Epistemic_Statements  

CORD-19:d51d89ebb0dabebd141536ac836267f2df1b1bf9 JSONTXT 11 Projects

Annnotations TAB TSV DIC JSON TextAE

Id Subject Object Predicate Lexical cue
T1 864-1019 Epistemic_statement denotes Results suggest that in the short run publicprivate partnerships may indeed support knowledge accumulation with particularly strong public good properties.
T2 1542-1694 Epistemic_statement denotes The heterogeneity of public ex situ collections of microorganisms: Empirical evidence about conservation practices, industry spillovers and public goods
T3 1695-1844 Epistemic_statement denotes In recent years, the life sciences research community has been involved in a vigorous debate over what should and should not be in the public domain.
T4 2002-2178 Epistemic_statement denotes The debate has been accentuated by the profound changes in e n v i r o n m e n t a l s c i e n c e & p o l i c y 3 3 ( 2 0 1 3 ) 1 9 -2 7 a r t i c l e i n f o Article history:
T5 2179-2474 Epistemic_statement denotes the organisational structure and the funding of life science research infrastructures, especially since the early 1990s, when the commercial promise of genomics became apparent, and private funding for genomics in for-profit companies began to accelerate (Cook-Deegan and Dedeurwaerdere, 2006) .
T6 3728-4035 Epistemic_statement denotes Therefore, culture collections is an interesting case of a research infrastructure providing publicly available knowledge assets, whose organisational structure is increasingly based on public-private economic interdependencies (please refer to the electronic supplement for additional background to PSMCs).
T7 4401-4475 Epistemic_statement denotes However, two important features are specific to the microbial collections.
T8 6015-6192 Epistemic_statement denotes It is expected that this analysis will contribute to the design of strategies that secure the sustained long term conservation of microbial material with public good properties.
T9 6193-6512 Epistemic_statement denotes This seems especially relevant in the context of uncertainty created by recent changes in the institutional landscape in which PSMCs operate, for instance due to the stress on public funding for basic research and infrastructures, and the increasing commercial interest by the industry in microbial resources generally.
T10 6703-7000 Epistemic_statement denotes We find that (1) the private industry relies on PSMCs; (2) hybrid arrangements based on complementary public and commercial funding is associated with stronger specialisation in microorganisms with particularly strong public good properties and (3) the existence of public-private interdependency.
T11 7001-7192 Epistemic_statement denotes These results call into question the role of markets alone or pure public funding alone for assuring the provision of publicly available biological resources in a globalised research context.
T12 7286-7496 Epistemic_statement denotes Then the analytic framework discusses the factors that are expected to play a role in the public and private investment in the PSMCs' conservation strategies regarding publicly available microbial type strains.
T13 7497-7600 Epistemic_statement denotes We also introduce the related question about spillovers from PSMCs to the private industry (Section 3).
T14 9026-9235 Epistemic_statement denotes For instance, market oriented policy planners in the USA and elsewhere have realised the opportunity to diminish time laps between basic research findings and commercialised products (Rai, 1999; Bartsev, Pers.
T15 9245-9590 Epistemic_statement denotes This has come timely because financial pressure among PSMC have mounted under rapidly accumulating stocks of microbes, while governments' finances are undergoing increasing stress (Baker, 2004) : a major challenge is associated with the high costs that are incurred in the conservation, quality management and documentation of microbial strains.
T16 10221-10453 Epistemic_statement denotes In an associated manner, in order to promote the development of commercial services, culture collections have introduced formal Material Transfer Agreements (MTAs) to govern their exchange practices and apply for ISO certifications.
T17 10627-10891 Epistemic_statement denotes This, in the long term, may cause further commercial restrictions on access and use of microbial research materials from the PSMCs that might oppose their avowed goals of providing widely available technological and scientific information (Reichman et al., 2009 ).
T18 11206-11403 Epistemic_statement denotes In this context, it is useful to differentiate the collections regarding their different functions for society, such as support for basic research or infrastructure, and their industry orientation.
T19 11404-11685 Epistemic_statement denotes Table 1 provides examples illustrating the heterogeneity among well-known collections in this regard, further explained in the Almus and Nerlinger, 1999; Arora et al., 2005; Daniel and Prasad, 2010; Greene, 2003; Parry, 2004; Rai et al., 2008; Sigler, 2004 ; electronic supplement.
T20 11923-12136 Epistemic_statement denotes In contrast, collections holding resources that are of direct interest to specialised activities in the private sector, have more opportunities for developing supplementary commercial income generating activities.
T21 12137-12312 Epistemic_statement denotes Nevertheless virtually all collections require a certain level of public support for maintaining public access to their infrastructure and research related microbial holdings.
T22 12652-12954 Epistemic_statement denotes In order to understand the PSMCs' conservation strategies they have to be analysed within their microeconomic institutional and organisational context, not least regarding the necessary role of public research for innovation (Rosenberg and Nelson, 1994; Mowery and Rosenberg, 1998; King et al., 2005) .
T23 12955-13313 Epistemic_statement denotes Based on the literature on public goods we emphasise two key factors that respectively link to PSMCs' investment in conservation and diffusion of basic biological research materials and which will be assessed statistically in Section 4: (1) the ratio of type strain holdings in the PSMCs and (2) the share of distribution of microbes to the private industry.
T24 13314-13576 Epistemic_statement denotes It should be noted that the conservation practices and private sector uses of PSMC holdings are affected by other factors as well, in addition to the organisational and contract related factors discussed in this paper, including the intellectual property regime.
T25 13786-14087 Epistemic_statement denotes 3 As shown by a survey of the patterns of deposits into culture collections , restrictions related to deposits of micro-organisms are not frequent, even if this situation might change in the future as a consequence of the recently adopted Nagoya protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing in October 2010.
T26 14926-15133 Epistemic_statement denotes While typically TS holdings are important in taxonomic collections which specialise in building a reference library, research collections also need a basic stock of TS as part of their overall holdings (c.f.
T27 15762-15935 Epistemic_statement denotes Hence, TS can be regarded as a hybrid material/ informational good, with public good characteristics associated both to the material itself and to the informational content.
T28 15936-16150 Epistemic_statement denotes As biological resources, TS hold properties that are similar to those of a public good, since TS are characterised by relatively low rivalry in use since a similar strain can be cultivated from the original strain.
T29 17212-17530 Epistemic_statement denotes Most patents on micro-organisms are patents on methods and processes (Oldham, 2005) , with the notable exception of genetically modified microorganisms that are not part of the public holdings of the PSMCs, but are mostly deposited in the International Patent Deposit Authorities established under the Budapest treaty.
T30 17730-17809 Epistemic_statement denotes 5 In fact, once a copy of the TS is obtained, it can be reproduced at low cost.
T31 18631-18917 Epistemic_statement denotes This literature provides insights as to why on the one hand the industry has an incentive to invest in applied research and product development, but on the other hand, the industry would not invest sufficiently (from a social point of view) in TS due to its public good characteristics.
T32 18918-19066 Epistemic_statement denotes Hence, it can be expected that support in this basic infrastructure by public bodies such as governments is necessary to stimulate investment in TS.
T33 19231-19505 Epistemic_statement denotes It can be expected that PSMCs which specialise in TS holdings will depend on at least some public research funding, even if one might also expect an important part of co-funding by the private sector, as these are important users of the TS and the expertise related to them.
T34 19506-19632 Epistemic_statement denotes This would be the case of infrastructure oriented collections specialising in taxonomic type strains as described in Table 1 .
T35 19633-19699 Epistemic_statement denotes At the same time it can be expected that research collections (cf.
T36 19700-19814 Epistemic_statement denotes Table 1 ) will to a certain extent invest in TS but will also develop a broader portfolio of biological materials.
T37 19882-20029 Epistemic_statement denotes For such research collections, moderate support from the government and the private sector for TS conservation is expected to be important as well.
T38 20030-20295 Epistemic_statement denotes But, in addition, basic research funding will be required for the publication and basic research related deposits, whether through direct funding or indirectly through basic income stream such as the formation of a patent deposit authority or project based funding.
T39 20549-20730 Epistemic_statement denotes Combining their basic research and infrastructure functions with the promotion of downstream applications, by providing services to industry, seems like trying to square the circle.
T40 20731-21174 Epistemic_statement denotes However, this combination of basic research perspectives and user-inspired applications is precisely what has characterised the recent history of the contemporary life sciences more generally (Cook-Deegan and Dedeurwaerdere, 2006) , where for example new insights in genomics have contributed to our basic understanding of biological processes while at the same time leading to new applications in genetic diagnostics and rational drug design.
T41 21175-21481 Epistemic_statement denotes 6 Producing knowledge in this intermediary field implies looking beyond the norms and practices of basic science and taxonomic communities, and requires support for building new collaborations that cross the boundaries between basic science, conservation and commercial and non-commercial user communities.
T42 21608-21850 Epistemic_statement denotes In contrast, in the case of basic research oriented collections, where private sector users have lesser incentive to contribute to its public infrastructure functions, a certain level of public support is required to maintain these functions.
T43 21851-22133 Epistemic_statement denotes Our complementary question is therefore if and to what extent low public investment, as measured by low as opposed to high public funding, is correlated with the PSMC's industry orientation in terms of the proportion of microorganisms supplied to industry as opposed to other users.
T44 23166-23284 Epistemic_statement denotes (2)) to test if such hybrid organisational model also is correlated with a stronger industry orientation of the PSMCs.
T45 23555-23690 Epistemic_statement denotes Specifically, specialisation in TS is positively correlated with an overall provision of microbial strains (TS and non TS) to industry.
T46 23691-23929 Epistemic_statement denotes The results of the conservation strategy sub model provide information about the main question regarding the effect that public or mixed funding strategies has on conservation strategy of publicly available research resources (TS supply).
T47 24218-24282 Epistemic_statement denotes This indicates a role of private funding in the provision of TS.
T48 24283-24319 Epistemic_statement denotes However, this is a nonlinear effect.
T49 24320-24462 Epistemic_statement denotes The data suggest that it is a mix of publicprivate funding strategy that characterises those collections that may prioritise investment in TS.
T50 24463-24587 Epistemic_statement denotes This result is consistent with previous conclusions from crop breeding analyses (Gollin et al., 2000; Visser et al., 2000) .
T51 24588-24801 Epistemic_statement denotes In line with public good theory as well as search theory, society relies on public investment for the provision of diversity of biological research materials that otherwise would be underprovided by markets alone.
T52 24802-24866 Epistemic_statement denotes The role of industry is probably to provide cost-sharing to the
T53 24867-25040 Epistemic_statement denotes (2) e n v i r o n m e n t a l s c i e n c e & p o l i c y 3 3 ( 2 0 1 3 ) 1 9 -2 7 costly enterprise of holding such microbes, as a means to secure access to such resources.
T54 25041-25285 Epistemic_statement denotes Regarding the control variables, strong property rights (the variable PR) has a statistically significant and positive effect on conservation outcomes, suggesting that a more formal approach to the acquisition and distribution of microbes, i.e.
T55 25286-25417 Epistemic_statement denotes with a formal legal mechanism to control the use of the resource, is associated with a higher ratio of TS in collections' holdings.
T56 25418-25566 Epistemic_statement denotes Size of the collection is, as expected, negatively associated with the proportion of TS conservation, hence suggesting the expected dilution effect.
T57 25567-25757 Epistemic_statement denotes In addition, the inflow of microbes is positively associated with conservation outcomes indicating that PSMCs sourcing strains from other microbe collections may be more oriented towards TS.
T58 25857-25994 Epistemic_statement denotes This might be because the international exchanges of microbes amongst PSMCs, including TS, dilute the effect of domestic industry demand.
T59 26049-26160 Epistemic_statement denotes Additionally, we can see that a formal transfer mode by charging a fee is associated with specialisation in TS.
T60 26161-26362 Epistemic_statement denotes To the extent that TS are public goods, as argued here, this result indicates that more business like ways of handling research materials have gained a strong influence in public good microbe holdings.
T61 26871-27064 Epistemic_statement denotes Specifically, such outcome indicates that a strong public service mandate, as reflected by heavy public funding, is associated with an orientation towards other users than the private industry.
T62 27065-27223 Epistemic_statement denotes Notably, even if all PSMCs to some extent belong to the basic research infrastructure, at least half of the PSMCs in the dataset receive also private funding.
T63 27224-27384 Epistemic_statement denotes Such costsharing appears to play an important role in conservation because it is associated with both large collections, and collections which specialise in TS.
T64 27465-27608 Epistemic_statement denotes This may indicate that the use of MTAs is in no way exclusive for provision to industry but are in fact used also for provision to other users.
T65 27857-28114 Epistemic_statement denotes However, the variable denoting a higher relative provision of microbes to academia and hospitals (the variable FLOWACAD) is statistically significant and indicates that industry in contrast to other sectors have structurally different preferences and needs.
T66 28315-28570 Epistemic_statement denotes Rather, more traditional users such as academia and hospitals may have different preferences than industry, related to issues such as institutional arrangements regarding microbe transfers or the content and quality of microbes and associated information.
T67 28571-28854 Epistemic_statement denotes In contrast to the first sub model, location in either OECD (except for USA) or USA is statistically significant and suggest that PSMCs in countries with a high level of industrial development may be responding to industry demand by channelling some of their microbes to this sector.
T68 28855-29126 Epistemic_statement denotes The data also indicate that charging a fee signals that the collection adopts a more formal microbe transfer regime and thus is also prepared to serve commercial clients through market oriented modes rather than the traditional informal reciprocity-based governance mode.
T69 29127-29354 Epistemic_statement denotes Lastly, among the kind of microbial material conserved, only collections specialised on YEAST are associated with a stronger industry orientation, possibly due to the high use of yeast in the pharmaceutical and food industries.
T70 29355-29484 Epistemic_statement denotes To sum up, the statistical analysis reveals that it would be misguided to describe PSMCs according to a public-private dichotomy.
T71 29485-29593 Epistemic_statement denotes Instead the data reveal that it is more useful to study nuanced associations between management regime, e.g.
T72 30031-30449 Epistemic_statement denotes Based on a unique world-wide survey of culture collections the paper provides novel insights about the way that public-service microbial collections constitute a highly heterogeneous group of organisations, how the evolving funding mechanisms relate to their conservation of publicly available microbial resources, and to the distribution patterns of microbial resources to private sector and public sector recipients.
T73 30658-30792 Epistemic_statement denotes The results highlight an interesting link between public good specialisation and (a) private funding and (b) distribution to industry.
T74 31843-32321 Epistemic_statement denotes Last but not least, it is important to distinguish between the different underlying incentives of collections, and from this understanding to guarantee the kind of conservation strategies needed to support different services such as providing insurance for solving future biological threats as well as to offer solutions to current problems, such as waste water treatment and catalysing ethanol production as a sustainable energy source (Canovas and Iborra, 2003) to name a few.