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PMC:7241991 JSONTXT 16 Projects

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Id Subject Object Predicate Lexical cue
T1 0-17 Sentence denotes Stereotype threat
T2 19-213 Sentence denotes Among the disturbing statistics to have emerged during the COVID-19 pandemic has been the disproportionate impact in terms of death and severe illness on ethnic minorities in the UK and the USA.
T3 214-378 Sentence denotes On April 7, 2020, it was reported that in the US city of Chicago, where the black population is roughly 30%, nearly 70% of COVID-19 deaths were in this demographic.
T4 379-629 Sentence denotes A report released by the UK Intensive Care National Audit and Research Centre on April 17, 2020, showed that 34% of patients in the UK receiving advanced respiratory support were non-white, despite the non-white population nationally being about 14%.
T5 630-754 Sentence denotes That day, the UK Government announced a review into the impact of COVID-19 on black, Asian, and minority ethnic communities.
T6 755-1079 Sentence denotes On May 7, 2020, a provisional analysis by the UK Office for National Statistics of NHS England data suggested that, after adjustment for age, some sociodemographic characteristics, and measures of self-reported health and disability, black people were almost twice as likely as white people to have a COVID-19-related death.
T7 1080-1132 Sentence denotes We don't yet have the full picture of this pandemic.
T8 1133-1273 Sentence denotes Even so, teasing apart local demographics and infection patterns seems likely to explain at least a portion of the disparities seen to date.
T9 1274-1371 Sentence denotes 44% of National Health Service medical staff, on the front line of virus exposure, are non-white.
T10 1372-1496 Sentence denotes In London, one of the worst affected regions of the UK, white British people are in a minority according to the 2011 Census.
T11 1497-1596 Sentence denotes Socioeconomic factors may well account for some of the disparities, as might racism in health care.
T12 1597-1824 Sentence denotes However, other far more speculative explanations have also been offered: some medical researchers have raised the possibility that innate genetic differences between racial groups cause the virus to hit some harder than others.
T13 1825-2019 Sentence denotes © 2020 Photo by Neil Hall/Pool/Getty Images2020Since January 2020 Elsevier has created a COVID-19 resource centre with free information in English and Mandarin on the novel coronavirus COVID-19.
T14 2020-2130 Sentence denotes The COVID-19 resource centre is hosted on Elsevier Connect, the company's public news and information website.
T15 2131-2534 Sentence denotes Elsevier hereby grants permission to make all its COVID-19-related research that is available on the COVID-19 resource centre - including this research content - immediately available in PubMed Central and other publicly funded repositories, such as the WHO COVID database with rights for unrestricted research re-use and analyses in any form or by any means with acknowledgement of the original source.
T16 2535-2645 Sentence denotes These permissions are granted for free by Elsevier for as long as the COVID-19 resource centre remains active.
T17 2646-2856 Sentence denotes Such speculation runs the risk of forgetting that the demographic categories we recognise socially do not in fact have very much biological meaning and betrays a wider problem in medicine when it comes to race.
T18 2857-2964 Sentence denotes It has become routine in medical research and clinical practice to categorise people by race and ethnicity.
T19 2965-3284 Sentence denotes While this is no doubt important in identifying demographic groups who might be disadvantaged by unequal treatment and to spot any environmental or social patterns affecting disease prevalence, these categories are also sometimes used to guide research, diagnosis, and treatment in ways that are not necessarily useful.
T20 3285-3378 Sentence denotes At worst, they may be reinforcing damaging myths about biological differences between groups.
T21 3379-3661 Sentence denotes In making the case for the possibility of innate biological health differences between groups during the COVID-19 crisis, at least one researcher has pointed to the already-recognised increased risk of hypertension among black people of Afro-Caribbean descent in the UK and the USA.
T22 3662-3750 Sentence denotes Hypertension is an example of a health condition that has been unambiguously racialised.
T23 3751-4084 Sentence denotes It is so widely accepted as such that the UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence guidelines recommend that black patients younger than 55 years with hypertension be given calcium-channel blockers instead of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACE) inhibitors, which are given to non-black patients under 55 years.
T24 4085-4151 Sentence denotes What justifies this distinction in treatment on the basis of race?
T25 4152-4526 Sentence denotes When epidemiologist Jay Kaufman, at McGill University in Canada, and cardiologist and global expert on hypertension Richard Cooper, at Loyola University Chicago in the USA, analysed studies that claimed to see racial differences in responses to ACE inhibitors, they did not find evidence that black or white patients were significantly advantaged by different prescriptions.
T26 4527-4743 Sentence denotes Their conclusion about the benefit of assigning ACE inhibitors according to race was that from “the point of view of any individual patient, this is not meaningfully better than being assigned by the flip of a coin”.
T27 4744-4834 Sentence denotes Kaufman and Cooper's research affirmed what has long been known by population geneticists.
T28 4835-4942 Sentence denotes Humans are a highly homogeneous species, even more so than our closest evolutionary cousin, the chimpanzee.
T29 4943-5050 Sentence denotes By far the greatest source of human genetic variation is not group differences, but individual differences.
T30 5051-5298 Sentence denotes This is perhaps why, for all the effort that has been poured into research to prove the long-held hypothesis that racial differences seen in hypertension have a genetic basis, scientists have not found anything consistent in our DNA to support it.
T31 5299-5395 Sentence denotes More pertinently, when we talk about race we are talking about groups that are socially defined.
T32 5396-5528 Sentence denotes In the USA, for instance, someone may have just one grandparent of African ancestry but be categorised as black based on appearance.
T33 5529-5753 Sentence denotes It makes little sense to conduct research around the assumption that a socially defined group could exhibit a genetic difference from another socially defined group when the groups are not biologically defined to begin with.
T34 5754-5776 Sentence denotes To do so defies logic.
T35 5777-6005 Sentence denotes It similarly defies logic to assume that all non-white people in the UK, with their diverse geographical ancestries, are so genetically different from white people that they will as a group be more innately affected by COVID-19.
T36 6006-6122 Sentence denotes We need only look to history to understand how race was constructed and how little grounding it ever had in biology.
T37 6123-6312 Sentence denotes One reason counter-assumptions persist is that racial categories are such looming presences in our social and cultural lives that we can't imagine they don't have a firmer biological basis.
T38 6313-6520 Sentence denotes This is not to say that group-level differences do not exist—for example, in certain genetic conditions that run in families—and indeed, such research should not be dismissed if it can yield useful insights.
T39 6521-6685 Sentence denotes But it must also be remembered that where such variations are seen, they are fuzzy and marginal, and cannot be a reliable guide to the treatment of any one patient.
T40 6686-6771 Sentence denotes Very often, environmental and social factors are at play rather than biological ones.
T41 6772-6865 Sentence denotes In the case of hypertension, one dominant risk factor is diet, particularly salt consumption.
T42 6866-7131 Sentence denotes Alongside other known social risk factors such as physical inactivity and obesity, research looking at hypertension in black Americans suggests that there might also be an association with stress, possibly including the stress associated with racial discrimination.
T43 7132-7256 Sentence denotes Yet, time and again, I have seen health researchers erroneously invoke social categories as though they are biological ones.
T44 7257-7432 Sentence denotes At a conference on diversity in clinical trials held in London, UK, I saw an employee from a major pharmaceutical company repeatedly refer to “Latino” as an “ancestral” group.
T45 7433-7622 Sentence denotes Anyone familiar with the history of the Americas will know that this socially defined group of people with cultural ties to Latin America comprises individuals of hugely diverse ancestries.
T46 7623-7732 Sentence denotes Even at a stretch it can't be considered a genetically similar group for the purposes of scientific research.
T47 7733-7868 Sentence denotes Incidents like this have made me wonder whether some well intentioned but misguided medical researchers are keeping race science alive.
T48 7869-7980 Sentence denotes The temptation to group people by perceived common traits is known in any other sphere of life as stereotyping.
T49 7981-8067 Sentence denotes I would argue that in medicine there is also a dangerous habit of racial stereotyping.
T50 8068-8253 Sentence denotes This tendency to treat people in the same social group as similar, to enter into biological essentialism, too easily glosses over the complexities and breadth of individual differences.
T51 8254-8527 Sentence denotes One possible reason that race keeps being reintroduced into health research is that one of its blue-sky goals is to have personalised medicine so precise that every person's biological profile is perfectly understood, avoiding adverse drug reactions and unnecessary deaths.
T52 8528-8685 Sentence denotes In the greyer real world in which we don't have all the necessary data to do this, some doctors and researchers instead turn to social categories as proxies.
T53 8686-8869 Sentence denotes They work on the assumption that certain groups share certain health traits on average, allowing them to roughly gauge the medical requirements of any patient belonging to that group.
T54 8870-8953 Sentence denotes It feels like a useful step on the road to personalised medicine, some might argue.
T55 8954-8980 Sentence denotes In my view, it is a fudge.
T56 8981-9169 Sentence denotes Our social categories have enormous power in society, in dictating how we live and how we are treated by others, but this doesn't mean they have the same significance underneath our skins.
T57 9170-9291 Sentence denotes When gaps are seen between groups, we must therefore be careful about diagnosing the causes until we have clear evidence.
T58 9292-9324 Sentence denotes Casual speculation helps nobody.
T59 9325-9489 Sentence denotes The UK Confidential Enquiry into Maternal Deaths found in 2018 that black women were five times more likely than white women to die during pregnancy and childbirth.
T60 9490-9594 Sentence denotes Similar mortality rates have been seen in the USA, not only among black women but also other minorities.
T61 9595-9751 Sentence denotes Some have wondered whether this might have something to do with black women's bodies being in some way more vulnerable and less able to withstand pregnancy.
T62 9752-10022 Sentence denotes It has fallen on health professionals working with minority women, such as the brilliant Florida-based midwife Jennie Joseph, to show through on-the-ground work with pregnant women that, simply by improving standards of care, mortality rates can be drastically improved.
T63 10023-10125 Sentence denotes It is not groups of people that are different, Joseph's work proves, but how those groups are treated.
T64 10126-10160 Sentence denotes It is racism that kills, not race.
T65 10161-10357 Sentence denotes Scientists are finally investigating the damaging effects of conscious and unconscious bias on patients, revealing disturbing truths about racism, sexism, and other forms of prejudice in medicine.
T66 10358-10552 Sentence denotes A review of gender differences in the treatment of chronic pain in 2018 showed that women tend to be taken less seriously than men, and are more easily dismissed as over-sensitive or hysterical.
T67 10553-10721 Sentence denotes A 2020 study uncovered racial disparities in dementia care in the UK, with Asian dementia patients less likely to be prescribed anti-dementia drugs than white patients.
T68 10722-10846 Sentence denotes These are not easy facts to confront for doctors and medical researchers who believe they are doing their best for patients.
T69 10847-10966 Sentence denotes But the persistent habit of essentialising large groups of people in medicine, I would argue, needs to be interrogated.
T70 10967-11019 Sentence denotes Medical research is not helped by maintaining myths.
T71 11020-11203 Sentence denotes If race is to be used as a research variable or diagnostic tool, the reasons why need to be clearly articulated and justified, to avoid a reliance on stereotypes rather than on facts.
T72 11205-11244 Sentence denotes Angela Saini is the author of Superior:
T73 11245-11292 Sentence denotes The Return of Race Science (2019) and Inferior:
T74 11293-11375 Sentence denotes How Science Got Women Wrong and the New Research That's Rewriting the Story (2017)