine influenza H3N2 virus while the NA gene was related to classical H1N1 virus which suggested that the novel H3N1 virus emerged due to reassortment between H1N1 and H3N2 viruses in the Midwest United States [273].
T501 9751-9980 Sentence denotes Further an H2N3 subtype of IAV which may have emerged as a result of a reassortment between avian and swine influenza viruses was identified on a commercial swine farm in Minnesota in April 2006 and again in September 2006 [274].
T502 9981-10232 Sentence denotes The first evidence of A(H1N1)pdm09 virus infection in US swine appeared when four A(H1N1)pdm09 and one triple-reassortant H1N2 viruses were identified and characterized in the exhibition swine in the states of Minnesota and South Dakota in 2009 [275].
T503 10233-10450 Sentence denotes During last ten years, a large number of H1N1, H1N2, H3N2, A(H1N1)pdm09 along with reassortant IAV subtypes have been reported in the US swine populations [243,276,277,278,279,280,281,282,283,284,285,286,287,288,289].
T504 10451-10567 Sentence denotes The United States has a large feral swine population which is considered a reservoir of H1N1 and H3N2 viruses [290].
T505 10568-10833 Sentence denotes The swine-like H1N1, avian-like H1N1, swine-like H1N2, swine-like H3N2, human-like H3N2, A(H1N1)pdm09 along with avian-like H6N2 and H7N2 viruses were identified in feral swine samples collected across 35 states in the USA between October 2009–September 2013 [291].
T506 10834-11130 Sentence denotes Histological examination of the lung tissues obtained from two backyard piglets suffering from pneumonia and weight loss in Colorado in November 2010 suggested that the piglets were infected with swine influenza virus which were later confirmed to be infected with IAV subtype A(H1N1)pdm09 virus.
T507 11131-11366 Sentence denotes Since the piglets were raised at the house of a pharmacist hence a possible human to swine transmission was speculated given the possibility of an occupational exposure of the pharmacist to the A(H1N1)pdm09 virus at the pharmacy [292].
T508 11367-11531 Sentence denotes The first report of IBV infection in swine appeared when swine in the Midwest United States were found infected with IBV lineages of Yagamata/B and Victoria/B [37].
T509 11532-11665 Sentence denotes This was a new finding because initially IBV was thought to have a host range limited to human, pheasants, horses and seal [1,2,3,4].
T510 11666-11786 Sentence denotes A novel strain of swine influenza virus was detected in Oklahoma swine exhibiting influenza-like symptoms in April 2011.
T511 11787-11867 Sentence denotes The nasal swab samples taken from the swine were negative for the IAV infection.
T512 11868-12008 Sentence denotes Hence the virus isolation was attempted in swine testicle cells; the cells in culture showed influenza-like cytopathic effects by third day.
T513 12009-12157 Sentence denotes Electron microscopic observations revealed particles typical of a virus of Orthomyxoviridae family, but the RT-PCR was negative for the IBV and ICV.
T514 12158-12281 Sentence denotes After ultracentrifugation was used for virus isolation, the genome of the virus was sequenced using Ion Torrent sequencing.
T515 12282-12503 Sentence denotes The genome sequence analysis along with genetic and biochemical investigations revealed that the isolated virus was a novel Orthomyxovirus having 50% overall identity at amino acid level with human influenza C virus [43].
T516 12504-12725 Sentence denotes Since this novel virus was genetically and antigenically distinct from ICV therefore, later was proposed to be categorized as a new genus of Orthomyxoviridae family which was later accepted as influenza D virus (IDV) [5].
T517 12726-12854 Sentence denotes Later, two feral swine which were shot dead in a cotton field in Texas in June 2011 were found infected with A(H1N1)pdm09 virus.
T518 12855-13042 Sentence denotes The significant identity of A(H1N1)pdm09 virus isolated from these two feral swine with human A(H1N1)pdm09 virus suggested a possible transmission between human and the feral swine [290].
T519 13043-13321 Sentence denotes Another study reported seroprevalence of H3N2 virus in one feral swine from Mississippi and in five feral swine from the state of California in 2005 but a negative seroprevalence was reported in the feral swine samples obtained from the states of Florida, Oklahoma and Missouri.
T520 13322-13501 Sentence denotes Additionally, the seroprevalence of IAV was reported in feral swine from Texas where a total of 68 out of 472 feral swine sera were found positive for H3N2 and H1N1 viruses [293].
T521 13502-13735 Sentence denotes Another investigation detected H3N2 virus RNA in only one feral swine from a pool of samples collected across 31 states in the USA during 2011–2012 which indicated a negligible active influenza infection in US feral swine population.
T522 13736-14014 Sentence denotes On the contrary, ELISA identified IAV antibodies in 182 feral swine samples while the serological subtyping identified H3N2 virus antibodies in 76 feral swine samples collected from 19 states which indicated a significant past exposure of US feral swine to the H3N2 virus [294].
T523 14015-14259 Sentence denotes Further, seroprevalence of IDV was reported in 49 feral swine samples collected from Oklahoma, Texas, Hawaii and North Carolina during October 2012–September 2013 which provided the first evidence of past IDV infections in US feral swine [295].
T524 14260-14449 Sentence denotes A study investigating virus shedding in nursery piglets found that all 81 piglets under investigation were shedding H3N2 virus starting seventh day of arrival into the barns until 29th day.
T525 14450-14515 Sentence denotes Shedding was still observed in some piglets until 39th day [296].
T526 14516-14706 Sentence denotes Interestingly, 48 of these nursery piglets were also identified shedding H1N1 virus starting at the third day of arrival into the barns until 41st day over a 53-day observation period [296].
T527 14707-14808 Sentence denotes This was the new information which identified that young nursery piglets could get infected with IAV.
T528 14809-15008 Sentence denotes The oral fluid samples collected from 25 neonatal piglets at four Oklahoma based swine farms during May–August 2014 [297] were found infected with different IAV subtypes including H1, N1, H3, and N2.
T529 15009-15091 Sentence denotes This study supported the use of swine oral fluid samples in IAV diagnostics [285].
T530 15092-15239 Sentence denotes The swine oral fluid samples were also collected in North and South Carolina during June to August 2014 using the cotton rope hanging method [298].
T531 15240-15409 Sentence denotes In this method of sampling, swine are encouraged to chew the rope, as a result, saliva accumulates on the rope which is later squeezed to collect the sample aseptically.
T532 15410-15609 Sentence denotes One of the benefits of this method of sampling is that each sample does not represent an individual swine but rather represents multiple swine that chewed the rope while hanging inside the pen [298].
T533 15610-15803 Sentence denotes Another benefit of this sampling method is that swine oral samples may contain contaminants like feed and feces but this method minimizes the chances of such contaminations in the sample [299].
T534 15804-16039 Sentence denotes Another investigation carried out metagenomic sequencing of swine nasal and rectal swabs obtained from apparently healthy swine which identified 11 IAV positive swine at three abattoirs and a buying station in USA in August 2015 [300].
T535 16040-16201 Sentence denotes In a striking observation, an avian-lineage H4N6 virus was isolated and sequenced from 7–8-month-old gilts on a Missouri based swine farm in December 2015 [301].
T536 16202-16358 Sentence denotes The investigators collected more samples at different time points for next few months at the same farm to assess the transmission of H4N6 virus among swine.
T537 16359-16534 Sentence denotes No other samples were found positive for the H4N6 virus which suggested that the H4N6 virus did not transmit from swine-to-swine and therefore disappeared from the index farm.
T538 16535-16622 Sentence denotes Interestingly, this extended study identified three H1N1 viruses infecting swine [301].
T539 16623-16882 Sentence denotes One large-scale study identified that 23 percent (2 947/12,814) of the swine samples were positive for the IAV in Mid-West United States between July 2011–March 2017, however, sequencing could identify only 173 H1 and H3 subtypes among positive samples [302].
T540 16883-17129 Sentence denotes A human to swine transmission of IAV was suggested when two human-like H3N2 virus isolates were identified from an Oklahoma based swine farm in 2017 which had high similarity with the human-like H3N2 viruses reported earlier from Baltimore [303].
T541 17131-17137 Sentence denotes 3.5.3.
T542 17138-17144 Sentence denotes Mexico
T543 17145-17219 Sentence denotes Maya people represent ethnolinguistic groups in South and Central America.
T544 17220-17336 Sentence denotes The practice of household swine keeping put the Maya people at high risk of contracting the swine influenza viruses.
T545 17337-17584 Sentence denotes Thirty-one sera samples collected from the Maya people in Mexico were identified having antibodies against H1N1 and H3N2 viruses while 93 other sera had antibodies against the H3 subtype of IAV, representing a past exposure to these viruses [304].
T546 17585-17845 Sentence denotes However, this study did not include swine samples for investigation but since swine were household animals in their backyard hence the IAV seroprevalence of the Maya people could be because of a past transmission of these viruses from the backyard swine [304].
T547 17846-18012 Sentence denotes A retrospective study identified antibodies against swine-like H1N1, A(H1N1)pdm09, H3N2, and human-like H1N1 viruses in backyard swine in Mexico between 2000 to 2009.
T548 18013-18177 Sentence denotes This investigation retrospectively determined that the classical-swine H1N1 virus was most widely present in Mexican swine before the 2009 influenza pandemic [305].
T549 18178-18368 Sentence denotes Further, a significant number of swine experiencing respiratory illness had H1N1 or H3N2 virus antibodies in commercial piggeries in Sonora Province of Mexico during October 2008–March 2009.
T550 18369-18536 Sentence denotes The molecular diagnostics and subtyping determined four H1 and two H3 viruses while 19 other IAV positive samples could not be subtyped given the low viral load [306].
T551 18537-18661 Sentence denotes During the influenza virus pandemic in Mexico in 2009, A(H1N1)pdm09 virus was first identified in a single swine nasal swab.
T552 18662-18758 Sentence denotes Additionally, H3N2, A(H1N1)pdm09 and IBV viruses were detected in four symptomatic humans [307].
T553 18759-18934 Sentence denotes The A(H1N1)pdm09 virus isolate retrieved from the swine was believed to be the first from the sister lineage of the pandemic influenza virus isolates reported in Mexico [307].
T554 18935-19037 Sentence denotes Further 59 IAV isolates were retrieved from Mexican swine having respiratory illness during 2010–2014.
T555 19038-19128 Sentence denotes Intriguingly, this study identified 13 reassorted genotypes of IAV in Mexican swine [308].
T556 19129-19415 Sentence denotes This investigation also reported that IAV introduction into Mexican swine may have occurred through three different routes; human to swine transmission; reassortment between human-like H3N2 and A(H1N1)pdm09 virus; and through the long-distance movement of the swine from USA and Europe.
T557 19416-19606 Sentence denotes A periodic introduction of IAV in Mexican swine occurred with the import of American and European swine to Mexico over two decades in 1980s and 1990s before the 2009 influenza pandemic [33].
T558 19607-19697 Sentence denotes Fifty-eight IAV whole genome sequences were retrieved from Mexican swine during 2010–2014.
T559 19698-19781 Sentence denotes Genome sequence analysis identified classical H1N1, H3N2, and A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses.
T560 19782-19936 Sentence denotes Interestingly, the data obtained in this study suggested independent evolution of IAV in the Mexican swine population in different regions of the country.
T561 19937-20062 Sentence denotes Phylogeny determined that Mexico City was the source of the 2009 influenza pandemic which erupted during March–May 2009 [33].
T562 20063-20216 Sentence denotes Later a reassortant H1N2 virus which had the genes from human and swine influenza viruses was isolated and sequenced from a swine in November 2014 [309].
T563 20218-20224 Sentence denotes 3.5.4.
T564 20225-20234 Sentence denotes Guatemala
T565 20235-20433 Sentence denotes The molecular diagnostics identified a total of 104 IAV positive commercial and backyard swine in Guatemala during 2010–2011 which resulted into three A(H1N1)pdm09 and one H3N2 virus isolates [310].
T566 20435-20441 Sentence denotes 3.5.5.
T567 20442-20446 Sentence denotes Cuba
T568 20447-20631 Sentence denotes The first report of A(H1N1)pdm09 virus in commercial piggeries in Cuba appeared in November 2010 when 24 swine were found positive for A(H1N1)pdm09 virus across five swine farms [311].
T569 20632-20780 Sentence denotes Further, five more IAV positive swine were detected in Pinar del Rio province of Western Cuba having respiratory illness and interstitial pneumonia.
T570 20781-20934 Sentence denotes However only one IAV positive sample could be successfully subtyped as A(H1N1)pdm09 virus having reassorted internal genes, all except the NA gene [312].
T571 20936-20942 Sentence denotes 3.5.6.
T572 20943-20962 Sentence denotes Trinidad and Tobago
T573 20963-21147 Sentence denotes In a more recent investigation, a high seroprevalence of IAV (114/309) was detected in swine in Trinidad and Tobago which later identified H3N2 and A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses in swine [313].
T574 21148-21256 Sentence denotes In summary, the H1N1, H1N2, H3N2, and A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses were reported in North American swine population.
T575 21257-21462 Sentence denotes Interestingly, the avian influenza virus strain H4N6 was detected in US based swine while H3N3 and H4N6 were identified in the Canadian swine and H5N2 was reported in the Mexican swine in 2018 (Figure 4E).
T576 21463-21534 Sentence denotes Mexico City was identified to be the origin of 2009 influenza pandemic.
T577 21535-21646 Sentence denotes It was also ascertained that A(H1N1)pdm09 virus was present in Mexican swine well before 2009 pandemic erupted.