LitCovid-sentences  

PMC:7152911 / 111960-126806 JSONTXT 12 Projects

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Id Subject Object Predicate Lexical cue
T914 0-37 Sentence denotes 4 Applications to pathogen detection
T915 38-234 Sentence denotes As identified in the previous sections, the application influences the biosensor design and measurement format associated with a given electrochemical biosensor-based assay for pathogen detection.
T916 235-434 Sentence denotes We next review applications of electrochemical biosensors for pathogen detection in food and water safety, environmental monitoring and infection control, medical diagnostics, and bio-threat defense.
T917 436-475 Sentence denotes 4.1 Food and water safety applications
T918 476-568 Sentence denotes Detection of foodborne and waterborne pathogens is an essential aspect of public healthcare.
T919 569-736 Sentence denotes Foodborne and waterborne pathogens originate from a variety of sources and matrices and typically infect humans through the consumption of contaminated food and water.
T920 737-836 Sentence denotes Waterborne pathogens are responsible for about 2.2 million deaths annually worldwide (Pandey et al.
T921 837-927 Sentence denotes 2014), and contaminated food-related deaths amount to around 420,000 annually (WHO, 2015).
T922 928-1153 Sentence denotes In 2019, the United States suffered an outbreak of multidrug-resistant S. typhimurium in turkey products caused 358 infections across 42 states, demonstrating the importance of detecting pathogens in food sources (CDC, 2019).
T923 1154-1450 Sentence denotes While biosensors for pathogen detection are critical to water and food safety in developed regions, biosensors are particularly important aspects of public healthcare in remote and under-developed regions due to relatively reduced infrastructure and resources for food and water quality analysis.
T924 1451-1666 Sentence denotes For example, in 2014, a cholera outbreak linked to V. cholerae in Ghana, which has been associated with poor environmental water management and sanitation issues, infected over 20,000 individuals (Ohene-Adjei et al.
T925 1667-1673 Sentence denotes 2017).
T926 1674-1767 Sentence denotes The selective detection of pathogens in food and water remains a global healthcare challenge.
T927 1768-1895 Sentence denotes Several comprehensive reviews have been written on biosensors for food and water safety (Baeumner, 2003; Bozal-Palabiyik et al.
T928 1896-1916 Sentence denotes 2018; Leonard et al.
T929 1917-1940 Sentence denotes 2003; Ye et al., 2019).
T930 1941-2010 Sentence denotes Here, we describe the most common foodborne and waterborne pathogens.
T931 2011-2256 Sentence denotes Common foodborne and waterborne pathogens include protozoa, such as C. parvum and G. lamblia, bacteria, such as E. coli, L. monocytogenes, S. typhimurium, S. aureus, and Campylobacter, and viruses, such as norovirus and rotavirus (Beuchat et al.
T932 2257-2277 Sentence denotes 2013; Cabral, 2010).
T933 2278-2436 Sentence denotes The infectious dose of foodborne and waterborne pathogens can vary by 4–6 orders of magnitude, from a single cell or oocyst to greater than one million cells.
T934 2437-2594 Sentence denotes For example, the infectious dose of S. dysenteriae is 200 CFU (Greig and Todd, 2010), while that of S. aureus is 100,000 CFU (Schmid-Hempel and Frank, 2007).
T935 2595-2818 Sentence denotes Given the extensive use of immunoassays in food and water safety, such as ELISA, it is possible to obtain commercially-available monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies for a large number of foodborne and waterborne pathogens.
T936 2819-3046 Sentence denotes Biosensor applications associated with process monitoring applications may require biosensor designs and measurement formats that facilitate high-throughput analysis, continuous monitoring capability, and biosensor reusability.
T937 3047-3248 Sentence denotes Alternatively, those for water safety applications in under-developed regions may require biosensor designs and measurement formats that facilitate field use, such as sample preparation-free protocols.
T938 3249-3401 Sentence denotes Pathogens can also enter food and water through processing, packaging, distribution, and storage processes (e.g., via workers and pests) (Beuchat et al.
T939 3402-3441 Sentence denotes 2013; Mehrotra, 2016; Ye et al., 2019).
T940 3442-3588 Sentence denotes As a result, biosensors for food and water safety applications should facilitate pathogen detection at various stages of the processing operation.
T941 3589-3831 Sentence denotes Recent advances in electrochemical biosensors for food and water safety applications have established new low-cost biosensor designs, portable measurement formats, and flexible form-factors and are discussed further in the following sections.
T942 3833-3897 Sentence denotes 4.2 Environmental monitoring and infection control applications
T943 3898-4032 Sentence denotes In addition to foodborne and waterborne pathogens, the detection of environmental pathogens is also an important aspect of healthcare.
T944 4033-4171 Sentence denotes For example, diseases associated with environmental pathogens are one of the leading causes of death in low-income economies (WHO, 2018a).
T945 4172-4264 Sentence denotes For example, malaria was reported to cause an estimated 435,000 deaths in 2017 (WHO, 2018b).
T946 4265-4488 Sentence denotes Environmental pathogens are microorganisms that typically spend a substantial part of their lifecycle outside human hosts, but when introduced to humans through contact or inhalation cause disease with measurable frequency.
T947 4489-4573 Sentence denotes Thus, environmental pathogens are often targets in medical diagnostics applications.
T948 4574-4814 Sentence denotes However, here, we choose to distinguish environmental monitoring applications, which require pathogen detection in the environment (e.g., in air or on surfaces), from medical diagnostics applications, which require detection in body fluids.
T949 4815-4893 Sentence denotes Thus, the distinction is based on the matrix in which the pathogen is present.
T950 4894-5123 Sentence denotes Similar to food and water safety applications, which require biosensors capable of analyzing pathogen-containing complex matrices, such as a water or food matrix, environmental pathogens are present in multiple types of matrices.
T951 5124-5432 Sentence denotes While environmental pathogens can enter the body through direct physical contact, they can also be transmitted through aerosols or interaction with organisms that serve as vectors for the infectious agent, such as mosquitos in the case of Plasmodium falciparum (the infectious agent associated with malaria).
T952 5433-5680 Sentence denotes Thus, the detection of environmental pathogens often requires analysis of matrices, such as air, and objects, such as the surfaces of biomedical devices or objects within healthcare facilities, that are present in the human environment (Lai et al.
T953 5681-5687 Sentence denotes 2009).
T954 5688-5812 Sentence denotes Several comprehensive reviews have been provided on the detection of environmental pathogens (Baeumner, 2003; Justino et al.
T955 5813-5819 Sentence denotes 2017).
T956 5820-5925 Sentence denotes Here, we describe the most common environmental pathogens found both in and outside of clinical settings.
T957 5926-6146 Sentence denotes Common environmental pathogens in a non-clinical setting include Legionella spp., which cause Legionnellosis, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which causes tuberculosis, and Naegleria fowleri, which causes amoebic meningitis.
T958 6147-6248 Sentence denotes In addition to bacteria and protozoa, fungi, nematodes, and insects are also environmental pathogens.
T959 6249-6701 Sentence denotes Common environmental pathogens in clinical settings associated with healthcare-acquired infections include drug-resistant and multi-drug resistant (MDR) pathogens, such as Clostridium difficile (CD) (Hookman and Barkin, 2009), which causes CD-associated diarrhea and antibiotic-induced colitis, and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), which causes severe infections in various parts of the body, including the urinary tract (Gordon and Lowy, 2008).
T960 6702-6854 Sentence denotes The infectious dose of environmental pathogens also varies by orders of magnitude depending on the pathogen as well as age and health of the individual.
T961 6855-7003 Sentence denotes For example, the infectious dose of CD is less than 10 spores, while that of MRSA is greater than 100,000 organisms (Schmid-Hempel and Frank, 2007).
T962 7004-7199 Sentence denotes While it is possible to obtain antibodies for foodborne and waterborne pathogens, it can be challenging to obtain antibodies for various environmental pathogens, including protozoa and nematodes.
T963 7200-7321 Sentence denotes Thus, traditional bioanalytical techniques, such as PCR, are often utilized for the detection of environmental pathogens.
T964 7322-7515 Sentence denotes Similar to food and water safety applications, biosensor-based assays for environmental pathogen detection applications also utilize measurement formats that facilitate the analysis of liquids.
T965 7516-7606 Sentence denotes However, they also require measurement formats for the detection of aerosolized pathogens.
T966 7607-7859 Sentence denotes In addition to airborne transmission, environmental pathogens are transmitted by direct surface contact (similar to many foodborne pathogens), which is a significant mode of transmission in healthcare settings (e.g., of healthcare-acquired infections).
T967 7860-8122 Sentence denotes Standardized guidelines for disinfecting and sterilizing the surfaces of medical equipment, assistive technologies, counters, and doors, among other surfaces, have emerged as an important aspect of infection control in modern healthcare facilities (Fraise et al.
T968 8123-8129 Sentence denotes 2008).
T969 8130-8290 Sentence denotes Thus, the detection of pathogens on the surfaces of biomedical devices and objects present in healthcare facilities is an important research area (Kramer et al.
T970 8291-8309 Sentence denotes 2006; Weber et al.
T971 8310-8316 Sentence denotes 2010).
T972 8317-8551 Sentence denotes For example, bacterial contamination of inanimate surfaces and equipment has been examined as a source of intensive care unit-acquired infections, a global healthcare challenge, especially when caused by MDR pathogens (Russotto et al.
T973 8552-8558 Sentence denotes 2015).
T974 8559-8646 Sentence denotes Hospital-acquired infections are prevalent causes of morbidity in patients (Orsi et al.
T975 8647-8653 Sentence denotes 2002).
T976 8654-8840 Sentence denotes This problem has only been exasperated by the rise of MDR CD, as well as drug-resistant strains of Campylobacter, Enterococcus, Salmonella, S. aureus, and S. dysenteriae (Ventola, 2015).
T977 8841-8973 Sentence denotes In addition to clinical pathogens, it is also of interest to detect pathogens in non-clinical settings (Faucher and Charette, 2015).
T978 8974-9164 Sentence denotes Toxin-producing algae, such as cyanobacteria and sulphate-reducing bacteria, are also important targets for electrochemical biosensors associated with the prevention of water-based diseases.
T979 9166-9202 Sentence denotes 4.3 Medical diagnostic applications
T980 9203-9389 Sentence denotes The field of medical diagnostics heavily relies on the identification and quantification of pathogens found in body fluids, including whole blood, stool, urine, mucus, saliva, or sputum.
T981 9390-9620 Sentence denotes Diagnostic assays based on traditional bioanalytical techniques for detection of pathogens in body fluids are the gold standard and serve an essential role in healthcare by enabling the diagnosis and treatment of various diseases.
T982 9621-9861 Sentence denotes Biosensors offer a complementary diagnostic platform that enable rapid and cost-effective measurements, high sensitivity, and the ability to make measurements in complex matrices that pose challenges to traditional bioanalytical techniques.
T983 9862-10052 Sentence denotes Studies suggest that rapid diagnostic testing can potentially reduce the chance of hospitalization, duration of hospitalization and antimicrobial use, and mortality rates (Barenfanger et al.
T984 10053-10074 Sentence denotes 2000; Beekmann et al.
T985 10075-10095 Sentence denotes 2003; Dierkes et al.
T986 10096-10114 Sentence denotes 2009; Rappo et al.
T987 10115-10121 Sentence denotes 2016).
T988 10122-10345 Sentence denotes For example, repeated rapid screening programs for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) detection is recommended as a means of increasing quality-adjusted life years of health for citizens in the United States (Paltiel et al.
T989 10346-10352 Sentence denotes 2006).
T990 10353-10492 Sentence denotes Additionally, the need for rapid antibody screening has been identified as an important aspect of mitigating the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.
T991 10493-10729 Sentence denotes Several comprehensive reviews have been published on traditional bioanalytical assays and biosensor-based assays for pathogen detection in medical diagnostics applications (Ahmed et al., 2014; da Silva et al., 2017; Singh et al., 2014).
T992 10730-10924 Sentence denotes Common pathogens include the aforementioned foodborne, waterborne, and environmental pathogens (e.g., Mycobacterium and Plasmodium spp.), as well as additional airborne and bloodborne pathogens.
T993 10925-11080 Sentence denotes Pathogens such as Mycobacterium, HIV, and Plasmodium falciparum, represent some of the top causes of death from infectious diseases worldwide (WHO, 2018a).
T994 11081-11376 Sentence denotes Other common pathogens associated with medical diagnostics applications include those that cause respiratory infections, urinary tract infections, and diarrheal diseases, such as CD and MRSA, which can be life-threatening to the children, elderly and individuals with compromised immune systems.
T995 11377-11566 Sentence denotes Other airborne and bloodborne pathogens of interest include the influenza virus, COVID-19, hepatitis virus, rabies virus, and bacteria such as Mycoplasma pneumonia and Bordetella pertussis.
T996 11567-11754 Sentence denotes The infectious dose of airborne and bloodborne pathogens also varies by orders of magnitude depending on the pathogen, the method of contraction, and the age and health of the individual.
T997 11755-11998 Sentence denotes For example, the infectious dose of influenza is between 100–1000 particles (Gürtler, 2006), while the median infectious dose of HIV can vary, for example, from two RNA copies to 65,000 depending on the strain and source (Reid and Juma, 2009).
T998 11999-12146 Sentence denotes The diagnostically-relevant concentration of pathogens in each type of matrix must be considered when designing a biosensor for pathogen detection.
T999 12147-12263 Sentence denotes For example, the detection of bacteria in blood versus urine exhibit different diagnostic thresholds (Kelley, 2017).
T1000 12264-12328 Sentence denotes Such knowledge can inform the need for sample preparation steps.
T1001 12330-12381 Sentence denotes 4.4 Biological defense and bio-threat applications
T1002 12382-12518 Sentence denotes The potential for the weaponization of pathogens drives the need for rapid and sensitive biosensors for biological defense applications.
T1003 12519-12736 Sentence denotes Biosensor applications to biological defense and bio-threat are related to the aforementioned applications in food and water safety, environmental monitoring, and medical diagnostics but consider weaponized pathogens.
T1004 12737-13002 Sentence denotes However, while pathogens found in environmental monitoring applications are often native and endogenous agents, pathogens found in biological defense and bio-threat applications are often exogenous agents, which may have been weaponized and intentionally dispersed.
T1005 13003-13231 Sentence denotes For example, pathogen-based bio-threat situations typically involve the overt or covert introduction of an exogenous pathogen into either the food or water supply or environments which with humans closely interact (Cirino et al.
T1006 13232-13251 Sentence denotes 2004; Mirski et al.
T1007 13252-13282 Sentence denotes 2014; Shah and Wilkins, 2003).
T1008 13283-13423 Sentence denotes The reader is directed to various comprehensive reviews on biosensor-based assays for the detection of biowarfare agents (Christopher et al.
T1009 13424-13454 Sentence denotes 1997; Shah and Wilkins, 2003).
T1010 13455-13516 Sentence denotes Common targets include the aforementioned airborne pathogens.
T1011 13517-13724 Sentence denotes In addition to the aforementioned naturally-occurring pathogens, pathogens for bio-threat may include engineered pathogens, such as genetically-modified viruses that can be transmitted via airborne pathways.
T1012 13725-13899 Sentence denotes B. anthracis (Anthrax), yersinia pestis (plague), and vaccinia virus are among several pathogens that have been utilized or suggested as biowarfare agents (Christopher et al.
T1013 13900-13930 Sentence denotes 1997; Shah and Wilkins, 2003).
T1014 13931-14182 Sentence denotes While pathogen-based bio-threats may be introduced to the water and food supply, the detection of pathogen-based bio-threats in air is particularly critical to biowarfare defense, as they may be introduced into the battlefield in the form of aerosols.
T1015 14183-14345 Sentence denotes Further, the dispersal of pathogen-based bio-threats by air in facilities (e.g., via air-handling systems) represents a significant domestic bioterrorism concern.
T1016 14346-14569 Sentence denotes Thus, biosensor-based assays for bio-threat applications should be low-cost and portable to enable integration with existing physical systems (e.g., facilities) and movement with the warfighter or drones on the battlefield.
T1017 14570-14846 Sentence denotes Having discussed transduction elements, biorecognition elements, electrochemical methods, measurement formats, and pathogen detection applications, we next discuss the present challenges and future directions in the field of electrochemical biosensor-based pathogen detection.