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PMC:7152911 / 59810-72704 JSONTXT 12 Projects

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Id Subject Object Predicate Lexical cue
T477 0-28 Sentence denotes 2.2 Biorecognition elements
T478 29-154 Sentence denotes The previous section discussed the transduction elements associated with pathogen detection using electrochemical biosensors.
T479 155-411 Sentence denotes Given a biosensor is a device composed of integrated transducer and biorecognition elements, we next discuss the biorecognition elements used for selective detection of pathogens and corresponding immobilization techniques for their coupling to electrodes.
T480 412-523 Sentence denotes Biorecognition elements for electrochemical biosensors can be defined as (1) biocatalytic or (2) biocomplexing.
T481 524-651 Sentence denotes In the case of biocatalytic biorecognition elements, the biosensor response is based on a reaction catalyzed by macromolecules.
T482 652-749 Sentence denotes Enzymes, whole cells, and tissues are the most commonly used biocatalytic biorecognition element.
T483 750-962 Sentence denotes While enzyzmes provide biorecognition elements in various chemical sensing applications, they are often used as labels for pathogen detection applications and most commonly introduced via secondary binding steps.
T484 963-1134 Sentence denotes In the case of biocomplexing biorecognition elements, the biosensor response is based on the interaction of analytes with macromolecules or organized molecular assemblies.
T485 1135-1286 Sentence denotes As shown in Table 1, Table 2, antibodies, peptides, and phages are the most commonly used biocomplexing biorecognition elements for pathogen detection.
T486 1287-1461 Sentence denotes In addition to biomacromolecules, imprinted polymers have also been examined as biocomplexing biorecognition elements for pathogen detection using electrochemical biosensors.
T487 1463-1503 Sentence denotes 2.2.1 Antibodies and antibody fragments
T488 1504-1655 Sentence denotes Antibodies and antibody fragments are among the most commonly utilized biorecognition elements for pathogen detection using electrochemical biosensors.
T489 1656-1758 Sentence denotes Biosensors employing antibody-based biorecognition elements are commonly referred to as immunosensors.
T490 1759-1980 Sentence denotes Given antibodies exhibit high selectivity and binding affinity for target species and can be generated for a wide range of infectious agents, antibodies are the gold-standard biorecognition element for pathogen detection.
T491 1981-2134 Sentence denotes Antibodies contain recognition sites that selectively bind to antigens through a specific region of the antigen, referred to as an epitope (Patris et al.
T492 2135-2141 Sentence denotes 2016).
T493 2142-2266 Sentence denotes Antibodies can be labeled with fluorescent or enzymatic tags, which leads to the designation of the approach as label-based.
T494 2267-2422 Sentence denotes While label-based approaches present measurement constraints associated with the use of additional reagents and processing steps (Cooper, 2009; Sang et al.
T495 2423-2547 Sentence denotes 2016), antibody labeling may also alter the binding affinity to the antigen, which could affect the biosensor's selectivity.
T496 2548-2671 Sentence denotes A detailed discussion of label-based biosensing approaches for pathogen detection has been reported elsewhere (Ahmed et al.
T497 2672-2730 Sentence denotes 2014; Alahi and Mukhopadhyay, 2017; Bozal-Palabiyik et al.
T498 2731-2751 Sentence denotes 2018; Leonard et al.
T499 2752-2758 Sentence denotes 2003).
T500 2759-2888 Sentence denotes A list of recent label-based approaches for pathogen detection using electrochemical biosensors, however, is provided in Table 2.
T501 2889-2995 Sentence denotes While both monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies enable the selective detection of pathogens (Patris et al.
T502 2996-3078 Sentence denotes 2016), they vary in terms of production method, selectivity, and binding affinity.
T503 3079-3185 Sentence denotes Monoclonal antibodies are produced by hybridoma technology (Birch and Racher, 2006; James and Bell, 1987).
T504 3186-3313 Sentence denotes Thus, monoclonal antibodies are highly selective and bind to a single epitope, making them less vulnerable to cross-reactivity.
T505 3314-3465 Sentence denotes While monoclonal antibodies tend to have a higher degree of selectivity, they are more expensive and take longer to develop than polyclonal antibodies.
T506 3466-3602 Sentence denotes Polyclonal antibodies are produced by separation of immunoglobulin proteins from the blood of an infected host (Birch and Racher, 2006).
T507 3603-3671 Sentence denotes Polyclonal antibodies target different epitopes on a single antigen.
T508 3672-3888 Sentence denotes While polyclonal antibodies exhibit increased variability between batches, they are relatively less expensive to produce than monoclonal antibodies and facilitate robust measurements in various settings (Byrne et al.
T509 3889-3895 Sentence denotes 2009).
T510 3896-4011 Sentence denotes Drawbacks to antibody use include high cost and stability challenges, such as the need for low-temperature storage.
T511 4012-4143 Sentence denotes As shown in Table 1, Table 2, both monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies are used as biorecognition elements for pathogen detection.
T512 4144-4415 Sentence denotes For assays involving secondary binding steps, monoclonal antibodies typically serve as the primary biorecognition element and are immobilized on the electrode, while polyclonal antibodies serve as the secondary biorecognition element and often facilitate target labeling.
T513 4416-4579 Sentence denotes For assays that do not require secondary binding steps, polyclonal antibodies are also commonly used as immobilized biorecognition elements for pathogen detection.
T514 4580-4788 Sentence denotes For example, Pandey et al. immobilized monoclonal anti-E. coli on a composite nanostructured electrode to detect E. coli across a wide dynamic range of 10 to 108 CFU/mL with a LOD of 3.8 CFU/mL (Pandey et al.
T515 4789-4795 Sentence denotes 2017).
T516 4796-4925 Sentence denotes Wu et al. used polyclonal anti-E. coli for detection of E. coli via amperometry that exhibited a LOD of 5 × 103 CFU/mL (Wu et al.
T517 4926-4932 Sentence denotes 2016).
T518 4933-5194 Sentence denotes Lin et al. used monoclonal antibodies for detection of avian influenza virus H5N1 in chicken swabs across a dynamic range of 2- 1 to 24 hemagglutination units (HAU)/50 μL using EIS and the ferri/ferrocyanide (Fe(CN)6 3 - /4-) couple as a redox probe (Lin et al.
T519 5195-5201 Sentence denotes 2015).
T520 5202-5340 Sentence denotes Luka et al. detected Cryptosporidium parvum (C. parvum) with a LOD of 40 cells/mm2 via capacitive sensing and Fe(CN)6 3 - /4- (Luka et al.
T521 5341-5347 Sentence denotes 2019).
T522 5348-5594 Sentence denotes Antibody fragments, such as single-chain variable fragments (scFvs), offer selectivity similar to antibodies, but they have the advantage of achieving relatively higher packing densities on electrode surfaces due to their relatively smaller size.
T523 5595-5866 Sentence denotes For example, half-antibody fragments have been shown to improve biosensor sensitivity without the loss of selectivity, which warrants further investigation of reduced antibodies as biorecognition elements for pathogen detection applications (Sharma and Mutharasan, 2013).
T524 5867-6018 Sentence denotes In addition to scFvs, Fabs, re-engineered IgGs, and dimers can also potentially be used as biorecognition elements for pathogen detection (Byrne et al.
T525 6019-6025 Sentence denotes 2009).
T526 6027-6063 Sentence denotes 2.2.2 Carbohydrate-binding proteins
T527 6064-6251 Sentence denotes Carbohydrate-binding proteins, such as lectins, also provide selective biorecognition elements for pathogen detection based on their ability to selectively bind ligands on target species.
T528 6252-6421 Sentence denotes Peptide-based biorecognition elements are relatively low-cost, can be produced with high yield automated synthesis processes, and are modifiable (Pavan and Berti, 2012).
T529 6422-6630 Sentence denotes For example, lectins have been investigated as biorecognition elements for pathogen detection through their ability to selectively bind glycosylated proteins on the surfaces of viruses and cells (Reina et al.
T530 6631-6637 Sentence denotes 2008).
T531 6638-6751 Sentence denotes Concanavalin A (ConA) lectin has been extensively investigated for E. coli detection (see Table 1) (Jantra et al.
T532 6752-6772 Sentence denotes 2011; Saucedo et al.
T533 6773-6788 Sentence denotes 2019; Xi et al.
T534 6789-6806 Sentence denotes 2011; Yang et al.
T535 6807-6814 Sentence denotes 2016b).
T536 6815-7082 Sentence denotes While not yet widely investigated for pathogen detection using electrochemical biosensors, Etayash et al. recently showed that oligopeptides also provide attractive biorecognition elements for real-time biosensor-based detection of breast cancer cells (Etayash et al.
T537 7083-7089 Sentence denotes 2015).
T538 7091-7114 Sentence denotes 2.2.3 Oligosaccharides
T539 7115-7219 Sentence denotes Trisaccharides are carbohydrates that can selectively bind carbohydrate-specific receptors on pathogens.
T540 7220-7346 Sentence denotes Thus, trisaccharide ligands have been used as biorecognition elements for pathogen detection using electrochemical biosensors.
T541 7347-7521 Sentence denotes For example, Hai et al. used a hybrid E-QCM biosensor coated with hemagglutinin-specific trisaccharide ligands for the detection of human influenza A virus (H1N1) (Hai et al.
T542 7522-7528 Sentence denotes 2017).
T543 7529-7756 Sentence denotes The use of carbohydrates as biorecognition elements is limited in part due to the weak affinity of carbohydrate-protein interactions and low selectivity, which are currently mitigated through secondary interactions (Zeng et al.
T544 7757-7763 Sentence denotes 2012).
T545 7765-7788 Sentence denotes 2.2.4 Oligonucleotides
T546 7789-7883 Sentence denotes Single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) is a useful biorecognition element for the detection of pathogens.
T547 7884-8052 Sentence denotes While ssDNA is commonly used as a biorecognition element for DNA-based assays, ssDNA aptamers are commonly used for pathogen detection using electrochemical biosensors.
T548 8053-8185 Sentence denotes Aptamers are single-stranded oligonucleotides capable of binding various molecules with high affinity and selectivity (Lakhin et al.
T549 8186-8209 Sentence denotes 2013; Reverdatto et al.
T550 8210-8216 Sentence denotes 2015).
T551 8217-8413 Sentence denotes Aptamers are isolated from a large random sequence pool through a selection process that utilizes systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment, also known as SELEX (Stoltenburg et al.
T552 8414-8420 Sentence denotes 2007).
T553 8421-8549 Sentence denotes Suitable binding sequences can be isolated from a large random oligonucleotide sequence pool and subsequently amplified for use.
T554 8550-8631 Sentence denotes Thus, aptamers can exhibit high selectivity to target species (Stoltenburg et al.
T555 8632-8638 Sentence denotes 2007).
T556 8639-8746 Sentence denotes Aptamers can also be produced at a lower cost than alternative biorecognition elements, such as antibodies.
T557 8747-8974 Sentence denotes Giamberardino et al. used SELEX to discover an aptamer for norovirus detection, which showed a million-fold higher binding affinity for the target than a random DNA strand that served as a negative control (Giamberardino et al.
T558 8975-8981 Sentence denotes 2013).
T559 8982-9133 Sentence denotes Iqbal et al. performed 10 rounds of SELEX to discover 14 aptamer clones with high affinities for C. parvum for detection in fruit samples (Iqbal et al.
T560 9134-9140 Sentence denotes 2015).
T561 9141-9438 Sentence denotes However, the use of aptamers as biorecognition elements has not yet replaced traditional biorecognition elements, such as antibodies, because of several challenges, such as aptamer stability, degradation, cross-reactivity, and reproducibility using alternative processing approaches (Lakhin et al.
T562 9439-9445 Sentence denotes 2013).
T563 9447-9460 Sentence denotes 2.2.5 Phages
T564 9461-9616 Sentence denotes Phages, also referred to as bacteriophages, are viruses that infect and replicate in bacteria through selective binding via tail-spike proteins (Haq et al.
T565 9617-9623 Sentence denotes 2012).
T566 9624-9769 Sentence denotes Thus, they have been examined as biorecognition elements for pathogen detection using electrochemical biosensors (Kutter and Sulakvelidze, 2004).
T567 9770-9867 Sentence denotes Bacteriophages exhibit varying morphologies and are thus classified by selectivity and structure.
T568 9868-9975 Sentence denotes A variety of bacteriophage-based electrochemical biosensors for pathogen detection can be found in Table 1.
T569 9976-10104 Sentence denotes For example, Shabani et al. used E. coli-specific T4 bacteriophages for selective impedimetric detection studies (Shabani et al.
T570 10105-10111 Sentence denotes 2008).
T571 10112-10236 Sentence denotes Mejri et al. compared the use of bacteriophages to antibodies as biorecognition elements for E. coli detection (Mejri et al.
T572 10237-10243 Sentence denotes 2010).
T573 10244-10489 Sentence denotes In that study, they found that bacteriophages improved the water stability of the biosensor and increased the sensitivity by approximately a factor of four relative to the response obtained with antibodies based on EIS measurements (Mejri et al.
T574 10490-10496 Sentence denotes 2010).
T575 10497-10707 Sentence denotes In another study, Tolba et al. utilized immobilized bacteriophage-encoded peptidoglycan hydrolases on Au screen-printed electrodes for detection of L. innocua in pure milk with a LOD of 105 CFU/mL (Tolba et al.
T576 10708-10714 Sentence denotes 2012).
T577 10715-10910 Sentence denotes These results suggest that bacteriophages are potentially attractive biorecognition elements for water safety and environmental monitoring applications that require chronic monitoring of liquids.
T578 10912-10959 Sentence denotes 2.2.6 Cell- and molecularly-imprinted polymers
T579 10960-11352 Sentence denotes Given traditional biorecognition elements used in biosensing exhibit stability concerns, such as antibodies or aptamers, as discussed in Sections 2.2.1–2.2.4, there have been efforts to create engineered molecular biorecognition elements, such as scFvs. In contrast, materials-based biorecognition elements exploit the principle of target-specific morphology for selective capture (Pan et al.
T580 11353-11370 Sentence denotes 2018; Zhou et al.
T581 11371-11377 Sentence denotes 2019).
T582 11378-11531 Sentence denotes The most common approach in materials-based biorecognition is based on cell- and molecularly-imprinted polymers (CIPs and MIPs, respectively) (Gui et al.
T583 11532-11538 Sentence denotes 2018).
T584 11539-11694 Sentence denotes CIPs and MIPs have been created using various processes, including bacteria-mediated lithography, micro-contact stamping, and colloid imprints (Chen et al.
T585 11695-11712 Sentence denotes 2016a; Pan et al.
T586 11713-11719 Sentence denotes 2018).
T587 11720-11942 Sentence denotes As shown in Fig. 3b, Jafari et al. used imprinted organosilica sol-gel films of tetraethoxysilane and (3-mercaptopropyl)trimethoxysilane (MPTS) for selective detection of E. coli using an impedimetric method (Jafari et al.
T588 11943-11949 Sentence denotes 2019).
T589 11950-12103 Sentence denotes Similarly, Golabi et al. used imprinted poly(3-aminophenylboronic acid) films for detection of Staphylococcus epidermidis (S. epidermidis) (Golabi et al.
T590 12104-12110 Sentence denotes 2017).
T591 12111-12317 Sentence denotes Despite the absence of a highly selective molecular biorecognition element, CIPs and MIPs exhibit selectivity when exposed to samples that contain multiple analytes (i.e., non-target species) (Golabi et al.
T592 12318-12337 Sentence denotes 2017; Jafari et al.
T593 12338-12353 Sentence denotes 2019; Qi et al.
T594 12354-12360 Sentence denotes 2013).
T595 12361-12451 Sentence denotes MIPs and CIPs are also of interest with regard to opportunities in biosensor regeneration.
T596 12452-12635 Sentence denotes Common adverse effects of regeneration on biosensors that employ molecular biorecognition elements, such as irreversible changes in structure, are less likely to affect MIPs and CIPs.
T597 12636-12835 Sentence denotes However, it is generally accepted that current CIPs and MIPs exhibit lower selectivity to target species than antibodies and aptamers due to reduction of available chemical selectivity (Cheong et al.
T598 12836-12887 Sentence denotes 2013; Kryscio and Peppas, 2012; Yáñez-Sedeño et al.
T599 12888-12894 Sentence denotes 2017).