CORD-19:f2b3c64a3494a044b1085845dcc4aedb6c4e7e6b JSONTXT 9 Projects

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Id Subject Object Predicate Lexical cue
TextSentencer_T1 0-28 Sentence denotes CHAP TER 1 Alimentary System
TextSentencer_T2 30-38 Sentence denotes Abstract
TextSentencer_T3 41-135 Sentence denotes Examination of the oral cavity should be standard procedure during any postmortem examination.
TextSentencer_T4 136-346 Sentence denotes To obtain a clear view of the mucous membranes of the buccal and oral cavities, teeth, tongue, gums, and tonsils, it is essential to split the mandibular symphysis and separate the mandibles as far as possible.
TextSentencer_T5 347-476 Sentence denotes A thorough examination of all structures will reveal not only local lesions, but often those that may be due to systemic disease.
TextSentencer_T6 477-725 Sentence denotes Lesions may be associated with congenital anomalies (genetic and nongenetic); trauma (physical and chemical); bacterial, mycotic, viral, and parasitic infections; metabolic and toxic diseases; and immune-mediated, dysplastic, or neoplastic disease.
TextSentencer_T7 726-885 Sentence denotes The poor physical condition of an animal may be directly related to oral lesions that result in difficulties of prehension, mastication, or swallowing of food.
TextSentencer_T8 886-1022 Sentence denotes Congenital anomalies may occur as heritable conditions or be the result of nongenetic factors, including toxicity and infectious agents.
TextSentencer_T9 1023-1205 Sentence denotes The development of normal face, jaws, and the oral cavity requires the integration of many embryonic processes, most importantly the frontonasal, maxillary, and mandibular processes.
TextSentencer_T10 1206-1297 Sentence denotes The complexity and duration of this development may lead to a great variety of aberrations.
TextSentencer_T11 1298-1438 Sentence denotes These are usually expressed in the newborn in the form of clefts resulting from failures of integrated growth and fusion of these processes.
TextSentencer_T12 1439-1528 Sentence denotes A common failure of fusion is that of the maxillary processes to the frontonasal process.
TextSentencer_T13 1529-1696 Sentence denotes This may leave facial fissures, cleft lip (harelip, cheiloschisis) and unilateral or bilateral primary cleft palate involving the area rostral to the incisive papilla.
TextSentencer_T14 1697-1768 Sentence denotes Facial clefts may involve the skin only, or the deeper tissues as well.
TextSentencer_T15 1769-1857 Sentence denotes They are variously located, and not all are obviously related to normal lines of fusion.
TextSentencer_T16 1858-1871 Sentence denotes All are rare.
TextSentencer_T17 1872-1960 Sentence denotes The most common is a complete cleft from one angle of the mouth to the ear of that side.
TextSentencer_T18 1961-2063 Sentence denotes This results from failure of fusion of the lateral portions of the maxillary and mandibular processes.
TextSentencer_T19 2064-2283 Sentence denotes A defect extending from a cleft lip to the eye results from failure arthrogryposis frequently occur together in Charolais calves, and appear to be hereditary (probably simple autosomal recessive), as in Hereford cattle.
TextSentencer_T20 2284-2399 Sentence denotes Cleft palate in lambs may be genetic in origin, but also is associated with the ingestion of Veratrum californicum.
TextSentencer_T21 2400-2573 Sentence denotes Secondary cleft palates have been induced experimentally in newborn pigs by feeding gilts seeds or plants of poison hemlock (Conium maculatum) during gestational days 30-45.
TextSentencer_T22 2574-2788 Sentence denotes Both tree tobacco (Nicotiana glauca) in the western United States and tobacco stalks (N. tabacum) when fed to gilts early in pregnancy can induce a high incidence of cleft palate and arthrogryposis in newborn pigs.
TextSentencer_T23 2789-2936 Sentence denotes Piperidine alkaloids (coniine, coniceine, and anabasine) in hemlock and tobacco plants are responsible for the teratogenic effects of these plants.
TextSentencer_T24 2937-3181 Sentence denotes Lupines (Lupinus formosus, L. arbustus) produce piperidine alkaloids, including the teratogen ammodendrine, which can cause cleft palate and arthrogryposis (crooked calf disease) in calves born of dams fed the lupine at days 40-50 of gestation.
TextSentencer_T25 3182-3323 Sentence denotes Palatoschisis in piglets has also been associated with consumption of feed contaminated with Crotalaria retusa seed by sows during gestation.
TextSentencer_T26 3324-3459 Sentence denotes Primary and secondary cleft palate of German Boxer dogs appear to be hereditary, probably because of a single autosomal recessive gene.
TextSentencer_T27 3460-3558 Sentence denotes A single autosomal recessive gene has been associated with cleft palate in Pyrenees Shepherd dogs.
TextSentencer_T28 3559-3645 Sentence denotes Secondary cleft palate occurs in Siamese and Abyssinian cats and is likely hereditary.
TextSentencer_T29 3646-3746 Sentence denotes Griseofulvin treatment of the pregnant queen and mare will result in palatoschisis in the offspring.
TextSentencer_T30 3747-3834 Sentence denotes The defect has also been reported in both parts of the doubled face in diprosopus cats.
TextSentencer_T31 3835-3884 Sentence denotes Anomalies in the growth of jaws are quite common.
TextSentencer_T32 3885-3994 Sentence denotes Brachygnathia superior, shortness of the maxillae, is an inherited breed characteristic among dogs and swine.
TextSentencer_T33 3995-4054 Sentence denotes It has been reported in the Large White or Yorkshire breed.
TextSentencer_T34 4055-4202 Sentence denotes The condition is progressive with age, resulting in malapposition of the incisor and cheek teeth, which interferes with prehension and mastication.
TextSentencer_T35 4203-4275 Sentence denotes In swine, brachygnathia superior may be confused with atrophic rhinitis.
TextSentencer_T36 4276-4356 Sentence denotes In Angus and Jersey cattle, brachygnathia superior occurs as a hereditary trait.
TextSentencer_T37 4357-4462 Sentence denotes In any species, it may be associated with chondrodysplasia and is also present with other facial defects.
TextSentencer_T38 4463-4631 Sentence denotes Brachygnathia inferior or micrognathia, shortness of the mandibles, may be a mild to lethal defect in cattle and sheep and is a breed characteristic of long-nosed dogs.
TextSentencer_T39 4632-4684 Sentence denotes Brachygnathia inferior is a common defect in calves.
TextSentencer_T40 4685-4749 Sentence denotes It is inherited, probably as a simple autosomal recessive trait.
TextSentencer_T41 4750-4787 Sentence denotes There is a higher incidence in males.
TextSentencer_T42 4788-4860 Sentence denotes This condition in calves has been associated with cerebellar hypoplasia.
TextSentencer_T43 4861-5006 Sentence denotes In Aberdeen Angus cattle, the defect may occur concurrently with cerebellar hypoplasia, and with osteopetrosis in this and other breeds (see Vol.
TextSentencer_T44 5007-5028 Sentence denotes 1, Bones and joints).
TextSentencer_T45 5029-5176 Sentence denotes In Merino sheep, brachygnathia is associated with a cardiomegaly and renal hypoplasia syndrome that has an autosomal recessive inheritance pattern.
TextSentencer_T46 5177-5332 Sentence denotes Transplacental infection with Schmallenberg virus, an orthobunyavirus, will lead to brachygnathia among other congenital malformations in lambs and calves.
TextSentencer_T47 5333-5427 Sentence denotes Mild brachygnathia inferior, termed parrot mouth, is a common conformational defect in horses.
TextSentencer_T48 5428-5489 Sentence denotes Prognathism refers to abnormal prolongation of the mandibles.
TextSentencer_T49 5490-5531 Sentence denotes It is rather common, especially in sheep.
TextSentencer_T50 5532-5610 Sentence denotes It may develop with recovery from calcium deficiency in this species (see Vol.
TextSentencer_T51 5611-5632 Sentence denotes 1, Bones and joints).
TextSentencer_T52 5633-5804 Sentence denotes The malformation is relative, and it is not always easy to determine whether the jaw is absolutely long or merely apparently so, relative to a mild brachygnathia superior.
TextSentencer_T53 5805-5942 Sentence denotes of fusion of the maxillary and frontonasal processes, which may be a superficial defect with failure of closure of the nasolacrimal duct.
TextSentencer_T54 5943-6095 Sentence denotes Primary cleft palate (harelip, cheiloschisis) includes developmental anomalies of the upper lips rostral to the nasal septum, columella, and premaxilla.
TextSentencer_T55 6096-6175 Sentence denotes They may be unilateral or bilateral and superficial or extend into the nostril.
TextSentencer_T56 6176-6273 Sentence denotes The defect arises from incomplete fusion of the frontonasal process with the maxillary processes.
TextSentencer_T57 6274-6386 Sentence denotes Secondary cleft palate (cleft palate, palatoschisis) ( Fig. 1-1 ) is often associated with primary cleft palate.
TextSentencer_T58 6387-6582 Sentence denotes The normal hard palate is formed, except for a small rostral contribution from the frontonasal process, and by the bilateral ingrowth of the lateral palatine shelves from the maxillary processes.
TextSentencer_T59 6583-6753 Sentence denotes At the midline, they fuse with each other and with the nasal septum, and undergo intramembranous ossification, except in their caudal part, which becomes the soft palate.
TextSentencer_T60 6754-6924 Sentence denotes Inadequate growth of the palatine shelves leaves a central defect, in either or both of the hard and soft palates, which communicates between the oral and nasal cavities.
TextSentencer_T61 6925-7152 Sentence denotes Other manifestations of disordered palato-genesis include unilateral defects in the soft palate; bilateral hypoplasia of the soft palate; or dorsal displacement of the soft palate, with excess soft tissue on the caudal portion.
TextSentencer_T62 7153-7301 Sentence denotes Affected animals have difficulty sucking, may have nasal regurgitation, and usually die within the first few days of life from aspiration pneumonia.
TextSentencer_T63 7302-7434 Sentence denotes In dogs, malformation of the soft palate has also been associated with alterations in the tympanic bulla and middle ear dysfunction.
TextSentencer_T64 7435-7504 Sentence denotes Cleft palates have been reported in most species of domestic animals.
TextSentencer_T65 7505-7606 Sentence denotes In one extensive survey of Thoroughbred foals, 4% of congenital defects were secondary cleft palates.
TextSentencer_T66 7607-7723 Sentence denotes Most of these foals had a complete cleft of the hard palate; a few had clefts or hypoplasia of the soft palate only.
TextSentencer_T67 7724-7815 Sentence denotes In calves, cleft palate is one of the most common anomalies, but is very uncommon in sheep.
TextSentencer_T68 7816-7938 Sentence denotes Primary cleft palate is less common than secondary cleft palate in swine, although the two anomalies often occur together.
TextSentencer_T69 7939-8054 Sentence denotes In dogs and cats, cleft palate is often associated with certain breeds, suggesting that these are heritable traits.
TextSentencer_T70 8055-8262 Sentence denotes The etiology of cleft palate is usually unknown, but examples of hereditary causes, maternal ingestion of certain drugs, or maternal consumption of teratogenic plants during pregnancy have been demonstrated.
TextSentencer_T71 8263-8333 Sentence denotes Secondary cleft palate and Developmental Mechanisms and Malformations.
TextSentencer_T72 8334-8344 Sentence denotes Baltimore:
TextSentencer_T73 8345-8373 Sentence denotes Williams & Wilkins; 1985. p.
TextSentencer_T74 8374-8382 Sentence denotes 187-195.
TextSentencer_T75 8383-8403 Sentence denotes Shariflou M, et. al.
TextSentencer_T76 8404-8431 Sentence denotes Brachygnathia, cardiomegaly
TextSentencer_T77 8433-8545 Sentence denotes Dental disease is common and often is a factor that limits the useful life-span of the animal, especially sheep.
TextSentencer_T78 8546-8630 Sentence denotes Evaluation of dental disease necessitates a thorough examination of the oral cavity.
TextSentencer_T79 8631-8766 Sentence denotes The comments on dental development and anatomy are intended to provide a brief overview and assist the understanding of dental disease.
TextSentencer_T80 8767-8873 Sentence denotes Teeth develop from a band of ectoderm deep to the mucosal epithelium that spans the length of the gingiva.
TextSentencer_T81 8874-8923 Sentence denotes This ectodermal band is called the dental lamina.
TextSentencer_T82 8924-9087 Sentence denotes In the initial stage of tooth development, neural crest cells beneath the dental laminae induce multiple nodular thickenings along the length of the dental lamina.
TextSentencer_T83 9088-9113 Sentence denotes These are the tooth buds.
TextSentencer_T84 9114-9182 Sentence denotes Next, ectomesenchymal cells aggregate at the base of each tooth bud.
TextSentencer_T85 9183-9364 Sentence denotes The tooth bud then becomes a bell-shaped structure that grows down over the ectomesenchymal cells and becomes the enamel organ, which will give rise to enamel-producing ameloblasts.
TextSentencer_T86 9365-9519 Sentence denotes The ectomesenchyme below the enamel organ develops into the dental papilla, which will give rise to dentin-producing odontoblasts and also the tooth pulp.
TextSentencer_T87 9520-9656 Sentence denotes Ectomesenchyme cells also move around the periphery of the enamel organ to form a limiting sac called the dental follicle or dental sac.
TextSentencer_T88 9657-9787 Sentence denotes The dental sac will ultimately give rise to cementum-producing cells (cementoblasts), the periodontal ligament, and alveolar bone.
TextSentencer_T89 9788-9906 Sentence denotes The cells of the enamel organ differentiate into 3 layers: outer epithelium, stellate reticulum, and inner epithelium.
TextSentencer_T90 9907-9993 Sentence denotes The cervical loop forms where the outer and inner epithelium of the enamel organ join.
TextSentencer_T91 9994-10124 Sentence denotes As the enamel organ develops, the dental lamina begins to disintegrate, leaving the tooth separate from the overlying oral mucosa.
TextSentencer_T92 10125-10210 Sentence denotes Remnants of the dental lamina can persist and give rise to dental cysts or neoplasms.
TextSentencer_T93 10211-10282 Sentence denotes Hard tissues (dentin and enamel) are deposited on the developing tooth.
TextSentencer_T94 10283-10417 Sentence denotes The inner enamel epithelium of the enamel organ induces differentiation of odontoblasts from the ectomesenchyme of the dental papilla.
TextSentencer_T95 10418-10556 Sentence denotes Odontoblasts produce dentin, which in turn induces differentiation and enamel formation by the ameloblasts of the inner enamel epithelium.
TextSentencer_T96 10557-10623 Sentence denotes Thus formation of dentin is essential for the formation of enamel.
TextSentencer_T97 10624-10772 Sentence denotes These inductive interactions of epithelium and ectomesenchyme are considered important in the histodifferentiation of some tumors of dental tissues.
TextSentencer_T98 10773-10853 Sentence denotes The crown of the tooth will ultimately be shaped by the inner enamel epithelium.
TextSentencer_T99 10854-11001 Sentence denotes The shape of the tooth roots will be determined by the cervical loop through epithelial extensions called Hertwig's epithelial root sheath (HERS) .
TextSentencer_T100 11002-11123 Sentence denotes The HERS guides the formation of the developing root by inciting differentiation of odontoblasts from the dental papilla.
TextSentencer_T101 11124-11197 Sentence denotes Typically the HERS will disintegrate after it initiates dentin formation.
TextSentencer_T102 11198-11493 Sentence denotes As the HERS fragments, it allows ectomesenchymal cells from the dental sac to contact the root dentin, differentiate into Agnathia is a mandibulofacial malformation characterized by absence of the lower jaw, caused by failure of development of the first branchial arch and associated structures.
TextSentencer_T103 11494-11572 Sentence denotes The defect is one of the most common anomalies in lambs but is rare in cattle.
TextSentencer_T104 11573-11727 Sentence denotes Associated malformations in lambs may include ateloprosopia (incomplete development of the face), microglossia or aglossia, and atresia of the oropharynx.
TextSentencer_T105 11728-11798 Sentence denotes Concurrent anomalies affecting other body systems also may be evident.
TextSentencer_T106 11799-11938 Sentence denotes A lethal glossopharyngeal hereditary defect, termed bird tongue and caused by a simple autosomal recessive gene, has been reported in dogs.
TextSentencer_T107 11939-12066 Sentence denotes Affected pups have a narrow tongue, especially the rostral half, where the margins are folded medially onto the dorsal surface.
TextSentencer_T108 12067-12098 Sentence denotes The pups are unable to swallow.
TextSentencer_T109 12099-12167 Sentence denotes The muscle fibers of the affected tongues are normal histologically.
TextSentencer_T110 12168-12273 Sentence denotes In dogs, there is a congenital defect leading to a thickened short lingual frenulum called ankyloglossia.
TextSentencer_T111 12274-12373 Sentence denotes This lesion may be most pronounced at the rostral tongue, and the tip of the tongue may be notched.
TextSentencer_T112 12374-12439 Sentence denotes Hypertrophy of the tongue occurs as a congenital anomaly in pigs.
TextSentencer_T113 12440-12641 Sentence denotes Epitheliogenesis imperfecta is an anomaly that causes widespread defects in cutaneous epithelium, and also affects the epithelial lining of the oral cavity, especially the tongue ( Fig. 1-2 ) (see Vol.
TextSentencer_T114 12642-12667 Sentence denotes 1, Integumentary system).
TextSentencer_T115 12668-12795 Sentence denotes The condition is characterized by irregular, well-demarcated, red areas from which the epithelium of the oral mucosa is absent.
TextSentencer_T116 12796-12932 Sentence denotes Histologically, these consist of abruptly defective areas in the squamous mucosa with inflammation of the submucosal connective tissues.
TextSentencer_T117 12933-13112 Sentence denotes The anomaly occurs in most species and is inherited as a simple autosomal recessive character in cattle, horses, and pigs; the mode of inheritance is unknown in the other species.
TextSentencer_T118 13113-13410 Sentence denotes There are several hereditary skin conditions in animals, such as epidermolysis bullosa simplex in Collie dogs, ovine epidermolysis bullosa in Suffolk and South Dorset Down sheep, and familial acantholysis of Aberdeen Angus calves, which have minor involvement of the lips and oral mucosa (see Vol.
TextSentencer_T119 13411-13436 Sentence denotes 1, Integumentary system).
TextSentencer_T120 13437-13518 Sentence denotes Dentinal tubules are visible in histologic sections, but the anastomoses are not.
TextSentencer_T121 13519-13622 Sentence denotes Except for the processes, and nerve endings in the dentinal tubules near the pulp, dentin is acellular.
TextSentencer_T122 13623-13773 Sentence denotes Normal dentin contains incremental or imbrication lines of von Ebner, which are fine basophilic lines running at right angles to the dentinal tubules.
TextSentencer_T123 13774-13853 Sentence denotes They represent normal variations in the structure and mineralization of dentin.
TextSentencer_T124 13854-14050 Sentence denotes Sublethal injury caused by certain infections, metabolic stresses, or toxic states may injure the odontoblasts, which then produce accentuated incremental lines known as the contour lines of Owen.
TextSentencer_T125 14051-14166 Sentence denotes Sometimes irregular zones of unmineralized or poorly mineralized dentin form between foci of normal mineralization.
TextSentencer_T126 14167-14248 Sentence denotes These are zones of interglobular dentin, which may be caused by hypophosphatemia.
TextSentencer_T127 14249-14277 Sentence denotes There are 3 types of dentin.
TextSentencer_T128 14278-14343 Sentence denotes Primary dentin is produced by odontoblasts before tooth eruption.
TextSentencer_T129 14344-14457 Sentence denotes Secondary dentin is produced after root formation is complete by odontoblasts that remain active throughout life.
TextSentencer_T130 14458-14524 Sentence denotes Generation of secondary dentin is much slower than primary dentin.
TextSentencer_T131 14525-14588 Sentence denotes Tertiary dentin is produced in response to injury to the tooth.
TextSentencer_T132 14589-14676 Sentence denotes Tertiary dentin is called reactionary when it is produced by pre-existing odontoblasts.
TextSentencer_T133 14677-14784 Sentence denotes Reparative dentin is another type of tertiary dentin that is produced by newly differentiated odontoblasts.
TextSentencer_T134 14785-14857 Sentence denotes Reparative dentin may resemble bone and is sometimes called osteodentin.
TextSentencer_T135 14858-14951 Sentence denotes Sclerotic (transparent) dentin is formed when dentinal tubules are occluded by calcium salts.
TextSentencer_T136 14952-15059 Sentence denotes The junctions between primary, secondary, and reparative dentin are usually demarcated by basophilic lines.
TextSentencer_T137 15060-15107 Sentence denotes Enamel has ~5% organic matter and ~95% mineral.
TextSentencer_T138 15108-15187 Sentence denotes It is produced by the tall columnar ameloblasts of the inner enamel epithelium.
TextSentencer_T139 15188-15268 Sentence denotes Enamel is produced in the form of prisms or rods, cemented together by a matrix.
TextSentencer_T140 15269-15395 Sentence denotes Mineralization begins as soon as it is formed and is a 2-stage process, somewhat similar to that in bone, but much more rapid.
TextSentencer_T141 15396-15560 Sentence denotes The cells of the inner enamel epithelium also move away from the dentin-enamel junction as the tooth is formed, but unlike odontoblasts, they do not have processes.
TextSentencer_T142 15561-15608 Sentence denotes Formation of enamel ends before tooth eruption.
TextSentencer_T143 15609-15685 Sentence denotes Enamel is hard, dense, brittle, and permeable, and is translucent and white.
TextSentencer_T144 15686-15836 Sentence denotes Mature enamel is not present in demineralized sections, but some of the matrix of immature enamel may be visible near ameloblasts of developing teeth.
TextSentencer_T145 15837-15893 Sentence denotes Ameloblasts are very sensitive to environmental changes.
TextSentencer_T146 15894-16076 Sentence denotes Normal enamel contains incremental lines of Retzius, which are analogous to the incremental lines of von Ebner in dentin, and also reflect variations in structure and mineralization.
TextSentencer_T147 16077-16150 Sentence denotes The incremental lines are accentuated during periods of metabolic stress.
TextSentencer_T148 16151-16268 Sentence denotes More severe injury, as in fluorosis, or infections by some viruses can produce focal hypoplasia or aplasia of enamel.
TextSentencer_T149 16269-16355 Sentence denotes The reduced enamel epithelium protects the enamel of the formed tooth before eruption.
TextSentencer_T150 16356-16524 Sentence denotes Degeneration of this protective layer permits connective tissue to contact the enamel, and there may be resorption of enamel or deposition of a layer of cementum on it.
TextSentencer_T151 16525-16577 Sentence denotes This normally occurs during odontogenesis in horses.
TextSentencer_T152 16578-16703 Sentence denotes Cementum is an avascular, bone-like substance, produced by cementoblasts; it contains ~55% organic and ~45% inorganic matter.
TextSentencer_T153 16704-16806 Sentence denotes In general the dentin of brachydont teeth is covered by cementum wherever it is not covered by enamel.
TextSentencer_T154 16807-16976 Sentence denotes When dentin formation has begun in the root, degeneration of Hertwig's epithelial root sheath begins and permits mesenchymal cells from the dental sac to contact dentin.
TextSentencer_T155 16977-17113 Sentence denotes They differentiate into cementoblasts, which produce cementoid, and later cementoblasts, and deposit cementum on the dentin of the root.
TextSentencer_T156 17114-17191 Sentence denotes Remnants of the HERS can persist and are called epithelial rests of Malassez.
TextSentencer_T157 17192-17271 Sentence denotes They persist in the periodontal ligament, and may give rise to tumors or cysts.
TextSentencer_T158 17272-17383 Sentence denotes They may be important in the induction or repair of cementum, and in periodontal reattachment following injury.
TextSentencer_T159 17384-17519 Sentence denotes In pigs and sheep, the rests may be incorporated into the junctional epithelium as it migrates apically in chronic periodontal disease.
TextSentencer_T160 17520-17602 Sentence denotes HERS cells of the root sheath that adhere to the dentin can produce enamel pearls.
TextSentencer_T161 17603-17723 Sentence denotes As tooth development progresses, the crown of the tooth is covered by enamel, whereas the roots are covered by cementum.
TextSentencer_T162 17724-17763 Sentence denotes Dentin is present throughout the tooth.
TextSentencer_T163 17764-17859 Sentence denotes Fibroblasts in the dental follicle (sac) generate collagen that forms the periodontal ligament.
TextSentencer_T164 17860-18025 Sentence denotes The collagen of the periodontal ligament is intertwined with the cementum of the root surface and extends to the adjacent alveolar bone along the length of the root.
TextSentencer_T165 18026-18168 Sentence denotes The periodontal ligament is continually modified and reshaped with orientation of fibers in different directions during the life of the tooth.
TextSentencer_T166 18169-18236 Sentence denotes The tooth will begin erupting while the roots are still developing.
TextSentencer_T167 18237-18295 Sentence denotes The mechanisms of tooth eruption are not fully understood.
TextSentencer_T168 18296-18434 Sentence denotes It is likely that the dental follicle plays a critical role in alveolar bone resorption and remodeling needed to allow the tooth to erupt.
TextSentencer_T169 18435-18592 Sentence denotes The inner enamel epithelium merges with the cells of the overlying stratum intermedium and the outer enamel epithelium to form the reduced enamel epithelium.
TextSentencer_T170 18593-18654 Sentence denotes This protects the enamel of the formed tooth before eruption.
TextSentencer_T171 18655-18883 Sentence denotes The reduced enamel epithelium will fuse with the mucosal epithelium as the tooth erupts, and after eruption a portion of the reduced enamel epithelium will persist along the gingival margin of the tooth as junctional epithelium.
TextSentencer_T172 18884-18962 Sentence denotes The process of tooth development is similar for deciduous and permanent teeth.
TextSentencer_T173 18963-19043 Sentence denotes Tooth germ for permanent teeth begins to develop along with the deciduous teeth.
TextSentencer_T174 19044-19197 Sentence denotes However, the permanent tooth germ is held dormant until later in life when the permanent teeth proceed with development and the deciduous teeth are lost.
TextSentencer_T175 19198-19385 Sentence denotes There are important differences between the brachydont teeth of humans, carnivores, and swine, in which the enamel is restricted to the tooth crown, and the hypsodont teeth of herbivores.
TextSentencer_T176 19386-19499 Sentence denotes In hypsodont teeth, enamel extends far down on the roots, and is invaginated into the dentin to form infundibula.
TextSentencer_T177 19500-19653 Sentence denotes Also, the hypsodont teeth of herbivores, except the mandibular premolars of ruminants, are covered by cementum, which more or less fills the infundibula.
TextSentencer_T178 19654-19903 Sentence denotes Exceptions to these rules are provided by the tusks of boars, which are hypsodont, but not covered by cementum, and by ruminant incisors, which are brachydont but do have enamel covering part of the root dentin and cementum covering the root enamel.
TextSentencer_T179 19904-19965 Sentence denotes The 3 hard tissues of teeth are dentin, enamel, and cementum.
TextSentencer_T180 19966-20023 Sentence denotes Dentin is light yellow and constitutes most of the tooth.
TextSentencer_T181 20024-20076 Sentence denotes It consists of ~35% organic matter and ~65% mineral.
TextSentencer_T182 20077-20169 Sentence denotes Thus its composition is similar to that of bone, and like bone, it contains type I collagen.
TextSentencer_T183 20170-20308 Sentence denotes Dentin is produced by columnar cells with basal nuclei called odontoblasts, which differentiate from ectomesenchyme of the dental papilla.
TextSentencer_T184 20309-20349 Sentence denotes It is formed as unmineralized predentin.
TextSentencer_T185 20350-20474 Sentence denotes The odontoblasts move away from the dentin-enamel junction, gradually encroaching on the pulp cavity as they produce dentin.
TextSentencer_T186 20475-20609 Sentence denotes Each odontoblast has a process extending into the dentin, encased in a dentinal tubule, which arborizes at the dentin-enamel junction.
TextSentencer_T187 20610-20680 Sentence denotes The process also anastomoses with the processes of other odontoblasts.
TextSentencer_T188 20681-20761 Sentence denotes Heterotopic polyodontia is an extra tooth, or teeth, outside the dental arcades.
TextSentencer_T189 20762-20852 Sentence denotes The best-known example is the ear tooth of horses, which develops in a branchiogenic cyst.
TextSentencer_T190 20853-20980 Sentence denotes The cysts originate from failure of closure of the first branchial cleft, or from the inclusion of cellular rests in this area.
TextSentencer_T191 20981-21173 Sentence denotes They are lined by a stratified mucous or cutaneous-type epithelium, and may contain one or more teeth, either loosely attached in the cyst wall or deeply embedded in the petrous temporal bone.
TextSentencer_T192 21174-21315 Sentence denotes The tooth is derived from misplaced tooth germ of the first branchial arch, which is displaced toward the ear with the first branchial cleft.
TextSentencer_T193 21316-21411 Sentence denotes The cysts eventually form in the parotid region near the ear and may fistulate to the exterior.
TextSentencer_T194 21412-21444 Sentence denotes They are occasionally bilateral.
TextSentencer_T195 21445-21559 Sentence denotes Rarely the tooth may form a pedunculated mass enclosed by skin, and attached by a pedicle to the skin of the head.
TextSentencer_T196 21560-21629 Sentence denotes Heterotopic polyodontia also occurs in cattle, dogs, pigs, and sheep.
TextSentencer_T197 21630-21904 Sentence denotes Developmentally misshapen teeth are classified as geminous (dichotomous) when there is a single root and partially or completely separate crowns; fused when the dentin of 2 teeth is confluent; and concrescent when the dentin is separate but the roots are joined by cementum.
TextSentencer_T198 21905-21982 Sentence denotes Gemination represents the embryologic partial division of a tooth primordium.
TextSentencer_T199 21983-22174 Sentence denotes It occurs in dogs, usually involving the incisors, and the affected tooth usually has a groove dividing the crowns, whose pulp chambers can be seen radiographically to merge in a common root.
TextSentencer_T200 22175-22296 Sentence denotes Misshapen teeth and missing teeth have also been reported in dogs as an X-linked recessive trait of ectodermal dysplasia.
TextSentencer_T201 22297-22408 Sentence denotes Fusion and concrescence represent the joining of 2 adjacent tooth primordia, one of which may be supernumerary.
TextSentencer_T202 22409-22491 Sentence denotes Malformation and malpositioning of teeth accompany abnormalities of the jaw bones.
TextSentencer_T203 22492-22632 Sentence denotes Aberdeen Angus and Hereford calves with congenital osteopetrosis have brachygnathia inferior, malformed mandibles, and impacted cheek teeth.
TextSentencer_T204 22633-22785 Sentence denotes Impacted molars occur as an inherited lethal defect in Shorthorns; an association with osteopetrosis apparently has not been investigated in this breed.
TextSentencer_T205 22786-22889 Sentence denotes Odontogenic cysts are epithelium-lined cysts derived from epithelium associated with tooth development.
TextSentencer_T206 22890-23007 Sentence denotes This includes rests of Malassez, cell rests of dental laminae, reduced enamel epithelium, or malformed enamel organs.
TextSentencer_T207 23008-23087 Sentence denotes By definition, dentigerous cysts are cysts that contain part or all of a tooth.
TextSentencer_T208 23088-23150 Sentence denotes Dentigerous cysts usually are associated with permanent teeth.
TextSentencer_T209 23151-23258 Sentence denotes The cyst often forms over the developing tooth and the affected tooth then erupts into the preformed cysts.
TextSentencer_T210 23259-23341 Sentence denotes Dentigerous cysts enclose at least the crown of the tooth, but may include it all.
TextSentencer_T211 23342-23518 Sentence denotes Of the odontogenic cysts, all except those derived from cell rests of Malassez are potentially dentigerous (the rests of Malassez are the probable source of periodontal cysts).
TextSentencer_T212 23519-23608 Sentence denotes Dentigerous cysts originating in malformed enamel organs usually include malformed teeth.
TextSentencer_T213 23609-23704 Sentence denotes Teeth in cysts of reduced enamel epithelium or rests of dental laminae are also often abnormal.
TextSentencer_T214 23705-23873 Sentence denotes The most common forms of odontogenic dentigerous cysts in animals are those involving the vestigial wolf teeth of horses and the vestigial canines, especially of mares.
TextSentencer_T215 23874-24012 Sentence denotes The smaller cysts appear as tumors of the gums, whereas some of the larger ones may cause swelling of the jaw or adjacent maxillary sinus.
TextSentencer_T216 24013-24100 Sentence denotes In dogs, brachycephalic breeds often develop dentigerous cysts, which can be bilateral.
TextSentencer_T217 24101-24138 Sentence denotes The first premolar is often affected.
TextSentencer_T218 24139-24307 Sentence denotes Dentigerous cysts of animals are not as destructive as those in humans, in which species they are regarded as the most common benign destructive lesion of the skeleton.
TextSentencer_T219 24308-24390 Sentence denotes In dogs, a cyst that resembles odontogenic keratocyst of humans has been reported.
TextSentencer_T220 24391-24424 Sentence denotes This cyst is lined mineralize it.
TextSentencer_T221 24425-24550 Sentence denotes Some layers of cementum do not contain cells (acellular cementum), but in other layers, cementocytes are enclosed in lacunae.
TextSentencer_T222 24551-24616 Sentence denotes Sharpey's fibers from alveolar bone are embedded in the cementum.
TextSentencer_T223 24617-24808 Sentence denotes Cementum is more resistant to resorption than is bone, and unlike bone, normally is not resorbed and replaced as it ages; instead a new layer of cementum is deposited on top of the old layer.
TextSentencer_T224 24809-24957 Sentence denotes In some pathologic conditions, cementum is resorbed; subsequently, cellular or acellular cementum is deposited, and more or less repairs the defect.
TextSentencer_T225 24958-25058 Sentence denotes Hypercementosis is abnormal thickening of cementum and may involve part or all of one or many teeth.
TextSentencer_T226 25059-25201 Sentence denotes When extra cementum improves the functional properties of teeth, it is called cementum hypertrophy; if not, it is called cementum hyperplasia.
TextSentencer_T227 25202-25289 Sentence denotes Extensive hyperplasia is often associated with chronic inflammation of the dental root.
TextSentencer_T228 25290-25351 Sentence denotes The periodontal ligament is derived from the dental follicle.
TextSentencer_T229 25352-25490 Sentence denotes It is well vascularized and very cellular containing fibroblasts, cementoblasts, undifferentiated mesenchymal cells, and epithelial cells.
TextSentencer_T230 25491-25573 Sentence denotes The periodontal ligament contains type I collagen fibers with complex orientation.
TextSentencer_T231 25574-25680 Sentence denotes The periodontium comprises the periodontal ligament, gingival lamina propria, cementum, and alveolar bone.
TextSentencer_T232 25681-25755 Sentence denotes The ligament supports the tooth and adjusts to its movement during growth.
TextSentencer_T233 25756-25835 Sentence denotes It is well supplied with nerves and lymphatics, which drain into alveolar bone.
TextSentencer_T234 25836-25944 Sentence denotes The periodontal ligament is also a source of the cells that remodel alveolar bone and, in disease, cementum.
TextSentencer_T235 25945-26075 Sentence denotes Epithelial rests of Malassez are present in the periodontal ligament and are particularly numerous in the incisor region of sheep.
TextSentencer_T236 26076-26178 Sentence denotes In all species, they may proliferate and become cystic when there is inflammation of the periodontium.
TextSentencer_T237 26179-26231 Sentence denotes The periodontium is also a site of origin of tumors.
TextSentencer_T238 26232-26346 Sentence denotes The periodontal ligament is normally visible in radiographs as a radiolucent line between tooth and alveolar bone.
TextSentencer_T239 26347-26513 Sentence denotes In prolonged hyperparathyroidism, alveolar bone is resorbed, and the ligament is no longer outlined radiographically, a change referred to as loss of the lamina dura.
TextSentencer_T240 26514-26733 Sentence denotes Yellow to brown discoloration of teeth, and bright yellow fluorescence in ultraviolet light, caused by deposition of tetracycline antibiotics in mineralizing dentin, enamel, and probably cementum, occurs in all species.
TextSentencer_T241 26734-26819 Sentence denotes Treatment of the pregnant dam may cause staining of deciduous teeth in the offspring.
TextSentencer_T242 26820-26965 Sentence denotes Tetracyclines are toxic to ameloblasts in late differentiation and early secretory stages and, at high dose rates, may produce enamel hypoplasia.
TextSentencer_T243 26966-27131 Sentence denotes Black discoloration of ruminant cheek teeth is extremely common, and is caused by impregnation of mineral salts with chlorophyll and porphyrin pigments from herbage.
TextSentencer_T244 27132-27149 Sentence denotes Dental attrition.
TextSentencer_T245 27150-27216 Sentence denotes Dental attrition is loss of tooth structure caused by mastication.
TextSentencer_T246 27217-27401 Sentence denotes The mature conformation of teeth is largely the outcome of opposed growth and wear, and the degree of wear depends on the type of tooth, the species of animal, and the material chewed.
TextSentencer_T247 27402-27536 Sentence denotes Wear is most evident in herbivores, and irregularities of wear are perhaps the most common dental abnormalities, especially in horses.
TextSentencer_T248 27537-27636 Sentence denotes In general, with normal occlusion and use, the extraalveolar portion of the tooth does not shorten.
TextSentencer_T249 27637-27859 Sentence denotes Its length is maintained initially by growth, the period of growth depending on the species, then by hypertrophy of the root cementum and/or dentin and by proliferation of alveolar bone, which serves to push the tooth out.
TextSentencer_T250 27860-27991 Sentence denotes Finally, senile atrophy of the alveolar processes and gingival recession may maintain or increase the length of the clinical crown.
TextSentencer_T251 27992-28239 Sentence denotes Cementum hypertrophy and alveolar atrophy may also result in loss of teeth in senility, or, if combined with subnormal wear, produce teeth that in old age are excessively by keratinized epithelium and has a high rate of reoccurrence after removal.
TextSentencer_T252 28240-28324 Sentence denotes The ear tooth of horses is probably the most common nonodontogenic dentigerous cyst.
TextSentencer_T253 28325-28459 Sentence denotes Occasionally true dentigerous cysts form when normal tooth eruption fails or when there is maleruption resulting from odontodystrophy.
TextSentencer_T254 28460-28553 Sentence denotes Tooth eruption can be interrupted by trauma, including fractures to the mandible and maxilla.
TextSentencer_T255 28554-28683 Sentence denotes Cystic dental inclusions about vestigial supernumerary teeth also occur in juxtamolar positions in cattle, but are insignificant.
TextSentencer_T256 28684-28844 Sentence denotes These too may be dentigerous, or they may be primordial cysts developed before the stage of enamel formation, and hence contain no mineralized tooth structures.
TextSentencer_T257 28845-28897 Sentence denotes Either type of cyst may give rise to ameloblastomas.
TextSentencer_T258 28898-29023 Sentence denotes A high incidence of dentigerous cysts involving incisors occurs in some sheep flocks in Scotland, Australia, and New Zealand.
TextSentencer_T259 29024-29238 Sentence denotes A congenital disease involving the jaws and teeth of calves in Germany (odontodysplasia cystica congenita) is characterized by massive fibro-osseous enlargement of the maxillae and horizontal rami of the mandibles.
TextSentencer_T260 29239-29286 Sentence denotes Some teeth are malformed, misshapen, or absent.
TextSentencer_T261 29287-29403 Sentence denotes Cystic spaces in the jaws are lined by fibrous tissue or epithelium, the latter probably derived from enamel organs.
TextSentencer_T262 29404-29468 Sentence denotes The dental changes are thought to be secondary to those in bone.
TextSentencer_T263 29469-29556 Sentence denotes Most affected calves are aborted or stillborn, and many have ascites and hydrocephalus.
TextSentencer_T264 29557-29611 Sentence denotes The disease may be caused by environmental influences.
TextSentencer_T265 29612-29704 Sentence denotes The permanent teeth are unique in that they continue to develop for a long time after birth.
TextSentencer_T266 29705-29870 Sentence denotes Thus, inflammatory and metabolic disease of postnatal life, for instance canine distemper virus infection ( Fig. 1-3A) , can produce hypoplasia of dentin and enamel.
TextSentencer_T267 29871-30007 Sentence denotes Hypoplasia of the enamel of deciduous teeth occurs in some calves with intrauterine bovine viral diarrhea virus infection ( Fig. 1-3B ).
TextSentencer_T268 30008-30104 Sentence denotes It has also been described in calves and pigs following irradiation of the dam during gestation.
TextSentencer_T269 30105-30228 Sentence denotes Dysplastic proliferation of dentin and enamel involving mandibular premolars and molars has been seen in young uremic dogs.
TextSentencer_T270 30229-30322 Sentence denotes Extreme fragility of deciduous teeth is a feature of bovine osteogenesis imperfecta (see Vol.
TextSentencer_T271 30323-30345 Sentence denotes 1, Bones and joints) .
TextSentencer_T272 30346-30536 Sentence denotes Dental dysplasia, characterized by normal dentin, absence of enamel matrix, and excess irregular cementum, was described in a foal with epitheliogenesis imperfecta involving the oral mucosa.
TextSentencer_T273 30537-30563 Sentence denotes Pigmentation of the teeth.
TextSentencer_T274 30564-30692 Sentence denotes Normal enamel is white and shiny, but normal cementum is off-white to light yellow, and normal dentin is slightly darker yellow.
TextSentencer_T275 30693-30799 Sentence denotes Depending on the tooth, or the part of the tooth being examined, the normal color may be any one of these.
TextSentencer_T276 30800-30834 Sentence denotes Normal enamel is never discolored.
TextSentencer_T277 30835-30926 Sentence denotes Hypoplastic enamel of chronic fluorosis is discolored yellow through brown to almost black.
TextSentencer_T278 30927-31100 Sentence denotes Discoloration of brachydont teeth results from pigmentation of dentin, which is then visible through the semitransparent enamel, or pigmentation of the cementum of the root.
TextSentencer_T279 31101-31225 Sentence denotes Dentin may be colored red-brown by pulpal hemorrhages or inflammation, gray-green in putrid pulpitis, and yellow in icterus.
TextSentencer_T280 31226-31376 Sentence denotes Amelogenesis imperfecta is a disorder of enamel formation that leads to inadequate mineralization of enamel and usually yellow discoloration of teeth.
TextSentencer_T281 31377-31448 Sentence denotes This condition has been reported in cattle and in Standard Poodle dogs.
TextSentencer_T282 31449-31657 Sentence denotes Congenital erythropoietic porphyria of calves, cats, and swine discolors the dentin red in young animals (pink tooth) and darker brown in adults, although in swine, the discoloration may disappear with aging.
TextSentencer_T283 31658-31735 Sentence denotes A B thus discontinuous nutritional deficiencies often result in unequal wear.
TextSentencer_T284 31736-31799 Sentence denotes Certain vices, such as crib biting, also produce abnormal wear.
TextSentencer_T285 31800-31928 Sentence denotes In severely worn ruminant incisors, a central black core may be visible, which is secondary dentin deposited in the pulp cavity.
TextSentencer_T286 31929-32002 Sentence denotes It is not carious, but stains darker than the surrounding primary dentin.
TextSentencer_T287 32003-32021 Sentence denotes Odontodystrophies.
TextSentencer_T288 32022-32114 Sentence denotes Odontodystrophies are diseases of teeth caused by nutritional, metabolic, and toxic insults.
TextSentencer_T289 32115-32264 Sentence denotes They are manifest by changes in the hard tissues of the teeth and their supporting structures and often occur during the period of tooth development.
TextSentencer_T290 32265-32314 Sentence denotes Lesions of enamel and dentin are emphasized here.
TextSentencer_T291 32315-32453 Sentence denotes The most prominent effects of odontodystrophies appear in enamel, and lesions of enamel are most significant because they are irreparable.
TextSentencer_T292 32454-32498 Sentence denotes Formation of enamel occurs in a set pattern.
TextSentencer_T293 32499-32564 Sentence denotes It begins at the occlusal surface and progresses toward the root.
TextSentencer_T294 32565-32705 Sentence denotes Mineral maturation occurs in the same sequence, but for each level, it begins at the dentin-enamel junction and moves toward the ameloblast.
TextSentencer_T295 32706-32822 Sentence denotes Deleterious influences have their most severe effects on those ameloblasts that are forming and mineralizing enamel.
TextSentencer_T296 32823-32945 Sentence denotes Depending on the severity on the insult, ameloblasts may produce no enamel, a little enamel, or poorly mineralized enamel.
TextSentencer_T297 32946-33049 Sentence denotes Removal of the insult permits those ameloblasts that were not yet active to begin making normal enamel.
TextSentencer_T298 33050-33183 Sentence denotes Thus enamel defects vary in severity from isolated opaque spots or pits on the surface to deep and irregular horizontal indentations.
TextSentencer_T299 33184-33298 Sentence denotes These defects are most clearly seen on the incisor teeth and canine teeth and are usually bilaterally symmetrical.
TextSentencer_T300 33299-33458 Sentence denotes Similar lesions are also produced by infectious agents that injure ameloblasts, such as canine distemper virus and bovine viral diarrhea virus (see Fig. 1-3) .
TextSentencer_T301 33459-33614 Sentence denotes Odontoblasts are susceptible to many of the same influences as ameloblasts, but they can be replenished from the undifferentiated cells of the dental pulp.
TextSentencer_T302 33615-33710 Sentence denotes Thus lesions in actively forming dentin may be repaired, whereas those in enamel are permanent.
TextSentencer_T303 33711-33851 Sentence denotes Because of their close anatomical association with the bones of the jaws, teeth are very susceptible to disruption in the harmony of growth.
TextSentencer_T304 33852-34021 Sentence denotes This harmonious arrangement is often upset in the odontodystrophies and osteodystrophies, which may lead to malocclusion, anomalous development of teeth, and tooth loss.
TextSentencer_T305 34022-34087 Sentence denotes Several nutritional and toxic conditions produce odontodystrophy.
TextSentencer_T306 34088-34129 Sentence denotes Fluorine poisoning is exemplary (see Vol.
TextSentencer_T307 34130-34151 Sentence denotes 1, Bones and joints).
TextSentencer_T308 34152-34262 Sentence denotes In vitamin A deficiency, ameloblasts do not differentiate normally, and their organizing ability is disturbed.
TextSentencer_T309 34263-34318 Sentence denotes As a result, odontoblastic differentiation is abnormal.
TextSentencer_T310 34319-34469 Sentence denotes Several lesions develop, including enamel hypoplasia and hypomineralization, vascularized dentin (osteodentin), and retarded or failed tooth eruption.
TextSentencer_T311 34470-34562 Sentence denotes Calcium deficiency retards eruption and causes enamel hypoplasia and mild dentin hypoplasia.
TextSentencer_T312 34563-34637 Sentence denotes Teeth formed during the period of deficiency are very susceptible to wear.
TextSentencer_T313 34638-34745 Sentence denotes In sheep, recovery from prolonged calcium deficiency results in malocclusion caused by inferior prognathia.
TextSentencer_T314 34746-34836 Sentence denotes This reflects inadequate maxillary but normal mandibular repair during the recovery phase.
TextSentencer_T315 34837-34994 Sentence denotes Phosphorus deficiency, combined with vitamin D deficiency, depresses dentin formation slightly, but has virtually no effect on enamel, at least not in sheep.
TextSentencer_T316 34995-35075 Sentence denotes Hypophosphatemia is associated with formation of interglobular dentin in humans.
TextSentencer_T317 35076-35171 Sentence denotes Malocclusion and abnormalities of bite in rachitic sheep are secondary to mandibular deformity.
TextSentencer_T318 35172-35177 Sentence denotes long.
TextSentencer_T319 35178-35307 Sentence denotes Normal wear of the complicated cheek teeth (premolars and molars) of horses and cattle causes smoothing of the occlusal surfaces.
TextSentencer_T320 35308-35457 Sentence denotes As soon as wear of enamel exposes the dentin, which, being softer, wears more rapidly, secondary or tertiary dentin is deposited to protect the pulp.
TextSentencer_T321 35458-35526 Sentence denotes In time, this may fill the pulp cavity and cause death of the tooth.
TextSentencer_T322 35527-35592 Sentence denotes Abnormalities of wear are most common in herbivores ( Fig. 1-4) .
TextSentencer_T323 35593-35702 Sentence denotes Excessive wear of the deciduous and permanent central incisors occurs in certain sheep flocks in New Zealand.
TextSentencer_T324 35703-35779 Sentence denotes The wear is intermittent and may be severe enough to expose the pulp cavity.
TextSentencer_T325 35780-35906 Sentence denotes The cause is unknown but may be related to delayed eruption of adjacent teeth, leading to increased use of the affected pairs.
TextSentencer_T326 35907-36083 Sentence denotes Subnormal wear, caused by loss of the opposing tooth, occurs in oligodontia, abnormal spacing of adjacent teeth, and acquired loss of teeth; it results in abnormal lengthening.
TextSentencer_T327 36084-36209 Sentence denotes Such elongated teeth may grow against the opposing gum or, if deviated, into an adjacent soft structure such as cheek or lip.
TextSentencer_T328 36210-36434 Sentence denotes These teeth usually wear in abnormal places because complete loss of antagonism is unusual, and, because the upper and lower arcades do not coincide exactly, the coincidence is further reduced by the displacement of chewing.
TextSentencer_T329 36435-36572 Sentence denotes Abnormal wear resulting from abnormal chewing is caused by voluntary (as in painful conditions) or mechanical impairment of jaw movement.
TextSentencer_T330 36573-36703 Sentence denotes Incomplete longitudinal alignment of the molar arcades allows irregular wear and hook formation on the first and last cheek teeth.
TextSentencer_T331 36704-36845 Sentence denotes Lateral movements of the jaws without the normal rotary grinding movements allow the ridges of the teeth of herbivores to become accentuated.
TextSentencer_T332 36846-37054 Sentence denotes Steep angulation of the occlusal surfaces results from inadequate lateral movement of the jaws, and sharp edges form on the buccal aspect of the maxillary teeth and the lingual aspect of the mandibular teeth.
TextSentencer_T333 37055-37168 Sentence denotes This may be unilateral when the animal chews with only one side of its mouth, the other side then being affected.
TextSentencer_T334 37169-37300 Sentence denotes The teeth wear progressively sharper, and can result in the teeth passing each other like shear blades; hence the term shear mouth.
TextSentencer_T335 37301-37490 Sentence denotes Subnormal resistance to wear on the part of the molar teeth is common, and results in wave mouth (weave mouth) or step mouth, in which successive teeth in an arcade wear at different rates.
TextSentencer_T336 37491-37602 Sentence denotes The wave or step form of the antagonistic arcade is reversed, so that the teeth of the 2 arcades interdigitate.
TextSentencer_T337 37603-37741 Sentence denotes This pattern of attrition is caused by variation in the hardness of opposing teeth, and is usually caused by intermittent odontodystrophy.
TextSentencer_T338 37742-37954 Sentence denotes Opposing teeth of the upper and lower jaws do not develop at the same time; host secretions to adhere to the pellicle, whereas others attach to bacteria of a different species that are already fixed to the tooth.
TextSentencer_T339 37955-38140 Sentence denotes Plaque increases in mass with time, and its composition becomes more complex as anaerobic gram-negative bacteria join the streptococci and actinomycetes that initiated plaque formation.
TextSentencer_T340 38141-38186 Sentence denotes Supragingival plaque is metabolically active.
TextSentencer_T341 38187-38404 Sentence denotes It utilizes dietary carbohydrates to produce the adhesive polymers and the acids needed to demineralize enamel, and as energy sources for maintenance and for production of various enzymes and stimuli for inflammation.
TextSentencer_T342 38405-38514 Sentence denotes Extensive deposits of supragingival plaque are virtually invisible unless treated with a disclosing solution.
TextSentencer_T343 38515-38695 Sentence denotes Subgingival plaque is less organized than supragingival plaque, and many of the organisms involved are gram-negative anaerobes that are asaccharolytic, weakly adherent, and motile.
TextSentencer_T344 38696-38750 Sentence denotes They derive their nutrients from the crevicular fluid.
TextSentencer_T345 38751-38844 Sentence denotes The flora of subgingival plaque is less well characterized than that of supragingival plaque.
TextSentencer_T346 38845-39024 Sentence denotes Culture results vary with sample collection technique, site of collection, and selectivity of media, and appear to under-represent the flora detected by molecular means in humans.
TextSentencer_T347 39025-39221 Sentence denotes A number of species including Bacteroides spp., Actinomyces spp., Porphyromonas spp., Tannerella forsythia, and spirochetes have been associated with gingivitis and periodontal disease in animals.
TextSentencer_T348 39222-39299 Sentence denotes Dental calculus (tartar) is mineralized supragingival and subgingival plaque.
TextSentencer_T349 39300-39404 Sentence denotes In supragingival plaque it is formed by the deposition of mineral, mainly from saliva, in dead bacteria.
TextSentencer_T350 39405-39480 Sentence denotes In subgingival plaque, mineral is generated from gingival crevicular fluid.
TextSentencer_T351 39481-39545 Sentence denotes In horses and dogs, calculus is predominantly calcium carbonate.
TextSentencer_T352 39546-39654 Sentence denotes Calculus is often found in old dogs and cats, occasionally in horses and sheep, and rarely in other species.
TextSentencer_T353 39655-39760 Sentence denotes The distribution is often uneven, but it is usually most abundant next to the orifices of salivary ducts.
TextSentencer_T354 39761-39816 Sentence denotes Calculus on horses' teeth is chalky and easily removed.
TextSentencer_T355 39817-39876 Sentence denotes In dogs, it is hard, firmly attached, and often discolored.
TextSentencer_T356 39877-39964 Sentence denotes Red-brown to black calculus with a metallic sheen develops in pastured sheep and goats.
TextSentencer_T357 39965-40049 Sentence denotes It usually involves all the incisors, principally on the neck of the buccal surface.
TextSentencer_T358 40050-40254 Sentence denotes Minor amounts are common along the gum-tooth junction of the molar teeth, but occasionally larger (up to 2 cm) hard, black, rounded concretions may protrude from between opposed surfaces of the premolars.
TextSentencer_T359 40255-40384 Sentence denotes A high prevalence of calculus in sheep on the Scottish island of North Ronaldsay was related to their predominantly seaweed diet.
TextSentencer_T360 40385-40581 Sentence denotes Calculus was most severe around the cranial cheek teeth, increased in severity with age, was associated with periodontal disease, and contained large amounts of calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus.
TextSentencer_T361 40582-40725 Sentence denotes Materia alba, which adheres to teeth, is a mixture of salivary proteins, desquamated epithelial cells, disintegrating leukocytes, and bacteria.
TextSentencer_T362 40726-40793 Sentence denotes The bacteria are not organized, and materia alba is easily removed.
TextSentencer_T363 40794-40898 Sentence denotes It is distinct from dental plaque, and from food debris, which also accumulates between uncleaned teeth.
TextSentencer_T364 40899-40913 Sentence denotes Dental caries.
TextSentencer_T365 40914-41075 Sentence denotes Dental caries is a disease of the hard tissues of teeth, characterized by demineralization of the inorganic part and enzymatic degradation of the organic matrix.
TextSentencer_T366 41076-41154 Sentence denotes Erosions of teeth are characterized by removal of hard tissues layer by layer.
TextSentencer_T367 41155-41271 Sentence denotes These definitions permit the inclusion of equine infundibular necrosis as a form of caries (see following sections).
TextSentencer_T368 41272-41326 Sentence denotes Caries is common in horses and sheep but rare in dogs.
TextSentencer_T369 41327-41431 Sentence denotes Cats are commonly subject to caries-like odontoclastic resorptive lesions of uncertain etiopathogenesis.
TextSentencer_T370 41432-41493 Sentence denotes Severe, experimental malnutrition also produces malocclusion.
TextSentencer_T371 41494-41643 Sentence denotes Recovery from malnutrition does not correct the lesion, and in addition, is associated with misshapen, malformed teeth, oligodontia, and polyodontia.
TextSentencer_T372 41644-41744 Sentence denotes The major effects of odontodystrophies in herbivores are malocclusion, and/or accelerated attrition.
TextSentencer_T373 41745-41884 Sentence denotes Sometimes a high incidence of these abnormalities is attributable to one of the causes previously discussed, but often they are idiopathic.
TextSentencer_T374 41885-42183 Sentence denotes A syndrome of dental abnormalities of sheep in the North Island of New Zealand is characterized by excessive wear of deciduous teeth, maleruption and excessive wear of permanent teeth, periodontal disease involving permanent teeth, and development of dentigerous cysts involving permanent incisors.
TextSentencer_T375 42184-42222 Sentence denotes Mandibular osteopathy is also present.
TextSentencer_T376 42223-42281 Sentence denotes Animals older than 5 years are culled for dental problems.
TextSentencer_T377 42282-42438 Sentence denotes The odontodystrophy (and osteodystrophy) is possibly caused by deficiencies of calcium and copper, and perhaps other nutrients, such as protein, and energy.
TextSentencer_T378 42439-42597 Sentence denotes This syndrome exemplifies the naturally occurring odontodystrophies, in that it probably has a complex pathogenesis, and is associated with an osteodystrophy.
TextSentencer_T379 42598-42708 Sentence denotes The latter association is to be expected, because bones and teeth are usually susceptible to the same insults.
TextSentencer_T380 42709-42875 Sentence denotes Although dental lesions are not described, tooth loss caused by periosteal dysplasia and osteopenia occurs in Salers cattle afflicted with hereditary hemochromatosis.
TextSentencer_T381 42876-42941 Sentence denotes The role of viruses in enamel hypoplasia is mentioned previously.
TextSentencer_T382 42942-43024 Sentence denotes Bacterial plaque, along with other tooth-accumulated materials, is discussed here.
TextSentencer_T383 43025-43139 Sentence denotes Bacterial diseases involving tooth surfaces are caused by the development of supragingival and subgingival plaque.
TextSentencer_T384 43140-43231 Sentence denotes Supragingival plaque is located on the exposed crown of the tooth and causes dental caries.
TextSentencer_T385 43232-43316 Sentence denotes Subgingival plaque is found in the crevicular groove and causes periodontal disease.
TextSentencer_T386 43317-43533 Sentence denotes Tooth enamel is covered by a translucent pellicle, the acquired enamel pellicle, which is formed by selective adsorption of complex salivary proteins, and that is essential to the development of supragingival plaque.
TextSentencer_T387 43534-43739 Sentence denotes This is a dense, nonmineralized, bacterial mass, firmly adherent to tooth surfaces, which resists removal by salivary flow and prevents the buffering capacity of saliva from influencing plaque metabolites.
TextSentencer_T388 43740-43872 Sentence denotes Formation of this plaque involves adhesion of bacteria to the pellicle, and adhesion of bacteria to each other, producing a biofilm.
TextSentencer_T389 43873-44046 Sentence denotes Initial bacterial binding to the tooth surface is reversible through electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions, but this transitions to permanent receptor mediated binding.
TextSentencer_T390 44047-44228 Sentence denotes Only organisms with the ability to adhere to the pellicle can initiate the formation of supragingival plaque; those that cannot are removed by oral secretions and mechanical action.
TextSentencer_T391 44229-44415 Sentence denotes Pathologic reduction of salivary flow, or regions of teeth where flow is reduced (interproximal regions and areas of pits or fissures) increases the prevalence of caries in some species.
TextSentencer_T392 44416-44532 Sentence denotes The bacteria in supragingival plaque are members of the indigenous oral flora and are usually gram-positive aerobes.
TextSentencer_T393 44533-44628 Sentence denotes Most are streptococci and Actinomyces spp., which form an organized array on the tooth surface.
TextSentencer_T394 44629-44793 Sentence denotes Some plaque-forming bacteria synthesize extracellular polymers, which constitute the matrix of the plaque and permit adhesion between organisms of the same species.
TextSentencer_T395 44794-44850 Sentence denotes Some utilize polymers derived from the dentinal tubules.
TextSentencer_T396 44851-44914 Sentence denotes Production of reparative dentin in the pulp cavity is expected.
TextSentencer_T397 44915-44985 Sentence denotes Horses may also develop peripheral caries outside of the infundibulum.
TextSentencer_T398 44986-45126 Sentence denotes This typically occurs in the caudal cheek teeth and leads to loss of cementum that may contribute to irregular wear and periodontal disease.
TextSentencer_T399 45127-45258 Sentence denotes In sheep, the proximal surfaces of mandibular teeth are usually affected by caries, which is commonly accompanied by periodontitis.
TextSentencer_T400 45259-45343 Sentence denotes Erosions of the neck region of the deciduous teeth occurred in sheep in New Zealand.
TextSentencer_T401 45344-45446 Sentence denotes The lesions were mainly located apical to the enamel-dentin junction on the labial or lingual surface.
TextSentencer_T402 45447-45530 Sentence denotes They did not seem to be related to the usual causes of localized tooth destruction.
TextSentencer_T403 45531-45632 Sentence denotes Cattle develop loss of dentin just below the crown of incisor teeth at increasing frequency with age.
TextSentencer_T404 45633-45789 Sentence denotes This usually follows recession of the gingiva, and is not considered to be a form of caries, but proteolytic digestion of dentin by chyme in an alkaline pH.
TextSentencer_T405 45790-45881 Sentence denotes In dogs, caries most commonly involves the fourth premolar and the first and second molars.
TextSentencer_T406 45882-46007 Sentence denotes Although relatively uncommon, when caries occurs, defects are often multiple and advanced, leading to therapeutic extraction.
TextSentencer_T407 46008-46268 Sentence denotes Cats, whose teeth do not have centers where food can collect, very commonly develop multiple caries-like odontoclastic resorptive lesions, initially involving the subgingival neck or upper root, most often of cheek teeth, and increasing in prevalence with age.
TextSentencer_T408 46269-46302 Sentence denotes This is not a true caries lesion.
TextSentencer_T409 46303-46401 Sentence denotes Odontoclasts are similar to osteoclasts and participate in absorption of roots of deciduous teeth.
TextSentencer_T410 46402-46524 Sentence denotes For reasons that are not entirely clear, they are recruited or form at the tooth and begin to There are 2 types of caries:
TextSentencer_T411 46525-46527 Sentence denotes 1.
TextSentencer_T412 46528-46669 Sentence denotes Pit or fissure caries develops in irregularities or indentations, which trap food and bacteria, usually on the occlusal surface of the tooth.
TextSentencer_T413 46670-46785 Sentence denotes Plaque is not essential for initiation of this form of caries, of which equine infundibular necrosis is an example.
TextSentencer_T414 46786-46788 Sentence denotes 2.
TextSentencer_T415 46789-46971 Sentence denotes Smooth-surface caries usually occurs on proximal (adjacent) surfaces of teeth, typically just below contact points, or around the neck, and requires dental plaque for its initiation.
TextSentencer_T416 46972-47108 Sentence denotes The organic acids, principally lactic, which initiate demineralization, are produced by bacterial fermentation of dietary carbohydrates.
TextSentencer_T417 47109-47211 Sentence denotes In smooth-surface caries, plaque produces the acid and maintains a low pH on the surface of the tooth.
TextSentencer_T418 47212-47378 Sentence denotes Progression of lesions depends on various factors such as salivary pH, hardness and resistance to demineralization of enamel, and frequency of access to carbohydrate.
TextSentencer_T419 47379-47506 Sentence denotes Demineralization of enamel often occurs in the subsurface enamel but progresses to caries only with prolonged exposure to acid.
TextSentencer_T420 47507-47575 Sentence denotes Infrequent exposure allows remineralization of enamel between meals.
TextSentencer_T421 47576-47718 Sentence denotes The enzymes that lyse the organic matrix are probably produced by plaque, but may be derived from leukocytes, for which plaque is chemotactic.
TextSentencer_T422 47719-47786 Sentence denotes Carious enamel loses its sheen and becomes dull, white, and pocked.
TextSentencer_T423 47787-47837 Sentence denotes When dentin is exposed, it becomes brown or black.
TextSentencer_T424 47838-48002 Sentence denotes Dentin is softer and more readily demineralized than enamel, and a pinpoint lesion in enamel may lead to a large defect when the carious process reaches the dentin.
TextSentencer_T425 48003-48155 Sentence denotes Enamel loss to caries is permanent, whereas odontoblasts at the pulp/dentin junction can generate tertiary dentin in response to dentin damage and loss.
TextSentencer_T426 48156-48329 Sentence denotes Nerve endings have not been identified at the enamel-dentin junction, and the pain of caries is thought to be caused by chemical or pressure changes in the dentinal tubules.
TextSentencer_T427 48330-48429 Sentence denotes Neuropeptides, including substance P, are generated in the pulp and may enhance pain during caries.
TextSentencer_T428 48430-48592 Sentence denotes Spread of infection along the dental tubules to the pulp cavity may result in formation of reparative dentin, pulpitis, or periapical inflammation and tooth loss.
TextSentencer_T429 48593-48660 Sentence denotes In horses, infundibular necrosis is the most common form of caries.
TextSentencer_T430 48661-48737 Sentence denotes It develops most often on the occlusal surface of the maxillary first molar.
TextSentencer_T431 48738-48863 Sentence denotes The enamel invaginations (infundibula) in the cheek teeth of horses are normally filled with cementum before the teeth erupt.
TextSentencer_T432 48864-48967 Sentence denotes Filling proceeds from the occlusal surface toward the apex, but often is not completed before eruption.
TextSentencer_T433 48968-49108 Sentence denotes At this time the blood supply is cut off, and ischemic necrosis of any residual cementogenic tissue in the infundibula occurs ( Fig. 1-5A ).
TextSentencer_T434 49109-49157 Sentence denotes The deficiency of cementum is called hypoplasia.
T74763 49158-49243 Sentence denotes Teeth with incompletely filled infundibula may accumulate food material and bacteria.
T66825 49244-49378 Sentence denotes This can lead to bacterial fermentation and lactic acid production that demineralizes the cementum over the infundibulum (Fig. 1-5B ).
T40783 49379-49486 Sentence denotes In some animals, the cavitated area expands to involve all the cementum and the adjacent enamel and dentin.
T37292 49487-49598 Sentence denotes This may result in coalescence of adjacent infundibulum and creation of a large defect in the occlusal surface.
T72244 49599-49753 Sentence denotes Decay of the mineralized tissues and coalescence of infundibula may progress to fracture of the tooth, root abscess, and empyema of the paranasal sinuses.
T5230 49754-49875 Sentence denotes The incidence of infundibular necrosis increases with age, and 80-100% of horses older than 12 years may have the lesion.
T19333 49876-49942 Sentence denotes Most are without signs, and in most, the lesion does not progress.
T48821 49943-50228 Sentence denotes Inflammation of the dental pulp, in horses and in other species, may result from direct expansion of caries from penetration of bacteria and bacterial degradation products along A B The exposed pulp canal is healed in 30-50 days by deposition of reparative dentin and secondary dentin.
T7695 50229-50279 Sentence denotes Similar healing presumably occurs in most piglets.
T7417 50280-50429 Sentence denotes Maxillary (malar) abscess of dogs involves the periapical tissues usually of the carnassial tooth, and may cause a discharging sinus beneath the eye.
T28094 50430-50562 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis of the abscess is obscure, but it may be a sequel to crown fractures or to pressure necrosis of periapical tissues.
T30111 50563-50685 Sentence denotes Some chronic inflammations of the pulp become slowly expansive spherical granulomas about the root apex (root granulomas).
T37952 50686-50806 Sentence denotes Occasionally these granulomas are enclosed by an epithelial cyst (periodontal cyst) derived from cell rests of Malassez.
T17345 50807-50913 Sentence denotes The epithelium contains plasma cells, and the combination may have a protective role in periapical sepsis.
T72038 50914-50934 Sentence denotes Periodontal disease.
T90123 50935-51070 Sentence denotes Periodontal disease is the most common dental disease of dogs and sheep, and an important problem in other ruminants, horses, and cats.
T15017 51071-51332 Sentence denotes Although there are minor differences among species, in general, periodontal disease begins as gingivitis associated with subgingival plaque, and may progress through gingival recession and loss of alveolar bone to chronic periodontitis and exfoliation of teeth.
T29608 51333-51466 Sentence denotes The gingival sulcus, or crevice, is an invagination formed by the gingiva as it joins with the tooth surface at the time of eruption.
T86498 51467-51637 Sentence denotes Clinically normal animals have a few lymphocytes, plasma cells, and macrophages under the crevicular epithelium of the gingiva, which forms the outer wall of the crevice.
T16129 51638-51790 Sentence denotes Low numbers of lymphocytes, plasma cells, and macrophages are also present under the junctional epithelium, which is apposed to the enamel of the tooth.
T31989 51791-51952 Sentence denotes Clinical gingivitis is usually initiated by accumulation of plaque in the crevice, but may be associated with impaction of feed, especially seeds, between teeth.
T98423 51953-52202 Sentence denotes Gingivitis is initially characterized by increased numbers of leukocytes and fluid in the gingival crevice, and then by acute exudative inflammation and accumulation of neutrophils, plasma cells, lymphocytes, and macrophages in the marginal gingiva.
T39515 52203-52338 Sentence denotes If the disease progresses, marked loss of gingival collagen fibers, which hold the gingiva to the adjacent tooth, occurs in a few days.
T8751 52339-52614 Sentence denotes This is probably related to the activity of prostaglandins and matrix metalloproteinases generated in inflamed tissue, or possibly enzymes from plaque bacteria, such as Porphyromonas gingivalis, which also produce enzymes (gingipains) thought to damage junctional epithelium.
T93722 52615-52758 Sentence denotes Porphyromonas spp. are implicated as obligate pathogens for canine gingivitis, and as probable participants in feline gingivitis/periodontitis.
T7431 52759-52849 Sentence denotes Grossly the gingiva is red and swollen because of the hyperemia and edema of inflammation.
T94828 52850-52952 Sentence denotes Acute gingivitis may become quiescent, with lymphocyte aggregations beneath the junctional epithelium.
T10372 52953-53010 Sentence denotes Halitosis is associated with gingivitis in small animals.
T27144 53011-53161 Sentence denotes Continuation and exacerbations of the inflammation cause apical recession of the tooth-gingiva junction, and resorption of alveolar bone ( Fig. 1-6) .
T82039 53162-53242 Sentence denotes Alterations in the periodontal flora may be responsible for these exacerbations.
T21195 53243-53382 Sentence denotes A major part of chronic periodontal disease is resorption of alveolar bone, which modifies the attachment site of the periodontal ligament.
T61115 53383-53604 Sentence denotes If concomitant bone loss precedes gingival recession, the sulcus is deepened to form a periodontal pocket, which is lined by transformed junctional "pocket" epithelium, and becomes the site of chronic active inflammation.
T87579 53605-53732 Sentence denotes When gingival recession precedes loss of alveolar bone and gingival collagen, pockets do not form, but tooth roots are exposed.
T53215 53733-53843 Sentence denotes In either case, destruction of the periodontium and periodontal ligament, resorb enamel and eventually dentin.
T48781 53844-54009 Sentence denotes A reddened swollen area of gingiva or granulation tissue often lies over the lesion, which may be on the labial or buccal aspect, and frequently is painful to touch.
T27742 54010-54150 Sentence denotes The resorptive lesions begin as shallow defects in the cementum, lined by odontoclasts, facing a somewhat disorganized periodontal ligament.
T65998 54151-54229 Sentence denotes They progress into the underlying dentin, and, with time, into the root canal.
T45787 54230-54295 Sentence denotes Either or both coronal and apical extension of lesions may occur.
T10415 54296-54447 Sentence denotes Extension of the process coronally more superficially undermines the enamel, which is resorbed or breaks off, causing destruction or loss of the crown.
T51088 54448-54522 Sentence denotes Extension of the dentinal lesion apically leads to resorption of the root.
T56001 54523-54613 Sentence denotes Remnants of the root may persist, often overgrown by gingiva, following loss of the crown.
T54960 54614-54857 Sentence denotes Conversely, destruction primarily of the root may result in obliteration of the periodontal ligament, resorption of adjacent alveolar bone, but with odontoalveolar ankylosis by reparative hard tissues, retaining the crown in the dental arcade.
T39013 54858-55066 Sentence denotes In addition to the odontoclasts that line the resorbing cementum or dentinal surfaces of the lesion, more advanced defects contain a mixed leukocyte population, macrophages, and disordered granulation tissue.
T19654 55067-55233 Sentence denotes Repair is often superimposed, with cementoblastic or osteoblastic cells producing new mineralized tissue of varied osteoid, bone, cementum, or osteodentin morphology.
T34601 55234-55326 Sentence denotes Pulpitis may occur in the affected root canal, and reparative dentin may be deposited there.
T61925 55327-55612 Sentence denotes The prevalence of such lesions has increased markedly in the past 40 years, suggesting an association with changes in form of diet, but the lesion is idiopathic, with no clear relationship to periodontitis, mechanical trauma, viral infections, or nutritional or metabolic disturbances.
T33870 55613-55780 Sentence denotes A number of factors have been proposed to be involved with feline resorptive lesions, including local inflammatory mediators, increased vitamin D intake, and local pH.
T34024 55781-55790 Sentence denotes Pulpitis.
T42321 55791-55842 Sentence denotes The dental pulp is derived from the dental papilla.
T34120 55843-55956 Sentence denotes It is surrounded by odontoblasts and dentin, except at the apical foramen, through which vessels and nerves pass.
T3897 55957-56072 Sentence denotes Pulp is a loose syncytium of stellate fibroblasts, and contains histiocytes and undifferentiated mesenchymal cells.
T15732 56073-56113 Sentence denotes The latter are odontoblastic precursors.
T3333 56114-56222 Sentence denotes The apical foramen is located at the apex of the root and is where blood vessels and nerves enter the tooth.
T63593 56223-56351 Sentence denotes The apical foramen is narrow, and this predisposes to vascular occlusion, ischemic necrosis of the pulp, and death of the tooth.
T51764 56352-56471 Sentence denotes Production of abundant secondary dentin and reparative dentin can cause occlusion, but the usual cause is inflammation.
T67989 56472-56606 Sentence denotes Normally, pulp is the only vascular tissue of the tooth, and, along with the periodontium, the only site of conventional inflammation.
T46490 56607-56905 Sentence denotes Pulpitis is always related to infection, the effect of bacteria or their products entering through the surface of fractured teeth, carious perforations (especially in teeth with enamel defects), perforations resulting from abnormal wear or trimming, from periodontitis, and possibly hematogenously.
T86372 56906-57043 Sentence denotes In herbivores, in which the pulp is divided by enamel foldings, inflammation is usually limited to one division, and is usually purulent.
T9618 57044-57271 Sentence denotes Very mild pulpitis may heal, but usually it terminates in tooth necrosis, periapical abscessation, perhaps with fistula formation, osteomyelitis, or gangrene as inflammation of the pulp extends to the periodontium and the jaws.
T37894 57272-57414 Sentence denotes Periapical abscess and osteomyelitis of the jaws are complications of pulpitis that may follow clipping the tusks ("needle teeth") of piglets.
T71239 57415-57569 Sentence denotes Trimming of the incisor teeth of sheep to avoid the effects of broken mouth often exposes the pulp cavity, but the pulpitis that ensues is rarely chronic.
T78693 57570-57674 Sentence denotes The sequelae of suppurative periodontitis are many, being mainly variations on a theme of osteomyelitis.
T26391 57675-57730 Sentence denotes The osteomyelitis of actinomycosis is discussed in Vol.
T80754 57731-57751 Sentence denotes 1, Bones and joints.
T66417 57752-57832 Sentence denotes If the mandible is involved, the fistula usually develops on the ventral margin.
T47020 57833-57918 Sentence denotes If the maxillary molars are involved, fistulation may occur into the maxillary sinus.
T42767 57919-58010 Sentence denotes If the premolars are involved, fistulation may develop into the nasal cavity or externally.
T49922 58011-58209 Sentence denotes In dogs, involvement of the canine teeth may produce internal or external fistulae, and involvement of the maxillary carnassials usually produces a fistula beneath the eye, and orbital inflammation.
T64743 58210-58318 Sentence denotes Fistulation may be prevented for some time, or permanently, by ossifying periostitis over the involved bone.
T3372 58319-58367 Sentence denotes Fistulae in the upper jaw tend to be persistent.
T68252 58368-58447 Sentence denotes In the lower jaw, they may heal, usually with extensive deposition of new bone.
T25031 58448-58623 Sentence denotes Occasionally, especially in horses, chronic mild periodontitis may be confined by the periodontium, which is, however, expanded by granulation tissue to form a root granuloma.
T96240 58624-58796 Sentence denotes Under the same circumstances, there may be hyperplastic exostosis of the cementum. and resorption of alveolar bone, cementum, and root dentin, lead to exfoliation of teeth.
T86296 58797-58826 Sentence denotes Gingivitis is common in dogs.
T68777 58827-58991 Sentence denotes Usually it is proliferative, the gingiva being replaced by collagen-poor, highly vascular granulation tissue, which appears as a red, rolled edge next to the tooth.
T14707 58992-59116 Sentence denotes In dogs, gingival pocket formation is quite unpredictable and may be present on one root of a tooth and absent on the other.
T50267 59117-59247 Sentence denotes Bone loss in dogs is often more severe at the bifurcation of two-rooted teeth than in interproximal areas (gingiva between teeth).
T14269 59248-59364 Sentence denotes Resorption of bone is associated with osteitis as the inflammation extends from the periodontium into alveolar bone.
T22777 59365-59548 Sentence denotes In dogs, the premolars and, to a lesser extent, the first molars and central incisors are most severely affected, whereas the second molars and mandibular canines are quite resistant.
T65669 59549-59613 Sentence denotes Gingivitis is among the most common veterinary problems in cats.
T46504 59614-59652 Sentence denotes In general, it resembles that in dogs.
T98957 59653-59772 Sentence denotes Gingivitis in cats is also associated with the feline stomatitis/glossitis complex addressed in the following sections.
T7937 59773-59941 Sentence denotes In sheep, periodontal disease may involve all teeth, but the effects are most severe on the incisors, and periodontal disease is a major cause of premature exfoliation.
T84171 59942-60068 Sentence denotes Sheep develop acute gingivitis during tooth eruption, in association with accumulation of subgingival plaque around the tooth.
T20878 60069-60345 Sentence denotes In some sheep, chronic gingivitis involving the lingual aspect of the incisors ensues, and on farms with a high incidence of broken mouth (lengthening of the incisor crown, forward protrusion, and loosening of the teeth), this progresses to chronic active periodontal disease.
T37451 60346-60465 Sentence denotes Cara inchada (swollen face) is an epidemic periodontitis of cattle, formerly common in the west-central part of Brazil.
T77817 60466-60563 Sentence denotes Animals of 2-14 months were mostly affected, and herd prevalences of more than 50% were recorded.
T28093 60564-60641 Sentence denotes When progressive, cara inchada causes loss of teeth, leading to malnutrition.
T21031 60642-60922 Sentence denotes It is associated with dental eruption, and ingestion of forage thought to contain low levels of antibiotics derived from soil actinomycetes that permit colonization of the periodontal space by a variety of gram-negative bacteria, including Prevotella (Bacteroides) melaninogenica.
T94784 60923-61050 Sentence denotes Severe periodontitis and tooth loss are an important part of the syndrome associated with bovine leukocyte adhesion deficiency.
T37896 61051-61074 Sentence denotes embedded in the ulcers.
T83720 61075-61343 Sentence denotes The ulcers vary in size from 1 mm to 5 cm in diameter and are mainly located at the junction of the labial and gingival mucosa adjacent to the upper corner incisors, the lingual frenulum, the sublingual folds, the base of the dorsum of the tongue, and the soft palate.
T57689 61344-61428 Sentence denotes Similar lesions in horses have been associated with contamination of hay by foxtail.
T90105 61429-61617 Sentence denotes Swine have a diverticulum of the pharynx in the caudal wall immediately above the esophagus, and barley awns and other rough plant fibers occasionally lodge here and penetrate the pharynx.
T15739 61618-61692 Sentence denotes This occurs mainly in young pigs, and death follows pharyngeal cellulitis.
T65734 61693-61805 Sentence denotes Similar problems occur in sheep following improper use of drenching guns, and in cattle injured by balling guns.
T48081 61806-61991 Sentence denotes Inflammatory processes of the oral cavity (stomatitis) may be diffuse or focal and they may predominantly affect certain regions to produce, if (1) the pharynx is involved, pharyngitis;
T18911 61992-62120 Sentence denotes (2) the tongue, glossitis; (3) the gums, gingivitis; (4) the tonsils, tonsillitis ( Fig. 1-8) ; and (5) the soft palate, angina.
T31237 62121-62206 Sentence denotes Lesions limited to the mucosa of the oral cavity are termed superficial stomatitides.
T90733 62207-62337 Sentence denotes Processes seated in connective tissues of the mouth, the deep stomatitides, are usually sequelae to transient superficial lesions.
T35610 62338-62361 Sentence denotes Superficial stomatitis.
T13202 62362-62475 Sentence denotes Inflammatory changes may be associated with ingestion of irritating chemicals such as caustic or toxic compounds.
T16602 62476-62561 Sentence denotes An example is paraquat, a herbicide that may cause severe erosive stomatitis in dogs.
T4143 62562-62650 Sentence denotes Dogs and cats that chew on the plant Dieffenbachia may develop oral erosions and ulcers.
T43479 62651-62747 Sentence denotes Electrical burns are occasionally seen in puppies or kittens that chew through electrical wires.
T63409 62748-62909 Sentence denotes It is often not possible to differentiate the cause of diffuse stomatitis, but an attempt to do so is important because it may indicate a systemic disease state.
T49105 62910-63071 Sentence denotes Viral diseases causing stomatitis will be considered in detail in the section on Infectious and parasitic diseases of the alimentary tract later in this chapter.
T55181 63072-63194 Sentence denotes Inflammatory disease, localized to the buccal cavity and not part of systemic viral disease, is also common and important.
T87275 63195-63252 Sentence denotes It is generally caused by the indigenous bacterial flora.
T41651 63253-63431 Sentence denotes The oral microbiota ordinarily contains many microbial species, indicative of septicemia, and larger ones may accompany local inflammation, trauma, and the hemorrhagic diatheses.
T59910 63432-63597 Sentence denotes Petechiae on the ventral surface of the tongue and frenulum in horses are consistent with equine infectious anemia, or other thrombocytopenic or purpuric conditions.
T61888 63598-63794 Sentence denotes The active hyperemia that gives the diffuse pink coloration to the mucosa in diffuse stomatitis disappears immediately at death, so that at autopsy the inflamed mucosa is disappointingly blanched.
T54622 63795-63952 Sentence denotes The presence of feed in the mouth of a cadaver is abnormal, except in ruminants, which may eructate and have feed in the caudal pharynx at the time of death.
T33006 63953-64061 Sentence denotes In most cases it is attributable to disease, which results in paralysis of deglutition or semiconsciousness.
T28821 64062-64154 Sentence denotes It is common in horses with encephalitis, leukoencephalomalacia, and hepatic encephalopathy.
T71236 64155-64264 Sentence denotes The food in such cases is usually poorly masticated and readily differentiated from that refluxed postmortem.
T48348 64265-64371 Sentence denotes Bones or other large foreign bodies lodged in the pharynx of cattle suggest pica of phosphorus deficiency.
T65495 64372-64448 Sentence denotes They may cause asphyxiation or pressure necrosis in the wall of the pharynx.
T5596 64449-64508 Sentence denotes Large portions of root crops may also lodge in the pharynx.
T64227 64509-64611 Sentence denotes Dogs often have bones and sticks that tend to be wedged across the palate behind the carnassial teeth.
T82354 64612-64707 Sentence denotes In dogs, foreign-body stomatitis occurs, caused by plant fibers, burrs, or quills ( Fig. 1-7) .
T9922 64708-64774 Sentence denotes In mild cases, gingivitis surrounds the incisors and canine teeth.
T24701 64775-64849 Sentence denotes Small papules or vesicles and shallow ulcers may be evident on the tongue.
T83842 64850-64893 Sentence denotes Plant fibers may protrude from the lesions.
T27556 64894-65061 Sentence denotes Chronic cases are characterized by exuberant granulomas associated with lingual ulceration and gingival hyperplasia with plant fibers deeply embedded in these lesions.
T62076 65062-65209 Sentence denotes Long-haired dogs are especially prone to develop this type of lesion when they attempt to remove plant material that is trapped in their hair coat.
T42009 65210-65263 Sentence denotes The granulomas must be differentiated from neoplasms.
T56449 65264-65364 Sentence denotes Sharp foreign bodies that cause laceration of the mucosa predispose to necrotic and deep stomatitis.
T15401 65365-65580 Sentence denotes Grass seeds and awns frequently impact between the retracted gingival margin and teeth in periodontitis of ruminants and exacerbate the local initial lesion, perhaps predisposing to the development of osteomyelitis.
T50448 65581-65666 Sentence denotes Metallic objects, including wire, may lacerate the oral mucosa, especially in cattle.
T54212 65667-65877 Sentence denotes Horses fed dry triticale hay may develop severe oral ulceration, with masses of awns Traditionally, vesicular stomatitides in animals were associated with viral infections, and these are still important causes.
T36639 65878-66137 Sentence denotes Vesicular stomatitis and foot-and-mouth disease are associated initially with vesicle formation; however, rinderpest, bovine viral diarrhea, and malignant catarrhal fever produce sharply demarcated erosive/ulcerative lesions without initial vesicle formation.
T89863 66138-66416 Sentence denotes Oral erosions and ulcers in horses, ruminants, and swine should be regarded as indicating one of the vesicular diseases to which the species is susceptible, until proved otherwise (see section on Infectious and parasitic diseases of the alimentary tract, later in this chapter).
T28297 66417-66614 Sentence denotes Sunburn, photoirritation associated with grazing on celery and related crops, and lesions associated with parvovirus infection in swine may cause lesions of the snout resembling vesicular diseases.
T59168 66615-66871 Sentence denotes Animals exposed to irritant chemicals in feed or bedding may develop vesicles and erosions of the face and oral cavity, for example, toxicity in horses and dogs associated with irritant quassinoids found in wood shavings derived from Simaroubaceae species.
T1638 66872-67045 Sentence denotes Bullous immune skin diseases are recognized with increased frequency, especially in dogs, and some of these have severe oral lesions, which are described here (see also Vol.
T57161 67046-67071 Sentence denotes 1, Integumentary system).
T33851 67072-67292 Sentence denotes Pemphigus vulgaris is a severe, acute or chronic, vesiculobullous autoimmune disease mediated by autoantibodies to the desmosome protein desmoglein 3, which is involved in joining adjacent epithelial cells to each other.
T88673 67293-67354 Sentence denotes Desmoglein is highly expressed in suprabasal oral epithelium.
T67075 67355-67434 Sentence denotes Pemphigus vulgaris is most common in dogs and cats with rare reports in horses.
T71521 67435-67631 Sentence denotes It is characterized by acantholysis of the epidermis, which results in formation of flaccid bullae and erosions involving mainly mucocutaneous junctions, oral mucosa and, to a lesser extent, skin.
T45468 67632-67917 Sentence denotes Canine pemphigus vulgaris follows a similar pathogenesis to that of humans with overexpression of the proto-oncogene c-Myc before acantholysis and bullae formation. c-Myc overexpression is likely a consequence of anti-desmoglein 3 antibody binding to its target on basal keratinocytes.
T487 67918-68012 Sentence denotes Clinically affected dogs and cats have erosions/ ulcerations of the oral mucosa and may drool.
T85309 68013-68095 Sentence denotes The oral lesions are generally more prominent than, and precede, the skin lesions.
T57597 68096-68253 Sentence denotes They are most obvious on the dorsal surface of the tongue, which is bright red, with a few scattered pink raised areas representing islands of normal mucosa.
T50005 68254-68362 Sentence denotes The lesions vary greatly in severity and distribution, although the hard palate is often severely ulcerated.
T64276 68363-68436 Sentence denotes Bullae are rarely seen in the oral cavity, because they ulcerate rapidly.
T25276 68437-68532 Sentence denotes Oral pemphigus vulgaris lesions have also been associated with drug reactions in dogs and cats.
T26692 68533-68654 Sentence denotes Microscopically, the earliest lesion consists of suprabasilar acantholysis, which is followed by the formation of clefts.
T21477 68655-68694 Sentence denotes These lead to ulceration of the mucosa.
T47045 68695-68875 Sentence denotes The basal cells of the epidermis remain attached to the basement membrane and form a so-called "row of tombstones." A few neutrophils and eosinophils may infiltrate the epithelium.
T44730 68876-68958 Sentence denotes There is a variable lymphocytic and plasmacytic lichenoid reaction in the propria.
T13409 68959-69082 Sentence denotes The presence of suprabasilar clefts and bullae caused by acantholysis is considered to be diagnostic of pemphigus vulgaris.
T44493 69083-69217 Sentence denotes However, extensive erosion and ulceration of the mucosa and secondary bacterial infections frequently obscure these clefts and bullae.
T52351 69218-69333 Sentence denotes Several biopsies from different areas of the oral mucosa may be required to demonstrate the characteristic lesions.
T71671 69334-69572 Sentence denotes A presumptive histologic diagnosis should be supported by direct immunofluorescence tests that show mainly anaerobes such as Actinomyces, Fusobacterium, and spirochetes, which exist in balance with each other and in harmony with the host.
T63132 69573-69635 Sentence denotes Disruption of this microfloral balance may lead to stomatitis.
T57912 69636-69713 Sentence denotes The oral mucosa is quite resistant to microbial invasion for several reasons.
T13559 69714-69962 Sentence denotes These include the squamous mucosal lining; antibacterial constituents of saliva such as lysozyme; immunoglobulins, especially immunoglobulin A (IgA), in oral secretions; and the presence of a rich submucosal vascular network and inflammatory cells.
T31003 69963-70040 Sentence denotes Factors altering the balance of indigenous organisms are not well delineated.
T60451 70041-70196 Sentence denotes Systemic illness, stress, and nutritional and hormonal imbalances may alter the microbial population by altering the amount, composition, and pH of saliva.
T11053 70197-70356 Sentence denotes The integrity of the oral epithelium depends on a high rate of epithelial regeneration to balance loss resulting from a high rate of abrasion and desquamation.
T58507 70357-70432 Sentence denotes Rapid epithelial replication promotes quick healing of superficial lesions.
T43563 70433-70542 Sentence denotes The lamina propria of the oral epithelium is well vascularized, but generally dense and relatively inelastic.
T16123 70543-70798 Sentence denotes For this reason, there is little distention of lymphatics and tissue spaces with fluid exudate, and therefore swelling resulting from edema is not a significant part of stomatitis involving hard palate and gums, with the exception of the gingival margins.
T78217 70799-70820 Sentence denotes Catarrhal stomatitis.
T55691 70821-70974 Sentence denotes Catarrhal stomatitis is superficial inflammation of the oral mucosa, which usually involves the caudal fauces and may be associated with mild gingivitis.
T26594 70975-71070 Sentence denotes It is a common nonspecific lesion, which often develops in the course of debilitating diseases.
T98626 71071-71180 Sentence denotes The mucosae are hyperemic, and the loose texture of the submucosa in the fauces permits development of edema.
T63807 71181-71316 Sentence denotes The swelling is aggravated by edema and hyperplasia of the abundant lymphoid tissues of the soft palate, tonsil, and pharyngeal mucosa.
T15602 71317-71383 Sentence denotes The epithelium accumulates, producing a dull gray mucosal surface.
T7785 71384-71424 Sentence denotes Palatine glands produce excessive mucus.
T18948 71425-71495 Sentence denotes Catarrhal stomatitis resolves with the return of normal oral function.
T47951 71496-71571 Sentence denotes Thrush, or oral candidiasis, occurs most commonly in foals, pigs, and dogs.
T14064 71572-71686 Sentence denotes It involves the proliferation of yeasts and hyphae in the parakeratotic superficial layers of the oral epithelium.
T25012 71687-71970 Sentence denotes It appears grossly as patchy pale-gray pseudomembranous material on the oral mucosa and back of the tongue, and probably reflects alterations in epithelial turnover and oral microbiota (see section on Infectious and parasitic diseases of the alimentary tract, later in this chapter).
T18691 71971-72099 Sentence denotes Mold products of Stachybotrys alternans cause catarrhal and necrotizing stomatitis, as well as colitis, if feed is contaminated.
T66634 72100-72217 Sentence denotes Gingivitis and ulceration of the oral mucosa may rarely be associated with infection caused by Nocardia spp. in dogs.
T44247 72218-72241 Sentence denotes Vesicular stomatitides.
T82728 72242-72339 Sentence denotes Stomatitis characterized by the formation of vesicles occurs in most species of domestic animals.
T28772 72340-72465 Sentence denotes The vesicles develop as accumulations of serous fluid within the epithelium or between the epithelium and the lamina propria.
T89765 72466-72626 Sentence denotes These may coalesce to form bullae, and the elevated epithelium is easily rubbed off during chewing to leave raw eroded patches with bits of epithelium adherent.
T53588 72627-72739 Sentence denotes The transition from vesicle to erosion occurs rapidly, so that, in individual animals, vesicles may not be seen.
T18143 72740-72816 Sentence denotes This is especially so in dogs and cats because the oral mucosa is very thin.
T7637 72817-73011 Sentence denotes Because the basal epithelium or basement membrane remains intact, regeneration and healing are complete in a few days unless the local lesions are complicated by bacterial or mycotic infections.
T61723 73012-73255 Sentence denotes However, foci of previous erosion may be identifiable for some months by their slight depression and lack of pigmentation. mucous membrane pemphigoid, but the autoantibodies may be recognized binding to the lower part of the basement membrane.
T54710 73256-73513 Sentence denotes The oral lesions of pemphigus vulgaris and of the subepidermal blistering diseases must be differentiated from lesions caused by trauma, toxic epidermal necrolysis, drug eruptions, chronic uremia, mucocutaneous candidiasis, and lymphoreticular malignancies.
T26966 73514-73579 Sentence denotes Feline calicivirus causes mainly a respiratory infection in cats.
T13377 73580-73672 Sentence denotes The disease is complicated by lingual and oropharyngeal ulcers, which start out as vesicles.
T9333 73673-73766 Sentence denotes They are 5-10 mm in diameter, smooth, and well demarcated from the surrounding normal mucosa.
T25558 73767-73888 Sentence denotes They occur mainly on the rostrodorsal and lateral surfaces of the tongue and each side of the midline of the hard palate.
T48263 73889-73958 Sentence denotes The palatine lesions are apparently more severe in cats fed dry food.
T31081 73959-74087 Sentence denotes Microscopically, the earliest lesions consist of foci of pyknotic cells in the stratum corneum and superficial stratum spinosum.
T91613 74088-74197 Sentence denotes They progress to foci of necrosis with vesicle formation and subsequent erosion and ulceration of the mucosa.
T7824 74198-74288 Sentence denotes Regeneration of the oral mucosa in the ulcerated areas generally occurs within 10-12 days.
T4762 74289-74398 Sentence denotes A single layer of squamous epithelial cells extends from the margins of the ulcer beneath a layer of exudate.
T57045 74399-74550 Sentence denotes Active viral replication also takes place in the tonsillar crypt epithelial cells, and virus may be recovered from these areas for weeks postinfection.
T33599 74551-74616 Sentence denotes Viral inclusions have not been observed in oral epithelial cells.
T22553 74617-74694 Sentence denotes The virus is isolated from a high percentage of cats with chronic stomatitis.
T72327 74695-74756 Sentence denotes Concurrent infection with felid herpesvirus 1 may also occur.
T47651 74757-74793 Sentence denotes Erosive and ulcerative stomatitides.
T64347 74794-74969 Sentence denotes This form of stomatitis is characterized by local epithelial defects of the oral mucosa and nasolabium and is usually associated with acute diffuse stomatitis and pharyngitis.
T61040 74970-75105 Sentence denotes Erosions are circumscribed areas of loss of epithelium, which leave the stratum germinativum and basement membrane more or less intact.
T76594 75106-75184 Sentence denotes They are usually associated with acute inflammation in the underlying propria.
T92862 75185-75221 Sentence denotes The erosions vary in size and shape.
T90442 75222-75371 Sentence denotes Although they are often a nonspecific development in a wide variety of conditions, they are also an essential part of a number of important diseases.
T78445 75372-75471 Sentence denotes They heal cleanly and quickly, but if secondarily infected or complicated, may develop into ulcers.
T28090 75472-75569 Sentence denotes Ulcers, in contrast to erosions, are deeper deficiencies that extend into the substantia propria.
T1924 75570-75699 Sentence denotes They too vary greatly in size and shape; the edges tend to be elevated and ragged, and when they heal, it is with scar formation.
T71012 75700-75779 Sentence denotes The causes of ulcerative stomatitis are in general those of erosive stomatitis.
T67550 75780-75901 Sentence denotes There are, however, a number of recognized syndromes and specific diseases in which the predominant change is ulceration.
T48328 75902-76083 Sentence denotes Phenylbutazone intoxication in horses may cause oral ulcers in concert with ulcers of the stomach, intestine, and colon; the syndrome is discussed with ischemic diseases of the gut.
T82138 76084-76266 Sentence denotes Chronic gingivostomatitis-a progressive stomatitis that involves the palatoglossal arches, gingiva, palate, and tongueis most common in cats, but occurs at a lower frequency in dogs.
T51558 76267-76426 Sentence denotes A number of terms have been used to describe these clinical entities, including lymphoplasmacytic stomatitis and plasma cell gingivitis-stomatitis-pharyngitis.
T79590 76427-76581 Sentence denotes There are commonalities and differences among the manifestations of these entities, and it is likely that they represent a continuum of disease processes.
T10932 76582-76753 Sentence denotes Two broad categories are described in the following, with the understanding of their overlapping clinical signs, gross and microscopic pathology, and potential etiologies.
T90837 76754-76860 Sentence denotes autoantibodies (usually IgG) and complement in the intercellular spaces of stratified squamous epithelium.
T45413 76861-77117 Sentence denotes Bullous pemphigoid is a term that has been applied generically to superficial autoimmune vesiculobullous or ulcerative disease of mucous membranes (including the oral mucosa) and skin, characterized by subepithelial clefting; acantholysis is not a feature.
T96532 77118-77173 Sentence denotes It has been reported in humans, horses, dogs, and cats.
T50666 77174-77339 Sentence denotes It is now recognized that there is a complex of autoimmune subepidermal blistering diseases, varying in their target antigen, clinical manifestations, and prognosis.
T10417 77340-77502 Sentence denotes Those involving the oral cavity of cats and dogs include bullous pemphigoid, mucous membrane (cicatricial) pemphigoid, and canine epidermolysis bullosa acquisita.
T82215 77503-77614 Sentence denotes All are characterized by circulation of IgG and IgE autoantibodies against specific basement membrane antigens.
T23945 77615-77794 Sentence denotes The characteristic microscopic lesions of all are transient subepidermal blisters, which may contain fibrinocellular exudates with variable numbers of neutrophils and eosinophils.
T45896 77795-78017 Sentence denotes Differentiation and diagnosis of each is by the detection of circulating antibody directed at appropriate antigens, using ELISA or immunofluorescent tests, or by identification of immunoglobulin fixed to basement membrane.
T30039 78018-78144 Sentence denotes Paraneoplastic bullous stomatitis characterized by subepithelial clefting has been reported in a horse with a hemangiosarcoma.
T89600 78145-78282 Sentence denotes Bullous pemphigoid is retained as the name for the second most common of the autoimmune subepidermal blistering disease in dogs and cats.
T8583 78283-78463 Sentence denotes The lesions mainly occur on haired skin, and a minority of cases involve the mucocutaneous junctions or mucosae, including the mouth, which is affected about one-third of the time.
T86145 78464-78610 Sentence denotes Microscopically, there is a rich neutrophilic and eosinophilic dermal infiltrate adjacent to, and sometimes spilling into the subepidermal bullae.
T93341 78611-78740 Sentence denotes The targets for the autoimmune response are epitopes on canine collagen XVII (also called bullous pemphigoid antigen 2 or BPAg2).
T58399 78741-78911 Sentence denotes Collagen XVII is an epithelial transmembrane protein that is a component of the hemidesmosome that joins basal keratinocytes to the lamina densa of the basement membrane.
T14183 78912-79051 Sentence denotes Mucous membrane pemphigoid is the most common autoimmune subepidermal blistering disease of small animals, causing about half of all cases.
T63759 79052-79140 Sentence denotes Adults are predominantly affected, and among dogs, German Shepherds are overrepresented.
T74309 79141-79236 Sentence denotes The oral mucosa is a common site for lesion development, including gingiva, palate, and tongue.
T24503 79237-79364 Sentence denotes Typically, subepidermal vesicles in mucous membrane pemphigoid are associated with a relatively sparse inflammatory infiltrate.
T46065 79365-79461 Sentence denotes The antigen targeted by autoantibodies is collagen XVII or, in a low number of cases, laminin-5.
T75815 79462-79612 Sentence denotes Basement membrane-fixed immunoglobulin is detected by direct immunofluorescent or immunoperoxidase staining of formalin-fixed paraffinembedded tissue.
T98258 79613-79768 Sentence denotes Epidermolysis bullosa acquisita is a rare disease of dogs, representing about 25% of cases of autoimmune basement membrane diseases, with a poor prognosis.
T11943 79769-79960 Sentence denotes The associated autoantibodies are directed against collagen VII, which makes up the anchoring fibrils that join the lamina densa of the basement membrane to the type I collagen of the dermis.
T22730 79961-80103 Sentence denotes The lesions are most common on skin, and advance rapidly to erosions at points of friction, but the oral epithelium often sloughs extensively.
T20374 80104-80270 Sentence denotes Intact subepidermal vesicles may contain no inflammatory cells, or neutrophils may accumulate at the basement membrane, sometimes forming subepidermal microabscesses.
T14355 80271-80468 Sentence denotes The results of serum or cutaneous immunofluorescent tests resemble those in bullous pemphigoid or neutrophils at the periphery of the ulcers, with plasma cells and mast cells in the lamina propria.
T27878 80469-80566 Sentence denotes Eosinophils and macrophages may not be prominent, especially in the chronic stages of the lesion.
T67265 80567-80705 Sentence denotes Eosinophilic ulcer is one of the 3 different types of lesions that have been associated with the so-called eosinophilic granuloma complex.
T16739 80706-80883 Sentence denotes The other 2 conditions, eosinophilic plaque and linear granuloma, cause mainly skin lesions, which are different clinically and morphologically from eosinophilic ulcer (see Vol.
T99683 80884-80909 Sentence denotes 1, Integumentary system).
T29179 80910-81028 Sentence denotes Oral eosinophilic granuloma (collagenolytic granuloma) in dogs occurs as a familial disease in young Siberian Huskies.
T98394 81029-81122 Sentence denotes Sporadic cases have been reported in other breeds, especially Cavalier King Charles Spaniels.
T74075 81123-81292 Sentence denotes Affected dogs have single or multiple firm, often ulcerated, raised plaques, which are covered by yellow-brown exudate, on the lateral or ventral surfaces of the tongue.
T10488 81293-81417 Sentence denotes Lesions on the soft palate are less common, and here they tend to be oval to circular ulcers with slightly elevated borders.
T97828 81418-81646 Sentence denotes Microscopically, foci of collagenolysis in the mid and deep zones of the lingual submucosa are surrounded by a mainly granulomatous inflammatory reaction, with macrophages, giant cells, lymphocytes, plasma cells, and mast cells.
T69155 81647-81723 Sentence denotes Eosinophils are a constant feature, but their numbers vary from few to many.
T91388 81724-81792 Sentence denotes The lesions are identical to those seen in linear granuloma of cats.
T43139 81793-81921 Sentence denotes The cause is unknown, although the morphology of the lesion and the response to corticosteroid therapy suggest hypersensitivity.
T72709 81922-82011 Sentence denotes The familial tendency in Siberian huskies indicates that hereditary factors are involved.
T42605 82012-82123 Sentence denotes Eosinophilic granuloma must be differentiated from oral mast cell tumors, which also affect the tongue in dogs.
T15610 82124-82339 Sentence denotes Degeneration of collagen fibers is often a feature of mast cell tumors; however, in mastocytoma, the characteristic mixture of mast cells and eosinophils infiltrates the tongue and connective tissues more diffusely.
T68183 82340-82456 Sentence denotes The mast cells may be in various stages of degranulation, and inflammation is minimal or absent in mast cell tumors.
T56396 82457-82515 Sentence denotes Horses with eosinophilic epitheliotropic disease (see Vol.
T7517 82516-82669 Sentence denotes 1, Integumentary system and the later section on Eosinophilic enteritis in cats and horses) may also have eosinophilic stomatitis and lingual ulceration.
T439 82670-82820 Sentence denotes Ulcerative stomatitis can be a presenting lesion in erythema multiforme in dogs, and must be differentiated from oral epitheliotropic T-cell lymphoma.
T95142 82821-82950 Sentence denotes In dogs there may be foci of ulceration in the mucosa of the lip or cheek that overlies areas of severe periodontal inflammation.
T69027 82951-83044 Sentence denotes This has been termed chronic ulcerative stomatitis or chronic ulcerative paradental syndrome.
T58241 83045-83167 Sentence denotes Feline viral rhinotracheitis is a common upper respiratory tract infection of cats caused by felid herpesvirus 1 (see Vol.
T39665 83168-83191 Sentence denotes 2, Respiratory system).
T26748 83192-83271 Sentence denotes This virus may cause ulcerative lesions in the mouth, especially on the tongue.
T49328 83272-83371 Sentence denotes Rarely, oral and skin ulcers may occur, without evidence of concurrent respiratory tract infection.
T57840 83372-83489 Sentence denotes Microscopically, foci of cytoplasmic vacuolation in squamous epithelium evolve into areas of necrosis and ulceration.
T70220 83490-83557 Sentence denotes The ulcers are often covered by a layer of fibrinocellular exudate.
T68221 83558-83644 Sentence denotes Herpetic inclusions may be present in epithelial cells at the periphery of the ulcers.
T8972 83645-83766 Sentence denotes Uremia associated with chronic renal disease often causes fetid ulcerative stomatitis in dogs, and less commonly in cats.
T38540 83767-84121 Sentence denotes Dirty gray-brown ulcers occur on the gums, lateral surface, and margin of the tongue, and on the inner surface of the lips Feline ulcerative stomatitis and glossitis or lymphocyticplasmacytic stomatitis, is an ulcerative and chronic inflammation of the mucosa of the fauces, the angle of the jaws and, less commonly, the hard palate, gingiva, and tongue.
T25336 84122-84265 Sentence denotes Microscopically, there is diffuse inflammation of the oral mucosa and submucosal connective tissues, dominated by lymphocytes and plasma cells.
T17642 84266-84340 Sentence denotes The syndrome is more common in older cats and may accompany periodontitis.
T36146 84341-84588 Sentence denotes The cause is unknown, but is probably multifactorial, involving imbalance in the oral microbiota, with predominance of gram-negative anaerobes and spirochetes, leading to an overall decrease in the microbial diversity at inflammatory lesion sites.
T28822 84589-84807 Sentence denotes Some have reported the isolation of feline calicivirus and felid herpesvirus 1 from more cats with lesions of chronic stomatitis compared with those without, but the role of these viruses in the etiology is unresolved.
T52602 84808-84917 Sentence denotes Feline calicivirus can persist as a sequel to previous disease episodes and in the face of prior vaccination.
T13035 84918-85117 Sentence denotes Feline leukemia virus and feline immunodeficiency virus may predispose some cats to chronic stomatitis because of their immunosuppressive effects, but evidence of infection is not consistently found.
T8150 85118-85374 Sentence denotes Feline plasma cell gingivitis-pharyngitis or feline chronic gingivostomatitis is characterized by raised erythematous, proliferative lesions, mainly in the glossopalatine arches, extending caudally to the palatopharyngeal arch and rostrally to the gingiva.
T47599 85375-85452 Sentence denotes The lesions may involve Eustachian tubes and also can affect the conjunctiva.
T82528 85453-85657 Sentence denotes Histologically the mucosa is hyperplastic and frequently ulcerated, with a marked submucosal inflammatory cell reaction, mainly plasmacytes, including binucleate cells and cells containing Russell bodies.
T49941 85658-85737 Sentence denotes Neutrophils, lymphocytes, and histiocytes are scattered among the plasma cells.
T89189 85738-85807 Sentence denotes Inflammation is most intense at the epidermallamina propria junction.
T81002 85808-85875 Sentence denotes Affected cats have elevated polyclonal serum gamma-globulin levels.
T54042 85876-86073 Sentence denotes The polyclonal gammopathy and the plasmacytic, lymphocytic reaction are suggestive of an immune-mediated lesion, and differentiation from mucosally associated lymphoid neoplasia may be challenging.
T79922 86074-86385 Sentence denotes The etiology and the relationship of this syndrome to feline ulcerative stomatitis and glossitis (see previous section) are unclear; the 2 syndromes probably form a continuum, although the plasma cell predominance and the hypergammaglobulinemia attributed to plasma cell gingivitisstomatitis are distinguishing.
T4792 86386-86420 Sentence denotes Similar stomatitis occurs in dogs.
T11416 86421-86668 Sentence denotes Eosinophilic ulcer (eosinophilic granuloma, lick granuloma, labial ulcer, rodent ulcer) is a chronic, superficial ulcerative lesion of the mucocutaneous junctions of the lips, and, to a lesser extent, the oral mucosa and skin, in cats of all ages.
T16209 86669-86690 Sentence denotes The cause is unknown.
T15234 86691-86798 Sentence denotes A number of etiologies have been considered, including allergic disease and primary eosinophil dysfunction.
T26227 86799-86928 Sentence denotes The lesions may respond to corticosteroid, oral progestagens, cryosurgery, or radiation therapy, although recurrences are common.
T56216 86929-87065 Sentence denotes Typically, well-demarcated, redbrown, shallow ulcers, often with elevated margins, occur on the upper lip on either side of the midline.
T71302 87066-87135 Sentence denotes They are usually a few millimeters wide and several centimeters long.
T32233 87136-87242 Sentence denotes Occasionally, ulcers are present elsewhere in the mouth, such as on the gums, palate, pharynx, and tongue.
T58474 87243-87354 Sentence denotes Skin lesions are located in those areas that are frequently licked, such as the neck, lumbar area, and abdomen.
T41316 87355-87527 Sentence denotes Microscopically, the squamous mucosa is ulcerated, with large areas of necrosis of the underlying connective tissues and accompanied by a marked inflammatory cell reaction.
T87522 87528-87613 Sentence denotes The cellular reaction consists predominantly of fistulate through the mucosa or skin.
T59531 87614-87707 Sentence denotes Abscesses in the wall of the pharynx may result from necrosis of retropharyngeal lymph nodes.
T15290 87708-87921 Sentence denotes Necrotic stomatitis with simple necrosis of the epithelium and lamina propria may be produced by thermal or chemical agencies, but in animals, it is usually caused by Fusobacterium necrophorum and other anaerobes.
T38447 87922-88029 Sentence denotes Fusobacterium necrophorum is the principal cause of oral necrobacillosis or necrotic stomatitis in animals.
T18424 88030-88138 Sentence denotes It is also associated with necrotizing lesions elsewhere in the upper and lower alimentary tract, and liver.
T21211 88139-88241 Sentence denotes Wherever it occurs, it is usually a secondary invader following previous mucosal damage ( Fig. 1-9A) .
T84781 88242-88444 Sentence denotes The organism produces a variety of exotoxins and endotoxins; among the latter are leukocidins, hemolysins, and a cytoplasmic toxin, all of which probably enhance the necrotizing ability of the organism.
T71020 88445-88551 Sentence denotes Once established in a suitable focus, F. necrophorum proliferates, causing extensive coagulative necrosis.
T89131 88552-88758 Sentence denotes The best-known form of necrobacillary stomatitis is calf diphtheria, an acute necrotizing ulcerative inflammation of the buccal and pharyngeal mucosa, and also of the laryngeal mucosa (necrotic laryngitis).
T4527 88759-88862 Sentence denotes The predisposing lesions may include trauma, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, and papular stomatitis.
T97654 88863-88919 Sentence denotes Necrosis of palatine and pharyngeal tonsils may be seen.
T73665 88920-88998 Sentence denotes The incidence of diphtheria in slaughtered beef cattle may be as high as 1.4%.
T75736 88999-89090 Sentence denotes The same syndrome is rather common in housed lambs as a complication of contagious ecthyma.
T7930 89091-89245 Sentence denotes The infection also may be initiated in the gums about erupting teeth in any species, and by the trauma produced in baby pigs by removing the needle teeth.
T18079 89246-89335 Sentence denotes It is frequently fatal in young animals, in which extension often occurs to other organs.
T40110 89336-89476 Sentence denotes In adults, oral necrobacillosis tends to remain localized to the oral cavity, where it may complicate vesicular and ulcerative stomatitides.
T1383 89477-89621 Sentence denotes It is not unusual, however, for the infection to spread down the alimentary tract. and cheeks, often adjacent to the openings of salivary ducts.
T79586 89622-89674 Sentence denotes The margins of the ulcers are swollen and hyperemic.
T79966 89675-89743 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis of the oral lesions in uremia is poorly understood.
T99964 89744-89910 Sentence denotes Elevations in blood and salivary urea in combination with urease-producing bacteria, normally present in the oral microflora, may generate ammonia from salivary urea.
T3291 89911-89969 Sentence denotes Ammonia has a caustic effect on the oral mucous membranes.
T17092 89970-90141 Sentence denotes Experimental antibody production against urease renders some intestinal bacteria nonpathogenic and prevents uremic colitis, providing evidence of the importance of urease.
T97789 90142-90287 Sentence denotes However, there is poor correlation between the levels of blood urea and the development of uremic stomatitis, suggesting other important factors.
T72584 90288-90399 Sentence denotes Uremic vasculitis and impaired microvascular perfusion may contribute to the pathogenesis of uremic stomatitis.
T99561 90400-90589 Sentence denotes Salivary glucose levels may be elevated in dogs and cats with diabetes mellitus, resulting in an imbalance of the oral microflora and predisposing to chronic gingivitis in diabetic animals.
T3705 90590-90726 Sentence denotes Ulcerative glossitis and stomatitis in swine is commonly part of exudative epidermitis (greasy pig disease) of preweaning pigs (see Vol.
T54139 90727-90752 Sentence denotes 1, Integumentary system).
T42262 90753-90877 Sentence denotes In addition to the characteristic skin lesions, about a third of the piglets may develop ulcers on the dorsum of the tongue.
T73429 90878-90952 Sentence denotes Erosions and ulcers of the hard palate occur in a small number of piglets.
T22319 90953-91123 Sentence denotes Microscopically, there is ulceration of the squamous mucosa with coagulative necrosis, and vesicle and pustule formation in the superficial epithelium over the rete pegs.
T41953 91124-91214 Sentence denotes A pleocellular inflammatory reaction is evident in the connective tissue below the ulcers.
T94313 91215-91373 Sentence denotes tongue." Entry of actinobacilli to the tongue may be gained through traumatic erosions along its sides, but often the primary lesion is in the lingual groove.
T98437 91374-91440 Sentence denotes Here, trapped grass seeds and awns may provoke the initial trauma.
T40545 91441-91605 Sentence denotes Lesions elsewhere in the soft tissue of the mouth may be attributed to disruption of the mucosa by similar types of insults, and eruption of, or abrasion by, teeth.
T66167 91606-91774 Sentence denotes Microscopically, the lesion is a pyogranuloma, centered on a mass of coccobacilli, surrounded by radiating eosinophilic clubs made up of immune complexes ( Fig. 1-10) .
T8111 91775-91901 Sentence denotes The club colonies, in turn, are surrounded by variable numbers of neutrophils, and are invested by macrophages or giant cells.
T33304 91902-92019 Sentence denotes Lymphocytic and plasmacytic infiltrates are present in the surrounding reactive fibrous stroma or granulation tissue.
T85276 92020-92233 Sentence denotes An individual inflammatory focus appears grossly as a nodular, firm, pale, fibrous mass a few millimeters to 1 cm in diameter, containing in the center minute yellow "sulfur" granules, which are the club colonies.
T51034 92234-92264 Sentence denotes Lymphogenous spread is common.
T10088 92265-92347 Sentence denotes Affected lymphatics are thickened, and nodules are distributed along their course.
T30898 92348-92530 Sentence denotes This distribution is best seen beneath the mucosa of the dorsum and the lateral surface of the tongue and often can be traced through to the pharyngeal lymphoid tissue ( Fig. 1-11) .
T24582 92531-92649 Sentence denotes Some of these more superficial nodules erode the overlying epithelium, and coalescence may produce quite large ulcers.
T20361 92650-92842 Sentence denotes The most common form of lingual actinobacillosis consists of The early lesions are large, well-demarcated, yellow-gray, dry areas of necrosis, surrounded by a zone of hyperemia ( Fig. 1-9B ).
T24510 92843-92987 Sentence denotes They are found on the sides or dorsal groove of the tongue, on the cheeks, gums, palate, and pharynx, especially the recesses beside the larynx.
T72629 92988-93039 Sentence denotes Primary foci may occur in the laryngeal ventricles.
T1800 93040-93141 Sentence denotes Lesions near the larynx often lead to respiratory distress and death may be associated with asphyxia.
T20713 93142-93261 Sentence denotes The necrotic tissue projects slightly above the normal surface, and is friable but adherent and is not easily detached.
T58632 93262-93337 Sentence denotes In time it may slough and leave deep ulcers, which may heal by granulation.
T42107 93338-93553 Sentence denotes The necrotic tissues are histologically structureless and are surrounded at first by a zone of vascular reaction, later by a dense but narrow rim of leukocytes, and finally by thick encapsulating granulation tissue.
T974 93554-93649 Sentence denotes The bacteria are arranged in long filaments, particularly at the advancing edge of the lesions.
T66375 93650-93753 Sentence denotes The submucosal extension of the lesions may take them deeply into the underlying soft tissues and bone.
T65835 93754-93878 Sentence denotes Spread from the oral foci occurs down the trachea (causing aspiration pneumonia), down the esophagus, and via blood vessels.
T44585 93879-94015 Sentence denotes Death may occur acutely in septicemia with only multiple small serosal hemorrhages as evidence, or metastases may occur in other tissue.
T49600 94016-94134 Sentence denotes Venous drainage from the face to the vascular sinuses of the meninges may lead to pituitary and cerebral abscessation.
T27824 94135-94263 Sentence denotes A gross diagnosis of oral necrobacillosis is ordinarily possible, but may be confirmed by a smear from the margin of the lesion.
T68310 94264-94335 Sentence denotes The organism is difficult to cultivate because it is a strict anaerobe.
T35466 94336-94446 Sentence denotes Fusobacterium equinum is a recently described bacterial opportunist that is closely related to F. necrophorum.
T59153 94447-94559 Sentence denotes It is a component of the normal microbiota of the equine gastrointestinal, reproductive, and respiratory mucosa.
T79525 94560-94673 Sentence denotes F. equinum produces a leukotoxin and is associated with necrotizing lesions, including the oral cavity in horses.
T14615 94674-94948 Sentence denotes Noma (cancrum oris) is a rapidly spreading pseudomembranous or gangrenous stomatitis; it is not caused by a specific pathogen but is associated with tissue invasion by the normal oral flora, particularly fusobacteria and spirochetes with widespread local tissue destruction.
T67964 94949-95069 Sentence denotes The predisposing factors are unknown, but they are probably nonspecific and associated with mucosal trauma and debility.
T55015 95070-95196 Sentence denotes The disease, which is occasionally observed in horses, dogs, and monkeys, is in many respects similar to oral necrobacillosis.
T79670 95197-95323 Sentence denotes In the lesions, the spirochetes can be found in large numbers at the advancing margins as well as in peripheral viable tissue.
T70420 95324-95456 Sentence denotes In the deep layers of necrosis, fusiforms predominate, and toward the surface, there is a variety of other organisms, chiefly cocci.
T30707 95457-95628 Sentence denotes The initial lesion is a small tattered ulcer of the cheek or gum, which spreads rapidly and may involve much of the buccal surface of the gums and the mucosa of the cheek.
T99887 95629-95742 Sentence denotes It is intensely fetid and consists of a dirty necrotic pseudomembrane surrounded by a zone of acute inflammation.
T29992 95743-95876 Sentence denotes The necrotic tissue may slough to leave deep ulcers; the cheek may be perforated to leave a gaping defect, or gangrene may supervene.
T87828 95877-96064 Sentence denotes Actinobacillosis is a disease mainly of cattle, sheep, and pigs, leading to stomatitis, glossitis, lymphadenitis, and sometimes pyogranulomas in the wall of the forestomachs of ruminants.
T23079 96065-96175 Sentence denotes Actinobacillus lignieresii is part of the normal oral flora, and in cattle is associated with deep stomatitis.
T66316 96176-96307 Sentence denotes Actinobacillosis is typically a disease of soft tissue, spreading as a lymphangitis and usually involving the regional lymph nodes.
T39251 96308-96383 Sentence denotes This distinguishes it from actinomycosis, which causes mostly bone lesions.
T24382 96384-96485 Sentence denotes The tongue is often involved in actinobacillosis, and the chronic condition produces clinical "wooden
T69505 96487-96588 Sentence denotes The tonsils are normally prominent and protrude slightly from the tonsillar fossa in the dog and cat.
T85278 96589-96698 Sentence denotes In these species, tonsils are compact, fusiform structures with a finely stippled, pale pink mucosal surface.
T56814 96699-96848 Sentence denotes In swine, tonsillar lymphoid tissue is granulation tissue in which are embedded many small abscesses surrounded by a dense connective tissue capsule.
T66458 96849-96924 Sentence denotes The epithelium overlying these large granulomas may be intact or ulcerated.
T80924 96925-97089 Sentence denotes Diffuse sclerosing actinobacillosis of the tongue (wooden tongue) is firm because of extensive proliferation of connective tissue, which replaces the muscle fibers.
T78423 97090-97157 Sentence denotes Granulomatous nodules are sparsely scattered in the fibrous stroma.
T63063 97158-97415 Sentence denotes Although actinobacillosis in cattle is best known as a disease of the tongue, the infection may occur in any of the exposed soft tissues, especially those of mouth and esophagus; occasionally it involves the wall of the forestomachs, the skin, or the lungs.
T16337 97416-97478 Sentence denotes Lesions in these sites resemble those described in the tongue.
T93939 97479-97526 Sentence denotes Actinobacillosis causes regional lymphadenitis.
T95781 97527-97692 Sentence denotes The cut surface of the node reveals small, soft yellow or orange granulomatous masses that project somewhat above the capsular contour and contain "sulfur" granules.
T5663 97693-97822 Sentence denotes There is also sclerosing inflammation of the surrounding tissues, which may cause adhesion to overlying skin or mucous membranes.
T65172 97823-97971 Sentence denotes The retropharyngeal and submaxillary nodes are most often affected, as well as the lymphoid tissues of the submucosa of the soft palate and pharynx.
T69214 97972-98067 Sentence denotes Involvement of the pharynx and the retropharyngeal lymph nodes may cause dyspnea and dysphagia.
T30786 98068-98162 Sentence denotes Oral actinobacillosis in swine causes lesions similar to those in cattle, including glossitis.
T44251 98163-98284 Sentence denotes Actinobacillosis may also occur sporadically or as outbreaks in sheep, but in this species the tongue seems to be exempt.
T17541 98285-98470 Sentence denotes The characteristic lesions in sheep occur in the subcutaneous tissue of the head, especially of the cheeks, nose, lips, and submaxillary and throat regions, and on the nasal turbinates.
T29304 98471-98571 Sentence denotes They may also occur on the soft palate and pharynx as complications of wounds received at drenching.
T4035 98572-98622 Sentence denotes The organism has rarely been isolated from horses.
T89850 98623-98715 Sentence denotes Lesions morphologically similar to actinobacillosis may be caused by a variety of organisms.
T13723 98716-98815 Sentence denotes Trueperella (Arcanobacterium) pyogenes may be isolated from lingual ulcers and granulomas in lambs.
T46055 98816-98981 Sentence denotes Microscopic examination of these lesions reveals well-demarcated submucosal granulomas with plant fibers in the center, surrounded by a marked neutrophilic reaction.
T3331 98982-99147 Sentence denotes The organisms most likely gain entry after the mucosa is damaged by hard fibrous plant fibers from the weed lambsleeve sage (Salvia reflexa), present in the bedding.
T64287 99148-99299 Sentence denotes Actinomyces bovis, a gram-positive filamentous organism, causes pyogranulomatous mandibular and maxillary osteomyelitis in cattle and mastitis in sows.
T40216 99300-99375 Sentence denotes Actinomyces weissii has been isolated from dogs with stomatitis/gingivitis.
T57127 99376-99456 Sentence denotes Staphylococci may cause pyogranulomatous lesions (botryomycosis) in any species.
T583 99457-99582 Sentence denotes Less common causes of similar microscopic lesions include Nocardia and the various agents associated with mycetomas (see Vol.
T15204 99583-99608 Sentence denotes 1, Integumentary system).
T46592 99609-99711 Sentence denotes Oral dermatophilosis-oral infection by Dermatophilus congolensis-has been reported in cattle and cats.
T43223 99712-99802 Sentence denotes D. congolensis commonly causes exudative dermatitis in a wide variety of species (see Vol.
T50649 99803-99828 Sentence denotes 1, Integumentary system).
T13244 99829-99905 Sentence denotes In cattle, oral dermatophilosis has been associated with A. bovis infection.
T96027 99906-100027 Sentence denotes In cats, the organism is uncommonly associated with oral granulomas, especially affecting the tongue and tonsillar crypt.
T13444 100028-100207 Sentence denotes Large numbers of gram-positive, filamentous, branching organisms, with longitudinal and transverse divisions, may be demonstrated in the necrotic centers of submucosal granulomas.
T97790 100208-100260 Sentence denotes The organisms probably enter through damaged mucosa.
T1375 100261-100355 Sentence denotes The lesion must be differentiated from the more common squamous cell carcinomas of the tongue.
T63900 100356-100422 Sentence denotes Inflammatory polyps of the tonsils occur infrequently in old dogs.
T34889 100423-100556 Sentence denotes They are flat to pedunculated rubbery masses (1-3 cm in length), attached to the tonsillar sinus, with a smooth to verrucous surface.
T51091 100557-100713 Sentence denotes Histologically, the lesions are composed of mature, sometimes edematous, highly vascularized connective tissue that is covered by squamous epithelial cells.
T39165 100714-100804 Sentence denotes Aggregates of lymphocytes and plasma cells are scattered throughout the connective tissue.
T57246 100805-100898 Sentence denotes The lesions are probably the result of chronic recurrent episodes of subclinical tonsillitis.
T34254 100899-100964 Sentence denotes They are usually asymptomatic but may cause gagging and retching.
T3465 100965-101029 Sentence denotes A tonsillar lymphangiomatous polyp has been reported from a dog.
T17118 101030-101145 Sentence denotes Tumors, especially lymphosarcomas and squamous cell carcinomas, are common causes of tonsillar enlargement in dogs.
T41886 101146-101321 Sentence denotes Bilaterally enlarged and soft, pale swollen tonsils are usual with lymphosarcoma, and these may become clinically obvious before the development of peripheral lymphadenopathy.
T7782 101322-101484 Sentence denotes Some of the lumps, bumps, and cysts that develop in and around the oral cavity are malformations, hyperplasias, and neoplasias originating in tooth germ or teeth.
T47154 101485-101587 Sentence denotes Malformations of dental origin have been considered previously under developmental anomalies of teeth.
T223 101588-101726 Sentence denotes Gingival masses of all types, many of which are of tooth germ origin, are common in dogs, but occur much less frequently in other species.
T87944 101727-101976 Sentence denotes In this discussion we follow revisions in the nomenclature of lesions that formerly were included with epulis, placing those that clearly are of dental origin with other such tumors, and consigning the remainder to hyperplastic and reactive lesions.
T17113 101977-102065 Sentence denotes Prognostic implications for such masses have not changed, despite some reclassification.
T79930 102066-102137 Sentence denotes Epulis is a generic clinical term for tumor-like masses on the gingiva.
T32113 102138-102361 Sentence denotes Epulis has, in the past, been used to describe developmental, inflammatory, and hyperplastic lesions, as well as several neoplastic lesions of tooth germ origin, which are numerous in dogs, and develop occasionally in cats.
T6995 102362-102606 Sentence denotes It has no specific pathologic connotation, and preferably, the term should not be used in a morphologic diagnosis, except in the context of fibromatous epulis of periodontal ligament origin, discussed in Tumors of dental tissues, which follows.
T6917 102607-102774 Sentence denotes In evaluating lesions of the gums and jaws, a potentially confusing element is the nature of the epithelium and of the hard tissues that are often found in the stroma.
T72102 102775-102867 Sentence denotes In interpreting these, it is important to recall the inductive pattern of tooth development.
T69437 102868-103126 Sentence denotes Epithelial remnants from tooth organogenesis occur commonly in the gingiva and the periodontium, and nests of dental epithelium can be found incidentally in any concentrated in the caudal soft palate, and forms a plaque of raised and pitted thickened mucosa.
T11698 103127-103279 Sentence denotes In horses, tonsillar tissues are dispersed over pharyngeal and epiglottic mucosal surfaces and consist of a series of plaques and nodules in the mucosa.
T31354 103280-103391 Sentence denotes In cattle, there are multiple sets of tonsils, including palatine, lingual, soft palate and pharyngeal tonsils.
T47480 103392-103434 Sentence denotes In other species, the tonsils are diffuse.
T7097 103435-103544 Sentence denotes They are subject to the usual conditions involving lymphoid tissue, and undergo progressive atrophy with age.
T31120 103545-103729 Sentence denotes Tonsils are part of the mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) and are constantly exposed to antigenic stimuli, by virtue of their function in immune surveillance in the oropharynx.
T97839 103730-103823 Sentence denotes As a result, they are a site of functional lymphoid hyperplasia and physiologic inflammation.
T54051 103824-103911 Sentence denotes Many bacteria native to the oropharyngeal mucosa probably inhabit the tonsillar crypts.
T61628 103912-104005 Sentence denotes Consequently they may serve as portal of entry for a variety of bacterial agents and viruses.
T89820 104006-104174 Sentence denotes A significant percentage of swine may carry Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae and Salmonella spp. in the tonsils, and Streptococcus suis type 2 can be cultured from tonsils.
T24370 104175-104305 Sentence denotes Desquamated epithelium, bacteria, necrotic debris, and neutrophils may normally be present to moderate degree in tonsillar crypts.
T54243 104306-104524 Sentence denotes This reaction is exaggerated, and may be associated with ulceration of the crypt and suppuration of involuted tonsillar lymphoid tissue, in certain bacterial infections, causing the formation of visible yellow nodules.
T50218 104525-104717 Sentence denotes Conditions in which such bacterial tonsillitis may occur include pasteurellosis in sheep and pigs, Actinomyces and Tonsillophilus in tonsils of swine, and necrobacillosis in all species (see .
T67697 104718-104786 Sentence denotes In porcine anthrax, hemorrhagic necrotizing tonsillitis is reported.
T51631 104787-104863 Sentence denotes Prion proteins have been identified in tonsillar tissue of infected animals.
T83412 104864-105172 Sentence denotes Scrapie-associated prion protein is consistently detected by immunohistochemistry in the center of primary and secondary lymphoid follicles of sheep with clinical and histologic lesions of scrapie, and this may be a useful antemortem diagnostic approach in this and other prionassociated diseases of animals.
T87504 105173-105265 Sentence denotes The prion protein of chronic wasting disease has been identified in tonsils of elk and deer.
T24839 105266-105408 Sentence denotes The prion protein of bovine spongiform encephalopathy has been shown to accumulate in palatine tonsils 10 months after experimental infection.
T65794 105409-105510 Sentence denotes The tonsil is the site of primary virus multiplication in pseudorabies (Aujeszky's disease) in swine.
T89314 105511-105627 Sentence denotes The virus causes necrotizing tonsillitis, and intranuclear viral inclusions may be seen in cryptal epithelial cells.
T70168 105628-105918 Sentence denotes Involution of B-dependent tonsillar lymphoid follicles resulting from viral lymphocytolysis may occur during the early phase of a number of lymphotropic diseases such as feline panleukopenia, canine parvoviral enteritis, canine distemper, bovine viral diarrhea, and swine vesicular disease.
T48244 105919-106017 Sentence denotes Numerous karyorrhectic nuclei, lymphocyte depletion, and prominent histiocytes signal such damage.
T25830 106018-106114 Sentence denotes In distemper, involuted tonsils are susceptible to secondary bacterial invasion and suppuration.
T76169 106115-106227 Sentence denotes Compensatory lymphoid hyperplasia may occur during the postviremic phase of parvoviral infections and distemper.
T29537 106228-106358 Sentence denotes The tonsil often appears to be the preferred organ of viral persistence in a symptomatic carrier infected with feline calicivirus.
T56346 106359-106617 Sentence denotes In porcine circovirus 2 infections (postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome), involution of lymphoid tissue and accumulation of macrophages and giant cells containing basophilic cytoplasmic circoviral inclusions occur, as they do in other lymphoid organs.
T73344 106618-106650 Sentence denotes Further reading Lucke VM, et al.
T46890 106651-106691 Sentence denotes Tonsillar leukocytes, and bleeds easily.
T77298 106692-106731 Sentence denotes The cause is not completely understood.
T25625 106732-106833 Sentence denotes Pyogenic granuloma is probably an exaggerated response to local trauma, irritation, and/or infection.
T24501 106834-106996 Sentence denotes In horses, exuberant granulation tissue of periodontal origin sometimes develops at the site of extracted teeth to produce a tumor-like mass in the dental arcade.
T3006 106997-107100 Sentence denotes Epithelial remnants and proliferative bone may be associated with the granulation tissue in such cases.
T7378 107101-107265 Sentence denotes Peripheral giant cell granuloma (formerly giant cell epulis) occurs in dogs and cats as gingival masses, often red, that may be smooth and sessile, or pedunculated.
T14692 107266-107361 Sentence denotes Giant cell granuloma is the second most common gingival tumor in cats after fibromatous epulis.
T75293 107362-107403 Sentence denotes These lesions may not be true granulomas.
T22933 107404-107513 Sentence denotes Very occasionally, similar lesions, described as central giant cell granulomas, occur more deeply in the jaw.
T85164 107514-107682 Sentence denotes The gingival epithelium is hyperplastic or ulcerated and extends deeply into the underlying mass, which is well vascularized and often contains hemosiderin-laden cells.
T67514 107683-107865 Sentence denotes Characteristic of the tumor are numerous multinucleated giant cells, with multiple central nuclei and abundant eosinophilic cytoplasm, which are located in a densely cellular stroma.
T84253 107866-107976 Sentence denotes The nature of the giant cells is not fully known, and it is suggested that they may be osteoclastic in origin.
T50624 107977-108044 Sentence denotes Foci of hard tissue, including mineralized osteoid, may be present.
T70566 108045-108147 Sentence denotes Giant cell granulomas are regarded as hyperplastic, and have occurred at the site of tooth extraction.
T62180 108148-108335 Sentence denotes Fibrous hyperplasia (formerly part of fibrous or fibromatous epulis, gingival hypertrophy) is common in dogs, and may be generalized and diffuse, or focal, localized to one or more teeth.
T98449 108336-108454 Sentence denotes When focal, it is a discrete tumor-like mass and, whether local or general, may cover part of the crown ( Fig. 1-12) .
T14169 108455-108549 Sentence denotes The stromal component of the mass consists of mature fibrous tissue with low cellular density.
T93108 108550-108606 Sentence denotes Foci of hard tissue and epithelial nests may be present.
T30632 108607-108685 Sentence denotes Local enlargement may be promoted by chronic, probably painless, inflammation.
T36019 108686-108732 Sentence denotes It may be associated with periodontal disease.
T23353 108733-108920 Sentence denotes Characteristically there is a band of mononuclear cells, predominantly plasma cells, in the gingival stroma adjacent to the epithelium, which is often hyperplastic, sometimes markedly so.
T41096 108921-109062 Sentence denotes Where the epithelium is ulcerated, neutrophils may be prominent, marginating in vessels, in the stroma, and migrating through the epithelium.
T5191 109063-109244 Sentence denotes Diffuse fibrous hyperplasia is familial in Boxer dogs, and a more severe overgrowth, termed hyperplastic gingivitis, occurs as a recessive inherited disease in Swedish silver foxes.
T56377 109245-109340 Sentence denotes In the foxes, both jaws are affected and the lesion causes proliferative lesion in this region.
T54132 109341-109492 Sentence denotes Characteristically, dental epithelial cells show reverse polarity, their nuclei being located at the apex of the cell, distal to the basement membrane.
T35947 109493-109606 Sentence denotes Often the cell nests are surrounded by a relatively clear halo that contains a few strands of collagenous tissue.
T66070 109607-109736 Sentence denotes Also, gingival epithelium commonly proliferates extravagantly in response to irritation, and may form complex plexiform patterns.
T55557 109737-109828 Sentence denotes Unless there is neoplastic change; the epithelial component is not of primary significance.
T49717 109829-110052 Sentence denotes Similarly, many stromal masses in the regions of the jaws include mineralized tissues or amorphous, apparently mineralizable tissues, which may develop by metaplasia of fibrous tissue or by de novo cellular differentiation.
T89035 110053-110247 Sentence denotes It is often difficult to determine whether this is bone, cementum, dentin, or their precursors, but in any case this is prognostically irrelevant, as is the abundance of such tissues themselves.
T57376 110248-110413 Sentence denotes In describing lesions of the gums and jaws, the adjective "peripheral" refers to an origin in the gingiva, whereas "central" implies a deeper origin in the jaw bone.
T80484 110414-110511 Sentence denotes The oral and pharyngeal mucosa is a common site of malignant tumors in the dog, as it is in cats.
T30674 110512-110596 Sentence denotes Malignant oral tumors account for ~6% of all canine and ~7% of all feline neoplasms.
T50890 110597-110747 Sentence denotes Large domestic animals have a low prevalence of malignant oral tumors, and when they do occur in ungulates, they are usually relatively nonaggressive.
T58204 110748-110862 Sentence denotes There are regional geographic differences in the prevalence of certain oral tumors, especially in dogs and cattle.
T47082 110863-111031 Sentence denotes Such differences may be related to the distribution of carcinogens in the environment, and warrant further investigation from the point of view of comparative oncology.
T2371 111032-111178 Sentence denotes The most common types of malignant oral tumors in dogs and cats are squamous cell carcinoma, fibrosarcoma, and, in dogs only, malignant melanomas.
T27899 111179-111301 Sentence denotes They vary somewhat in their behavior depending on the species in which they occur, and the type and location of the tumor.
T41341 111302-111382 Sentence denotes Dogs and cats with mean ages over about 6 or 7 years of age are mainly affected.
T18217 111383-111456 Sentence denotes The canine population with fibrosarcomas has a mean age of about 8 years.
T67588 111457-111596 Sentence denotes Melanomas in dogs tend to occur in a notably older age class than the other tumors, with the mean of the distribution at about 11-12 years.
T404 111597-111849 Sentence denotes Typical clinical signs, determined by the location, behavior, and stage of the tumor, are drooling, halitosis, pain, dysphagia, anorexia, weight loss, loose teeth, mandibular fractures, oral bleeding, noisy respiration, coughing, and a change in voice.
T47627 111850-112096 Sentence denotes Boxers, Cocker Spaniels, German Shorthaired Pointers, Weimaraners, and Golden Retrievers apparently have a higher prevalence of malignant oral tumors than other breeds of dogs, whereas Dachshunds and Beagles apparently have a very low prevalence.
T22932 112097-112160 Sentence denotes The male-to-female ratio has been reported to be as high as 6 :
T20752 112161-112181 Sentence denotes 1 for melanomas, 3 :
T62948 112182-112217 Sentence denotes 1 for tonsillar carcinomas, and 2 :
T90033 112218-112238 Sentence denotes 1 for fibrosarcomas.
T6005 112239-112400 Sentence denotes The ratios have to be interpreted with some caution because they may be partly related to differences in the ratio of males to females in the general population.
T4492 112401-112643 Sentence denotes All types of malignant oral tumors in dogs and cats tend to progress rapidly, and regardless of the type of malignancy, the prognosis is generally poor, unless the lesion is completely resected early in its clinical course, before metastasis.
T36864 112644-112712 Sentence denotes Pyogenic granuloma is a bright red or blue mass on the gums of dogs.
T14035 112713-112854 Sentence denotes It is composed of extremely vascular granulation tissue covered by gingival epithelium, and is not genuinely granulomatous, despite the name.
T46363 112855-113031 Sentence denotes It ulcerates, is infiltrated by Viral antigen can be demonstrated in nuclei of koilocytes and in intranuclear, but not cytoplasmic, inclusions by specific immunohistochemistry.
T5807 113032-113140 Sentence denotes Electron microscopy reveals intranuclear 50-55 nm viral particles, sometimes forming paracrystalline arrays.
T95285 113141-113345 Sentence denotes Malignant transformation of infected papillomavirusinfected epithelium to produce squamous cell carcinomas can occur, but its importance in the etiology of canine oral squamous cell carcinomas is unclear.
T64786 113346-113630 Sentence denotes Injections of live CPV1 vaccine into the skin of dogs may result in a spectrum of lesions, including epidermal hyperplasia, papillomas, epidermal cysts, basal cell tumors, and squamous cell carcinomas, and some cutaneous squamous cell carcinomas in dogs contain CPV1 genetic material.
T12277 113631-113752 Sentence denotes In domestic and wild species of cats, oral and cutaneous papillomas and fibropapillomas are very occasionally identified.
T56963 113753-113903 Sentence denotes In the oral cavity they are most common on the ventral aspect of the tongue, and typically they are multifocal, pink, and more sessile than verrucous.
T8312 113904-114035 Sentence denotes Microscopically, raised areas of thickened mucosa are comprised of hyperplastic keratinocytes with occasional fibrovascular stalks.
T70831 114036-114203 Sentence denotes Typical degenerative changes are seen in infected keratinocytes, and papillomavirus antigen can be detected by immunohistochemistry in a high proportion of such cases.
T74991 114204-114365 Sentence denotes In cattle, oral papillomas, caused by bovine papillomavirus 4 (a strain of bovine papillomavirus 3, genus Xipapillomavirus), can occur commonly in endemic areas.
T3809 114366-114625 Sentence denotes Their morphology and distribution in the oral cavity are similar to the papillomas of dogs, but because they infect the esophagus and forestomachs extensively, they are considered more fully later in the section on Neoplasia of the esophagus and forestomachs.
T12428 114626-114776 Sentence denotes Tumors of dental tissues are classified either as epithelial (with or without odontogenic ectomesenchyme) or mesenchymal neoplasms, and malformations.
T82223 114777-114924 Sentence denotes Tooth development provides the classic example of epithelial-mesenchymal interactions, and inductive influences appear to be active in some tumors.
T93937 114925-115061 Sentence denotes Familiarity with dental embryology assists an understanding of the origin, appearance, and classification of the tumors discussed later.
T27329 115062-115223 Sentence denotes Tumors of dental tissues are rare, other than fibromatous epulis of periodontal ligament origin and canine acanthomatous ameloblastomas (acanthomatous epulides).
T72595 115224-115276 Sentence denotes All are nonmalignant, and infiltrative or expansive.
T85907 115277-115395 Sentence denotes However, their location predetermines destruction of bone and displacement of teeth, and they are difficult to remove.
T7615 115396-115591 Sentence denotes Tumors of odontogenic epithelium include the ameloblastoma, which is a slowly progressive invasive but nonmetastatic tumor, consisting of proliferating odontogenic epithelium in a fibrous stroma.
T23985 115592-115645 Sentence denotes The proportions of epithelium and stroma vary widely.
T21403 115646-115711 Sentence denotes The terms adamantinoma and enameloblastoma are obsolete synonyms.
T72738 115712-115836 Sentence denotes These tumors are more common in dogs than in cats and horses, and seem to occur more often in the mandible than the maxilla.
T81047 115837-115972 Sentence denotes Tumors formerly described as ameloblastomas in young cattle are now considered to be ameloblastic fibromas, discussed in the following.
T12827 115973-116005 Sentence denotes Ameloblastomas occur at any age.
T22166 116006-116197 Sentence denotes They originate from the dental lamina, the outer enamel epithelium, the dental follicle around retained unerupted teeth, the oral epithelium, or odontogenic epithelium in extraoral locations.
T32315 116198-116380 Sentence denotes They are predominantly intraosseous and, because of their location, they displacement and malalignment of teeth, eventually reaching such proportions that the mouth cannot be closed.
T17382 116381-116477 Sentence denotes These benign epithelial tumors (warts) in dogs, cats, and cattle are caused by papillomaviruses.
T75397 116478-116630 Sentence denotes In dogs, they are caused by canine papillomavirus 1 (CPV1), and mainly occur in young animals, although older dogs in close contact may become infected.
T57745 116631-116823 Sentence denotes The lesions are unsightly, are often multicentric, and may be traumatized and bleed, but only heavy infections that interfere with swallowing or respiration cause other than cosmetic problems.
T80590 116824-116868 Sentence denotes The virus is host- and fairly site-specific.
T53355 116869-116926 Sentence denotes Injury to the oral mucosa often precedes viral infection.
T84018 116927-117203 Sentence denotes Infection of basal epithelium of the squamous mucosa stimulates increased mitosis, whereas viral genome replicates in the differentiating keratinocytes of the stratum spinosum and granulosum, which degenerate, with viral assembly and expression in superficial squamous layers.
T46362 117204-117254 Sentence denotes The incubation period is generally about 2 months.
T55034 117255-117409 Sentence denotes Spontaneous recovery, mediated by CD4 and CD8 T cells, usually occurs within 1-2 more months, followed by solid antibody-mediated immunity to reinfection.
T59665 117410-117513 Sentence denotes The warts first develop as single, smooth papular elevations which are pale or the color of the mucosa.
T43293 117514-117625 Sentence denotes These lesions progress to multiple, proliferative cauliflower-like, firm, white to gray growths ( Fig. 1-13 ).
T21172 117626-117717 Sentence denotes They develop on the lips, gingiva, buccal mucosa, tongue, palate, and walls of the pharynx.
T72442 117718-117780 Sentence denotes The esophagus and the skin of the muzzle also may be involved.
T93662 117781-117978 Sentence denotes Persistent and progressive infections, which may also involve haired skin remote from the mouth, are attributable to immunocompromise of the host, rather than an unusually virulent strain of virus.
T36220 117979-118190 Sentence denotes The microscopic structure of fully developed lesions is typically verrucous, with very thick keratinizing squamous epithelium covering thin, branching, often pedunculated cores of vascularized proprial papillae.
T13120 118191-118223 Sentence denotes There is also marked acanthosis.
T29121 118224-118542 Sentence denotes Individual epithelial cells or small groups in the upper areas of the stratum spinosum and granulosum degenerate (koilocytes), developing koilocytic atypia, with clear cytoplasm around or adjacent to an often somewhat condensed nucleus, and large cytoplasmic granules or inclusions, with loss of intercellular bridges.
T65324 118543-118705 Sentence denotes Basophilic intranuclear viral inclusions may be found in cells in the outer spinose layers, but they can be rare; intracytoplasmic inclusions also may be present.
T22410 118706-118778 Sentence denotes Regressing lesions are infiltrated by moderate numbers of T lymphocytes.
T49366 118779-119025 Sentence denotes Histologically, the tumor is composed of solid sheets, nodules, and anastomosing cords of polyhedral epithelium (acanthocytes) bordered by a row of palisading cuboidal to columnar cells with round to oval nuclei and moderate amounts of cytoplasm.
T26092 119026-119162 Sentence denotes Prominent intercellular bridges, the defining feature of the lesion reflected in the name, are present between many of the acanthocytes.
T39234 119163-119348 Sentence denotes The solid sheets/cords of acanthocytic neoplastic cells and prominent intercellular bridges distinguish acanthomatous ameloblastoma from ameloblastoma described previously (Fig. 1-17) .
T87935 119349-119474 Sentence denotes In some tumors, intraepithelial cysts contain vacuolated, otherwise structureless, eosinophilic material and cellular debris.
T54620 119475-119528 Sentence denotes These cysts probably form from degenerate epithelium.
T11900 119529-119606 Sentence denotes Small masses of hard tissue may develop in the stroma between the epithelium.
T24512 119607-119763 Sentence denotes It is sometimes difficult to distinguish an acanthomatous ameloblastoma developing in the gingiva from the epithelial proliferation accompanying gingivitis.
T43384 119764-120016 Sentence denotes Besides the usual prudence required when identifying neoplastic cells in areas of inflammation, other criteria for differentiation include the predominance of broad sheets of epithelium and the mitotic figures 1-16 Acanthomatous ameloblastoma in a dog.
T77845 120017-120224 Sentence denotes This is an exophytic tumor that is also invading and destroying mandibular bone and displacing teeth. (Courtesy Noah's Arkives.) may destroy large amounts of bone, and extend into the oral cavity or sinuses.
T17112 120225-120289 Sentence denotes Large tumors may undergo central degeneration and become cystic.
T41988 120290-120361 Sentence denotes Odontogenic epithelium is the criterion for diagnosis of ameloblastoma.
T14106 120362-120442 Sentence denotes Neoplastic odontogenic epithelium has peripheral palisading of epithelial cells.
T97187 120443-120517 Sentence denotes There is typically basilar cytoplasm with an apical nucleus ( Fig. 1-14) .
T70939 120518-120578 Sentence denotes Odontogenic epithelium may form any one of several patterns.
T42395 120579-120722 Sentence denotes Follicular and plexiform patterns are most common, consisting of discrete islands, or irregular masses and strands of epithelium, respectively.
T80835 120723-120757 Sentence denotes Many tumors contain both patterns.
T4307 120758-120954 Sentence denotes In both, central masses of cells, often resembling the stellate reticulum of the enamel organ, are surrounded by a single layer of cuboidal or columnar cells that resemble inner enamel epithelium.
T7034 120955-121056 Sentence denotes Cysts originate from degeneration of the centers of epithelial islands, or from stromal degeneration.
T59576 121057-121115 Sentence denotes Small cysts may coalesce to form grossly evident cavities.
T83568 121116-121210 Sentence denotes Ameloblastomas occasionally undergo keratinization and are termed keratinizing ameloblastomas.
T84640 121211-121298 Sentence denotes In some, stromal osteoid and bone develop, which may be an epithelial inductive effect.
T32071 121299-121414 Sentence denotes Amyloid-producing odontogenic tumors are rare tumors that occur as unencapsulated gingival masses in dogs and cats.
T1606 121415-121547 Sentence denotes They are characterized by odontogenic epithelium, with deposits of amyloid, and sometimes prominent trabeculae of osteoid/dentinoid.
T12174 121548-121652 Sentence denotes The epithelium may be arranged in strands, nests, or masses and may contain areas of stellate reticulum.
T57503 121653-121764 Sentence denotes Occasionally there is mineralization of epithelium or stroma, in the form of small nodules or amorphous masses.
T81627 121765-121851 Sentence denotes The amyloid also may be nodular or amorphous and may be intermingled with the mineral.
T92774 121852-121998 Sentence denotes Distinguished histologically, but not prognostically, from ameloblastomas by the presence of amyloid, these tumors are cured by surgical excision.
T44792 121999-122245 Sentence denotes Acanthomatous ameloblastoma (acanthomatous epulis, peripheral ameloblastoma, adamantinoma, basal cell carcinoma) is a common tumor of odontogenic epithelium arising from the gingiva or epithelial rests of dogs; it does not occur in other species.
T59837 122246-122501 Sentence denotes It is easily confused clinically with the benign stromal masses found in the canine gingiva, but it often behaves aggressively, invading local alveolar bone ( Fig. 1-15 ), causing tooth loss, and recurring in many animals following conservative treatment.
T67313 122502-122612 Sentence denotes Grossly, they are gray-pink papillary to sessile gingival masses in the vicinity of the alveolus (Fig. 1-16) .
T25146 122613-122742 Sentence denotes tooth-like structures (denticles) are present, each containing enamel, dentin, cementum, and pulp, arranged as in a normal tooth.
T16918 122743-122783 Sentence denotes Distinction of the two may be arbitrary.
T58245 122784-122876 Sentence denotes Separate areas of ameloblastic epithelium are not present in complex and compound odontomas.
T60993 122877-123000 Sentence denotes A tumor that contains ameloblastic epithelium and separate areas of complex or compound odontoma is an odontoameloblastoma.
T30373 123001-123129 Sentence denotes Odontomas are usually located in the mandibular or maxillary arch, and are less rare in cattle and horses than in other species.
T52185 123130-123270 Sentence denotes They are connected with existing dental alveoli and are detected when they bulge the contour of the host bone or interfere with other teeth.
T57126 123271-123385 Sentence denotes They may originate from normally or abnormally placed dental lamina as well as from a supernumerary dental lamina.
T47248 123386-123553 Sentence denotes Fibromatous epulis of periodontal ligament origin is a peripheral odontogenic neoplasm, indistinguishable clinically from fibrous hyperplasia, and most common in dogs.
T8815 123554-123628 Sentence denotes Although uncommon, fibromatous epulis is the most frequent epulis in cats.
T28251 123629-123778 Sentence denotes The distinction between fibrous hyperplasia and fibromatous epulis is academic because prognosis following surgical removal is good for both lesions.
T46670 123779-123926 Sentence denotes Fibromatous epulis of periodontal ligament origin is a neoplasm, however, comparable to the rare human tumor called peripheral odontogenic fibroma.
T95339 123927-123963 Sentence denotes Similar tumors occur rarely in cats.
T91294 123964-124134 Sentence denotes Fibromatous epulides of periodontal ligament origin are firm to hard, gray-pink neoplasms, often projecting from between the teeth or from the hard palate near the teeth.
T52450 124135-124202 Sentence denotes Often they are mushroomshaped and have a smooth, lobulated surface.
T55900 124203-124300 Sentence denotes They are attached to the periosteum, and may displace teeth mechanically, but do not invade bone.
T10896 124301-124455 Sentence denotes Fibromatous epulides are most common around the carnassial and canine teeth of brachycephalic breeds, and usually occur in dogs over about 3 years of age.
T171 124456-124638 Sentence denotes Fibromatous epulides of periodontal ligament origin are stromal tumors consisting of interwoven bundles of cellular fibroblastic tissue that is often well vascularized ( Fig. 1-18 ).
T3151 124639-124945 Sentence denotes They are distinguished from fibrous hyperplasia by the immaturity of this stroma, which is comprised of small stellate to fusiform fibroblasts dispersed in a dense collagen matrix, and by their tendency to contain less inflammatory tissue and more hard tissue, which may resemble bone, cementum, or dentin.
T418 124946-125047 Sentence denotes About 60% contain branching cords or islands of sometimes present in the acanthomatous ameloblastoma.
T89510 125048-125189 Sentence denotes Evidence of invasion of bone is clearly relevant to the diagnosis, care being taken to differentiate alveolar bone from stromal hard tissues.
T82730 125190-125423 Sentence denotes Some acanthomatous ameloblastomas show characteristics of squamous cell carcinoma when they escape the influence of the subgingival stroma and invade bone, but metastases are not recorded, and complete surgical resection is curative.
T56469 125424-125617 Sentence denotes Squamous cell carcinoma, and occasionally fibrosarcoma or osteosarcoma, has been reported from the site of irradiated acanthomatous ameloblastomas, several months to many years after treatment.
T97134 125618-125754 Sentence denotes Dental tumors containing both odontogenic epithelium and ectomesenchymal tissue (mixed odontogenic tumors) are rare in domestic animals.
T16646 125755-125982 Sentence denotes The ameloblastic fibroma (fibroameloblastoma) occurs in horses, dogs, and cats, often in young animals, but is the most common odontogenic tumor of cattle, where it is found in the vicinity of the mandibular incisors of calves.
T83949 125983-126163 Sentence denotes It consists of cords of odontogenic epithelium resembling dental lamina, intimately associated with an ectomesenchymal component consisting of spindle cells resembling dental pulp.
T53150 126164-126412 Sentence denotes Where the epithelium is well differentiated, resembling the enamel organ, it may be associated with enamel and dentin; such variants are termed ameloblastic fibro-odontomas, in contrast to ameloblastic fibromas, which contain no mineralized tissue.
T46021 126413-126516 Sentence denotes These tumors generally behave like ameloblastomas, although malignancy has been reported once in a dog.
T74327 126517-126721 Sentence denotes Feline inductive odontogenic tumor is a rare tumor specific to cats that is most frequent in kittens, where they occur as osteolytic masses in the rostral maxilla, causing tooth loss or facial distortion.
T93351 126722-127048 Sentence denotes They are distinguished by the presence of aggregates of neoplastic odontogenic epithelium partially enveloping somewhat spherical masses of cellular ectomesenchyme, forming structures resembling the cap stage of tooth development, when dental epithelium invests the dental papilla but odontoblasts have not yet differentiated.
T48424 127049-127205 Sentence denotes Odontomas are malformations (hamartomas) in which fully differentiated dental tissues are represented, and are classified as complex and compound odontomas.
T90587 127206-127320 Sentence denotes In complex odontomas the tissues are disorganized, and in dogs, cementum is not evident, although it is in horses.
T93714 127321-127400 Sentence denotes In compound odontomas, Grossly, tonsillar carcinoma usually appears unilateral.
T75371 127401-127528 Sentence denotes The earliest lesion visible is a small, slightly elevated, granular plaque on the mucosal surface, but it is rarely recognized.
T40775 127529-127690 Sentence denotes In the advanced stages, the affected tonsil is replaced by neoplastic tissue, 2-3 times normal size, nodular, firm and white, and the surface often is ulcerated.
T48845 127691-127789 Sentence denotes There is usually extensive infiltration of the surrounding tissues by microscopically typical SCC.
T3733 127790-127878 Sentence denotes Histologic examination of the grossly unaffected tonsil may also reveal early carcinoma.
T24665 127879-127988 Sentence denotes SCCs originating in the tonsils have a higher metastatic potential than other SCC of the oral cavity of dogs.
T62215 127989-128185 Sentence denotes They often metastasize early to the regional nodes, initially the retropharyngeal nodes, and to the thyroid, with distant metastases to many visceral organs, but especially the lungs, and to bone.
T43912 128186-128272 Sentence denotes Tonsillar SCCs must be differentiated from involvement of the tonsil in lymphosarcoma.
T75738 128273-128340 Sentence denotes Gingival SCCs may be associated with chronic periodontitis in dogs.
T87791 128341-128463 Sentence denotes It is not always clear whether they have predisposed to periodontitis, or resulted from chronic irritation of the gingiva.
T61727 128464-128571 Sentence denotes It is assumed that some originate in the gingiva and others in subgingival or periodontal epithelial rests.
T69210 128572-128806 Sentence denotes They appear as pink or white nodular masses around the mandibular or maxillary dental arcade, often around canine or carnassial teeth, extending to form larger masses or ulcerative plaques; sometimes they involve adjacent hard palate.
T6229 128807-128971 Sentence denotes Their microscopic appearance is conventional, although the degree of keratinization, and formation of keratin pearls, may be lower than in similar cutaneous tumors.
T53854 128972-129039 Sentence denotes They may often be obscured by chronic active inflammation, as well.
T3253 129040-129166 Sentence denotes They are locally invasive, and may invade bone ( Fig. 1-20) , maxillary tumors sometimes extending into the sinuses and orbit.
T1295 129167-129262 Sentence denotes However, they are much less likely to have metastasized at presentation than SCC of the tonsil.
T90920 129263-129433 Sentence denotes In horses, SCC are found rarely on the gums and hard palate, possibly arising in chronically irritated hyperplastic alveolar epithelium in cases of chronic periodontitis.
T83566 129434-129532 Sentence denotes They are slow-growing, exceedingly destructive, and metastatic mainly to the regional lymph nodes.
T50930 129533-129683 Sentence denotes Such tumors are large when first observed and may project from the palate or gums as gray extensively ulcerated masses, or appear as craterous ulcers.
T48248 129684-129781 Sentence denotes The large ones are extensively necrotic, and the teeth are lost or loosely embedded in the tumor.
T32185 129782-129909 Sentence denotes These tumors of the maxilla epithelium, which may be continuous with the gingiva, or originate in epithelial rests of Malassez.
T71550 129910-130021 Sentence denotes The epithelium is bordered by a row of cuboidal cells somewhat resembling odontogenic epithelium ( Fig. 1-19 ).
T88740 130022-130257 Sentence denotes Although such masses are sometimes categorized as fibromatous or ossifying, depending on the abundance of the hard tissue, there is no prognostic value in this distinction because these are all benign tumors that are cured by excision.
T15311 130258-130508 Sentence denotes Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is by far the most common oral malignancy of cats, and although there seems to be some geographic variation, it is generally most frequently located on the ventral surface of the tongue, on the midline near the frenulum.
T5112 130509-130639 Sentence denotes The gingiva is the next most common site, and other locations, including the tonsils, are generally much less frequently involved.
T16690 130640-130709 Sentence denotes In the early stages, gingival SCCs are often mistaken for gingivitis.
T97327 130710-130767 Sentence denotes Oral SCCs in cats are generally advanced at presentation.
T37778 130768-131035 Sentence denotes The tumor is locally invasive, especially into bone and local soft tissues, but at presentation is less frequently metastatic to regional lymph nodes, and rarely to the lungs, although the survival rate of animals following surgical resection alone is only about 20%.
T11115 131036-131092 Sentence denotes Larger tumors at presentation signal a poorer prognosis.
T6050 131093-131140 Sentence denotes Paraneoplastic hypercalcemia has been reported.
T93820 131141-131273 Sentence denotes Grossly, these tumors are irregular, slightly nodular, red-gray, friable masses, often with an ulcerated surface that bleeds easily.
T27509 131274-131336 Sentence denotes Microscopically the tumor is a conventional SCC in appearance.
T82902 131337-131576 Sentence denotes Infection with feline immunodeficiency virus, feline leukemia virus, or feline sarcoma virus is not clearly a factor in the etiology, which is presumably multifactorial and in some cases may involve exposure to environmental tobacco smoke.
T90176 131577-131677 Sentence denotes In the dog, most studies have found that SCC is second to melanoma in prevalence in the oral cavity.
T90539 131678-131759 Sentence denotes It most frequently involves the tonsils, although the gums are also common sites.
T511 131760-131835 Sentence denotes Lips, tongue, and other oropharyngeal mucosae are involved much less often.
T87568 131836-132298 Sentence denotes The etiology is likely multifactorial, including epithelial hyperplasia associated with chronic gingivitis, and carcinogens associated with smog and smoke in the case of tonsillar tumors in urban dogs, but, as alluded to previously, infection with canine oral papillomavirus may have a part to play in some cases. epithelial-like and spindle-shaped cells, which have a marked tendency to form nests supported by a light stroma, extending deep into the submucosa.
T30235 132299-132346 Sentence denotes Multinucleated giant cells also may be present.
T9925 132347-132438 Sentence denotes Osteoid and cartilage have been reported in the stroma of a low number of canine melanomas.
T22247 132439-132616 Sentence denotes Most melanomas have melanin pigment, but detection of this pigment, which also may be concentrated in melanophages, often requires careful examination of individual tumor cells.
T58932 132617-132770 Sentence denotes Cytologic evaluation of melanotic tumors may require bleaching, but any difficulty in interpretation is more likely to involve poorly pigmented variants.
T97629 132771-132904 Sentence denotes They are DOPA-positive (3.4-dihydroxyphenylalanine) in frozen section, and react immunohistochemically (vimentin 100%, melan A >90%).
T46479 132905-133021 Sentence denotes Melan A is considered sensitive and specific for melanocytes, differentiating them from melanophages in oral tumors.
T33157 133022-133222 Sentence denotes A panel of immunohistochemical stains that includes melan-A, tyrosinase-related proteins 1 and 2 (TRP-1 and TRP-2), and PNL2 has been shown to be highly accurate for diagnosis of canine oral melanoma.
T10718 133223-133268 Sentence denotes Most oral melanomas in the dog are malignant.
T2092 133269-133413 Sentence denotes However, a small subset of well-differentiated canine oral melanomas has been associated with prolonged survival times after complete resection.
T6715 133414-133529 Sentence denotes Mitotic index, nuclear atypia and Ki67 have been shown to be useful as prognostic markers for canine oral melanoma.
T88102 133530-133580 Sentence denotes In cats, oropharyngeal malignant melanoma is rare.
T95294 133581-133781 Sentence denotes It occurs in older animals, involves the same regions affected in rapidly fill the adjacent sinuses and cause bulging of the face and may extend further, into the nasal, orbital, and cranial cavities.
T19552 133782-134019 Sentence denotes The microscopic appearance of the tumors varies considerably, from well differentiated with keratinization of individual epithelial cells and formation of keratin "pearls," to poorly differentiated with little evidence of keratinization.
T63021 134020-134182 Sentence denotes In cattle, oral SCCs are very rare, with the exception of a few geographic areas where they are associated with oral papillomatosis and ingestion of bracken fern.
T25557 134183-134326 Sentence denotes A similar association is made in the etiology of SCC of the esophagus and forestomachs in cattle, and is considered more fully in that section.
T33281 134327-134394 Sentence denotes There are sporadic reports of this tumor on the lower lip of sheep.
T46854 134395-134482 Sentence denotes Malignant melanomas are the most common oral tumors in dogs in many parts of the world.
T16853 134483-134658 Sentence denotes Although cutaneous melanomas are common in gray horses and certain breeds of swine, these species have no tendency to develop oral melanomas, although rare cases are reported.
T48731 134659-134713 Sentence denotes These tumors are also rare in cattle, sheep, and cats.
T85516 134714-134855 Sentence denotes Most oral melanomas in dogs are malignant and highly aggressive neoplasms, and the majority have metastasized by the time they are diagnosed.
T81276 134856-135019 Sentence denotes They arise from melanocytes in the mucosa or superficial stroma, mainly on the gingiva and labia, and less often on the buccal mucosa, palate, tongue, and pharynx.
T1213 135020-135095 Sentence denotes There is variation in the outcomes of studies of sex and breed association.
T11795 135096-135160 Sentence denotes Males have been overrepresented in some studies, but not others.
T73193 135161-135459 Sentence denotes Some consider that melanomas are more common in smaller breeds or in those with a dark hair coat and/or pigmented mucous membranes, such as Scottish and Boston Terriers, black Cocker Spaniels, Dachshunds, Miniature Poodles, and Chow Chows, but not all studies have found size or breed associations.
T21039 135460-135662 Sentence denotes The degree of pigmentation of these tumors varies considerably, and many are at least partially amelanotic, but there appears to be no relationship between the amount of pigment and biological behavior.
T99051 135663-135789 Sentence denotes Metastases are usually pigmented, but in some cases the primary tumor is pigmented and the metastases are not, and vice versa.
T76587 135790-135858 Sentence denotes Symptomatic lesions usually are ~3-4 cm in diameter when discovered.
T79431 135859-135971 Sentence denotes They grow rapidly; necrosis and ulceration are common ( Fig. 1-21A ), as is invasion of bone by gingival tumors.
T86011 135972-136026 Sentence denotes More than 70% metastasize to the regional lymph nodes.
T42680 136027-136231 Sentence denotes An approximately equal number spread via hematogenous and lymphatic routes to more distant sites, especially the lungs, where they may be evident at autopsy, but too small to be detected radiographically.
T99306 136232-136370 Sentence denotes The median survival time for untreated dogs is reported as 2 months, and survival following treatment is little better, at about 3 months.
T78083 136371-136518 Sentence denotes The median survival time of dogs with no bone, lymph node, or distant involvement detected at diagnosis is about 8 months after surgical resection.
T26641 136519-136671 Sentence denotes The histologic appearance of melanomas varies greatly, from a fairly well-differentiated heavily pigmented type, to a highly anaplastic amelanotic type.
T33928 136672-136719 Sentence denotes The diagnosis of the latter is often difficult.
T29401 136720-136782 Sentence denotes However, certain features are evident in most of these tumors.
T6360 136783-136927 Sentence denotes Anaplastic melanocytes show junctional activity, infiltrating the junction between the basilar epithelial cells and the submucosa (Fig. 1-21B ).
T42928 136928-137055 Sentence denotes Round or polyhedral cells with a large nucleus and extensive cytoplasm with well-demarcated borders predominate in some tumors.
T77191 137056-137144 Sentence denotes Others are comprised of spindle-shaped cells with oval nuclei containing small nucleoli.
T47554 137145-137197 Sentence denotes Most frequently there is a characteristic mixture of
T35883 137199-137275 Sentence denotes A round epithelioid cells that have abundant acidophilic granular cytoplasm.
T42904 137276-137386 Sentence denotes The cytoplasmic granules are strongly periodic acid-Schiff-positive, and ultrastructurally are phagolysosomes.
T94141 137387-137475 Sentence denotes The nuclei are round to oval, centrally or eccentrically located, and have 1-2 nucleoli.
T5729 137476-137501 Sentence denotes Mitotic figures are rare.
T73087 137502-137672 Sentence denotes The tumor cells have a marked tendency to form nests or cords that are separated by a delicate network of reticulin fibers, although some are arranged as sheets of cells.
T37394 137673-137795 Sentence denotes None of these tumors in dogs have recurred after excision, and there is only one record of metastasis, to thoracic organs.
T38257 137796-137885 Sentence denotes There are a few reports of this tumor in the tonsil, tongue, gingiva, and palate of cats.
T6215 137886-137952 Sentence denotes In horses, granular cell tumors are located in the lungs (see Vol.
T76743 137953-137976 Sentence denotes 2, Respiratory system).
T24642 137977-138176 Sentence denotes Neuroendocrine cells of the dispersed neuroendocrine system are present at a low density throughout most levels of the gastrointestinal tract, as well as at other sites, in several mammalian species.
T91298 138177-138237 Sentence denotes In older literature they may be referred to as Merkel cells.
T19375 138238-138328 Sentence denotes Very rarely, they form tumors of the skin and the oral/nasal pharyngeal mucosa in the dog.
T16198 138329-138425 Sentence denotes In the latter site they tend to be pedunculated, and are located on the gums, lips, and pharynx.
T21545 138426-138581 Sentence denotes Their behavior is aggressive, with metastasis to local nodes and distant sites, and local recurrence if margins around the resected tumor are not adequate.
T49842 138582-138748 Sentence denotes Histologically, they consist of well-circumscribed, densely packed nests and sheets of polygonal to round cells in the submucosa, resulting in an organoid appearance.
T7766 138749-138811 Sentence denotes The cells have a moderate amount of pale basophilic cytoplasm.
T33448 138812-138919 Sentence denotes The nuclei are pleomorphic, the nuclear membrane is indented, and there are 1-2 centrally located nucleoli.
T89188 138920-138998 Sentence denotes The mitotic index varies from few to 2-3 mitotic figures per high-power field.
T99523 138999-139044 Sentence denotes Multinucleated giant cells are often present.
T19488 139045-139150 Sentence denotes The cells stain negatively with the periodic acid-Schiff stain but have a positive argyrophilic reaction.
T40786 139151-139231 Sentence denotes These are useful features to differentiate this tumor from granular cell tumors.
T55294 139232-139294 Sentence denotes The tumor must also be differentiated from malignant melanoma.
T17722 139295-139446 Sentence denotes Immunohistochemical reactions are usually positive for synaptophysin and neuron-specific enolase, and more variably for chromogranin-A and cytokeratin.
T97477 139447-139560 Sentence denotes Ultrastructurally, the tumor cells contain cytoplasmic secretory granules characteristic of neuroendocrine cells.
T69518 139561-139681 Sentence denotes Extramedullary plasmacytomas are uncommon tumors of the oral mucosa and skin of mainly older dogs (mean age 9-10 years).
T91798 139682-139802 Sentence denotes They arise as primary tumors from plasma cells in the soft tissue, or rarely as metastases from primary osseous myeloma.
T12465 139803-139968 Sentence denotes This tumor has probably been under-diagnosed in the past, being mistaken for undifferentiated round cell tumor, histiocytic sarcoma, or a variant of dermal lymphoma.
T96832 139969-140036 Sentence denotes In the oral cavity, it has been misdiagnosed as malignant melanoma.
T45698 140037-140126 Sentence denotes Grossly the tumor is a red, lobulated raised mass usually located on the gingiva or lips.
T31458 140127-140154 Sentence denotes It can invade bone, rarely.
T96126 140155-140227 Sentence denotes Plasmacytoma also occurs sporadically in the stomach, colon, and rectum.
T78622 140228-140385 Sentence denotes Histologically, the tumor is well circumscribed, nonencapsulated, and the overlying mucosa is usually intact, unless it has been traumatized in large tumors.
T58420 140386-140479 Sentence denotes The tumor cells are pleomorphic with variable amounts of amphophilic to basophilic cytoplasm.
T79995 140480-140618 Sentence denotes The nuclei are round to oval and the nuclear dogs, resembles the mixed tumor cell phenotype of dogs, and has a short median survival time.
T60076 140619-140793 Sentence denotes Pigmented basilar epithelial cells are frequently present in superficial areas of the submucosa in a variety of nonneoplastic lesions resulting from irritation to the mucosa.
T4191 140794-140882 Sentence denotes This so-called "pigmentary incontinence" must be differentiated from malignant melanoma.
T27987 140883-141040 Sentence denotes In dogs, fibrosarcoma is the third most common oral malignant tumor, comprising about 15-25% of such lesions, but the most common sarcoma of the oral cavity.
T68297 141041-141182 Sentence denotes It frequently occurs in younger dogs; for example, one report indicated 25% occurred in dogs <5 years of age, and the median age is ~7 years.
T55604 141183-141263 Sentence denotes Larger breeds appear to be predisposed, perhaps especially the Golden Retriever.
T33628 141264-141408 Sentence denotes It occurs mainly on the gums of the maxilla and adjacent palate and the rostral mandible, and less often in the buccal mucosa, lips, and tongue.
T71046 141409-141604 Sentence denotes Despite a relatively benign histologic appearance in large breeds, it grows rapidly, invading maxillary and mandibular bone in the majority of cases, and frequently recurs after surgical removal.
T66603 141605-141723 Sentence denotes About 20-35% have metastasized to regional nodes, and pulmonary metastases have occurred in about 10-20% at diagnosis.
T47044 141724-141805 Sentence denotes Median survival times after surgical resection are reported to be near 25 months.
T1068 141806-141961 Sentence denotes The tumors are solitary gray to red, firm, irregularly shaped to nodular fleshy masses >4 cm in diameter that may ulcerate and become secondarily infected.
T63333 141962-142008 Sentence denotes They are usually fixed to any underlying bone.
T3321 142009-142222 Sentence denotes Microscopically, the submucosa is diffusely infiltrated by densely cellular sheets of pleomorphic fusiform fibroblasts arranged in interwoven bundles with variable, but often relatively small, amounts of collagen.
T2735 142223-142336 Sentence denotes The mitotic index is high in high-grade tumors, and there may be multinucleated giant cells scattered throughout.
T6038 142337-142432 Sentence denotes In cats, this tumor is the second most frequent oropharyngeal malignancy, but it is not common.
T83986 142433-142558 Sentence denotes The gingiva and palate have been reported as sites of predilection by some, but others did not observe any specific location.
T53949 142559-142624 Sentence denotes The tumor resembles that in dogs, and invasion of bone is common.
T68369 142625-142725 Sentence denotes This tumor occurs occasionally in the oral cavity of middleaged dogs, and, less frequently, in cats.
T56978 142726-142847 Sentence denotes Most commonly they are found on the lip of dogs, but they may arise in the submucosa of the tongue, gum, and hard palate.
T74333 142848-143028 Sentence denotes The tumor is diagnosed using the same criteria as cutaneous mastocytomas, and all should be considered potentially malignant, with metastasis to regional lymph nodes a possibility.
T12056 143029-143185 Sentence denotes Mast cell tumor should be considered in the differential diagnosis of oral lesions resembling granulation tissue or eosinophilic granuloma in dogs and cats.
T61843 143186-143341 Sentence denotes Lymph node metastasis may be higher in oral mast cell tumors compared with the cutaneous counterpart, and metastasis is associated with a poorer prognosis.
T42176 143342-143475 Sentence denotes This rare tumor occurs in older (mean age 9 years) dogs, mainly in the base of the tongue, but also in the gingiva, lips, and palate.
T74745 143476-143565 Sentence denotes Most granular cell tumors are thought to be derived from neuroectodermal precursor cells.
T86323 143566-143669 Sentence denotes They are elevated, usually less than ~2 cm in size, red, and granular or smooth on the mucosal surface.
T652 143670-143704 Sentence denotes The cut surface is white and firm.
T44077 143705-143781 Sentence denotes Microscopically the mass consists of large, polyhedral to de Bruijn N, et al
T15942 143783-144044 Sentence denotes Salivary glands are a complex set of secretory structures, present both as large discrete glands in the head and cranial neck region, and as an extensive series of submucosal minor salivary glands in the oral cavity, including the tongue, oropharynx and larynx.
T52334 144045-144150 Sentence denotes Gland structure is variable, depending on whether the gland produces serous or mucous secretion, or both.
T91792 144151-144242 Sentence denotes Common acute reactions to injury include hypersecretion, necrosis, edema, and inflammation.
T25544 144243-144354 Sentence denotes Gland atrophy, ductular fibrosis and obstruction, and squamous metaplasia may develop following chronic injury.
T67059 144355-144575 Sentence denotes Oncocytic metaplasia is a benign age-related lesion of salivary duct epithelium wherein eosinophilic granular swollen cells (oncocytes) containing abundant cytoplasmic mitochondria replace normal ductal epithelial cells.
T5210 144576-144641 Sentence denotes The most common conditions of the salivary glands are functional.
T82965 144642-144726 Sentence denotes Ptyalism is increased secretion of saliva; aptyalism is reduced or absent secretion.
T59089 144727-144846 Sentence denotes Ptyalism is seen as abnormal accumulation of saliva in the mouth, and should be differentiated from failure to swallow.
T68473 144847-144964 Sentence denotes It occurs in a variety of conditions including stomatitis, organophosphate or heavymetal poisoning, and encephalitis.
T79445 144965-145077 Sentence denotes Aptyalism is less common but may accompany fever, dehydration, and salivary gland disease. membrane is indented.
T52214 145078-145176 Sentence denotes The cells are densely packed into nests and sheets that are divided by scant fibrovascular stroma.
T41088 145177-145358 Sentence denotes Anisokaryosis, binucleated and multinucleated cells are frequently present in the center of the tumor, and the most differentiated plasma cells are usually evident at the periphery.
T6610 145359-145417 Sentence denotes The mitotic index varies widely from one tumor to another.
T90196 145418-145604 Sentence denotes Immunoglobulin, especially IgG, can frequently be demonstrated in the neoplastic cells, and AL amyloid (amyloid immunoglobulin light chain) is occasionally present among the tumor cells.
T8033 145605-145679 Sentence denotes Electron microscopic examination reveals features typical of plasma cells.
T49519 145680-145845 Sentence denotes In spite of the anaplastic appearance and the presence of mitotic figures, the biological behavior of these tumors is benign, and they are cured by simple resection.
T93657 145846-145995 Sentence denotes Lesions variously considered vascular hamartomas or hemangiomas have been described in the gums of neonatal calves and in the oral cavity of puppies.
T3693 145996-146092 Sentence denotes Hamartomas are focal disorganized overgrowths of mature tissue endogenous to the organ involved.
T92704 146093-146233 Sentence denotes Because of their location, they usually have an inflamed surface, and may resemble, superficially, granulation tissue or pyogenic granuloma.
T55356 146234-146415 Sentence denotes They are pink to red lobulated masses, up to several centimeters in diameter, often pedunculated, on the rostral mandibular gingiva adjacent to the incisors, which may be displaced.
T81826 146416-146455 Sentence denotes They also may be located in the tongue.
T31116 146456-146636 Sentence denotes Microscopically, the tumors consist of irregular thinwalled vascular channels containing erythrocytes or proteinaceous material, and lined by well-differentiated endothelial cells.
T51536 146637-146695 Sentence denotes The vascular spaces are separated by loose fibrous stroma.
T25267 146696-146852 Sentence denotes Vascular hamartomas are benign, but a single hemangiosarcoma in a young calf has been described that involved the palate and gums, as well as distant sites.
T28121 146853-146930 Sentence denotes Hemangiomas occur rarely in the oral cavity of mature horses, dogs, and cats.
T38083 146931-147058 Sentence denotes Rare hemangiosarcomas have been recorded in the oral cavity of cats and a few dogs, the latter with cutaneous hemangiosarcomas.
T8409 147059-147166 Sentence denotes Various benign and malignant neoplastic and like lesions in the oropharynx have been reported sporadically.
T91564 147167-147344 Sentence denotes In the dog, benign masses include dermoid cysts, histiocytoma, lipoma, lymphangioma, hemangioma, rhabdomyoma, ganglioneuroblastoma, and calcinosis circumscripta (of the tongue).
T16438 147345-147623 Sentence denotes Malignant tumors that have been reported in the oral cavity, mainly in the lip and tongue, are hemangiosarcoma, leiomyosarcoma, histiocytoma, ectopic thyroid carcinoma, hemangiopericytoma, schwannoma, osteosarcoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, and highly malignant undifferentiated tumors.
T8986 147624-147775 Sentence denotes In cats, benign tumors include hemangioma and fibroxanthoma, and malignant examples are oral and tonsillar lymphosarcoma, schwannoma, and osteosarcoma.
T54760 147776-147850 Sentence denotes Pharyngeal, lingual, and gingival lymphomas have been described in horses.
T7182 147851-147921 Sentence denotes Salivary tumors are described later in the section on salivary glands.
T47066 147922-148000 Sentence denotes Pharyngeal sialoceles are uncommon but affected dogs may present with dyspnea.
T65945 148001-148149 Sentence denotes Zygomatic and palatine sialoceles also occur, and can be associated with inflammation and cause exophthalmos and soft palate swelling, respectively.
T69703 148150-148260 Sentence denotes Small sialoceles, seldom exceeding 0.5 cm in size, are occasionally observed on the side of the bovine tongue.
T96206 148261-148367 Sentence denotes They presumably result from rupture of the fine tortuous ducts of the dorsal part of the sublingual gland.
T99189 148368-148547 Sentence denotes The wall is soft, pliable, well-vascularized connective tissue with a glistening lining and the contents are initially mucinous but become progressively inspissated and tenacious.
T52039 148548-148653 Sentence denotes The histologic appearance of sialoceles varies greatly, apparently depending on the stage of development.
T51332 148654-148772 Sentence denotes Centrally there is abundant amorphous amphophilic material with a mixed inflammatory reaction, which may be very mild.
T99390 148773-148919 Sentence denotes Initially, the wall consists of an outer well-vascularized layer of immature connective tissue and an inner layer of loosely arranged fibroblasts.
T29520 148920-149131 Sentence denotes As the sialocele ages, mature fibrous connective tissue forms the wall, plasma cells or lymphocytes are the most numerous inflammatory cells, and the material in the center becomes progressively more basophilic.
T7969 149132-149286 Sentence denotes Anomalous regression of pharyngeal pouches or clefts results in pharyngeal (branchial) cysts, sinuses, or fistulae that can manifest in a variety of ways.
T66889 149287-149435 Sentence denotes The lining of these cysts can vary from squamous to pseudostratified ciliated epithelium; occasionally more than one type of epithelium is observed.
T30904 149436-149525 Sentence denotes Congenital cervical sinuses, cysts and fistulae have been reported in veterinary species.
T33380 149526-149577 Sentence denotes Thyroglossal duct cysts have been reported in cats:
T2231 149578-149760 Sentence denotes These are remnants of pharyngeal thyroid primordium, occur directly on the midline, and are readily distinguishable histologically because they are lined by thyroidogenic epithelium.
T40301 149761-149935 Sentence denotes Sialoadenitis, inflammation of the salivary glands, is uncommon, but after malignant neoplasms is the second most frequently diagnosed salivary gland lesion of dogs and cats.
T23553 149936-149980 Sentence denotes The submandibular gland is usually affected.
T88240 149981-150059 Sentence denotes Inflammation of the zygomatic gland in dogs is a cause of retrobulbar abscess.
T99203 150060-150175 Sentence denotes The route of infection is usually via the excretory duct, although it also may be hematogenous or localized trauma.
T32171 150176-150311 Sentence denotes Duct obstruction is due to inflammatory exudate, desquamated epithelial cells, and mucus, which may be expressed from the duct orifice.
T43798 150312-150526 Sentence denotes Partial or complete obstruction of the duct produces secondary atrophic changes in the glands, although there is initial gland enlargement resulting from the combined effects of retained secretion and inflammation.
T46903 150527-150592 Sentence denotes Ducts throughout the gland initially become dilated and inflamed.
T59701 150593-150699 Sentence denotes Acini swell and rupture from retained secretion, and this often leads to marked neutrophilic inflammation.
T34164 150700-150845 Sentence denotes In chronic cases, there is marked glandular atrophy with only remnants of atrophic epithelium embedded within inflamed fibrous connective tissue.
T59726 150846-150920 Sentence denotes Specific inflammations of the salivary glands in domestic animals are few.
T13952 150921-151109 Sentence denotes Examples include rabies, where there is often focal lysis of acinar cells, mononuclear infiltration and rare Negri bodies in ganglionic neurons; strangles in horses; and distemper in dogs.
T99719 151110-151277 Sentence denotes Eosinophilic sialoadenitis may be a component of eosinophilic epitheliotropic syndrome in horses discussed in the section on Eosinophilic enteritis in cats and horses.
T31090 151278-151400 Sentence denotes Sjögren's-like syndrome has been diagnosed in cats and dogs, characterized by plasmacytic inflammation of salivary glands.
T61755 151401-151544 Sentence denotes Sialoadenitis can also occur secondary to squamous metaplasia of interlobular salivary ducts, which is an early lesion of vitamin A deficiency.
T92627 151545-151644 Sentence denotes Exposure to highly chlorinated Ptyalism in cattle and horses may be an expression of mycotoxicosis.
T80243 151645-151830 Sentence denotes Rhizoctonia leguminicola has a wide geographic distribution, and infestation of legumes is associated with "slobbers syndrome." Mycelial growth on well-cured hay is not grossly visible.
T99352 151831-151919 Sentence denotes Two biologically active alkaloids-slaframine and swainsonine-are produced by the fungus.
T76762 151920-152106 Sentence denotes Slaframine, a parasympathomimetic alkaloid, is associated with excessive salivation, lacrimation, anorexia, diarrhea, frequent urination, bloat, reduced milk production, and weight loss.
T29875 152107-152174 Sentence denotes No specific lesions have been associated with slaframine toxicosis.
T48088 152175-152224 Sentence denotes Guinea pigs are extremely sensitive to the toxin.
T99911 152225-152364 Sentence denotes Presumptive diagnosis may be based on feeding trials in that species, if chromatographic analysis for slaframine is not readily accessible.
T10575 152365-152476 Sentence denotes Ptyalism may be associated with neurointoxication, particularly those agents that affect the trigeminal nuclei.
T87466 152477-152780 Sentence denotes Known causes include ingestion of Paspalum destichium (knotgrass) and Prosopis glandulosa (honey mesquite), poisoning with cholinergic stimulants, snake envenomation, neurotropic viruses, especially rabies virus, and in dogs exposure to the toad Bufo marinus cause neurologic abnormalities and ptyalism.
T4332 152781-152912 Sentence denotes Vesicular and ulcerative diseases that affect the oral cavity, such as foot-and-mouth disease are usually associated with ptyalism.
T64370 152913-153062 Sentence denotes Foreign bodies such as plant awns or fiber are occasionally present in the ducts; the parotid duct is more often affected than the submaxillary duct.
T26313 153063-153205 Sentence denotes They invariably cause some degree of inflammation or secondary infection and if the duct epithelium is destroyed, localized cellulitis occurs.
T70182 153206-153280 Sentence denotes Salivary calculi (sialoliths) may also cause obstruction and inflammation.
T85334 153281-153375 Sentence denotes They are more common in horses than other species; the parotid duct is most commonly affected.
T69723 153376-153583 Sentence denotes Microliths are formed routinely and undergo regular turnover; however, secretory inactivity can cause microliths to accumulate more material, leading to formation of large calculi that may cause obstruction.
T10639 153584-153723 Sentence denotes Calculi in horses are usually single hard white laminated structures composed largely of calcium carbonate; in dogs the composition varies.
T72525 153724-153871 Sentence denotes Many lodge at the orifice and cause some degree of salivary retention, glandular atrophy, and predisposition to infection and further inflammation.
T50931 153872-154026 Sentence denotes Dilations of the duct are due to stagnation of flow or obstruction resulting from congenital atresia, foreign bodies, calculi, or inflammatory strictures.
T92626 154027-154107 Sentence denotes The dilated ducts appear as fluctuating cords, sometimes with local diverticula.
T8597 154108-154223 Sentence denotes Ranula is the term applied to a smooth, rounded, fluctuant cystic distention of the duct in the floor of the mouth.
T69193 154224-154334 Sentence denotes The lining epithelium may or may not be intact and cyst contents may be serous fluid or thick tenacious mucus.
T92456 154335-154539 Sentence denotes Rupture of a duct or a gland to an epithelial surface results in a permanent fistula as the continued flow of saliva prevents normal restoration, and the duct epithelium eventually fuses with the surface.
T95317 154540-154727 Sentence denotes Salivary mucocele or sialocele is an accumulation of salivary secretions in single or multiloculated cavities, not lined by secretory epithelium, in the soft tissues of the mouth or neck.
T34075 154728-154861 Sentence denotes Sialoceles are often thought to be the result of trauma to the duct, and there may be a history of ranula-like swelling in the mouth.
T86889 154862-154951 Sentence denotes Most sialoceles are subcutaneous and may be large and pendulous, up to 10 cm in diameter.
T32468 154952-155083 Sentence denotes They can be located anywhere from the mandibular symphysis to the middle of the neck, but most are ventrolateral along the midline.
T58472 155084-155212 Sentence denotes They arise most commonly from the sublingual salivary gland, but sialoceles in other locations have been sporadically described.
T45211 155213-155288 Sentence denotes intermediate cells, which may line cysts, sometimes in a papillary pattern.
T70417 155289-155360 Sentence denotes Cyst rupture initiates a granulomatous response, including giant cells.
T20644 155361-155473 Sentence denotes Tumors with infiltrative peripheral growth pattern are likely to recur locally or metastasize to distant organs.
T54340 155474-155606 Sentence denotes Acinic cell carcinomas are less common than adenocarcinomas, occurring mainly in dogs and sporadically in the cat, horse, and sheep.
T28742 155607-155797 Sentence denotes An essential criterion for diagnosis of this tumor is the presence of well-differentiated salivary epithelial cells (acinar, intercalated duct, vacuolated, clear or glandular cell subtypes).
T74464 155798-155861 Sentence denotes There is minimal cellular pleomorphism and a low mitotic index.
T23952 155862-156024 Sentence denotes They are at least partially encapsulated masses but often display infiltrative growth along the margins; however, metastases occur only late in course of disease.
T70082 156025-156123 Sentence denotes Pleomorphic adenomas, or mixed tumors, have been described rarely in the dog, cat, cow, and horse.
T64906 156124-156290 Sentence denotes Analogous to mixed mammary tumors, they are composed of neoplastic myoepithelial and epithelial cells along with myxoid, chondroid, or osseous stromal transformation.
T5321 156291-156385 Sentence denotes They are considered benign, but complete excision is difficult and local recurrence is common.
T94078 156386-156536 Sentence denotes Development of malignant epithelial foci within benign tumors is described and represents malignant transformation (carcinoma in pleomorphic adenoma).
T97013 156537-156756 Sentence denotes Rarely, other epithelial (myoepithelioma, squamous cell carcinoma, cystadenocarcinoma) and mesenchymal (angiolipoma, fibrous histiocytoma, osteosarcoma, fibrosarcoma) malignancies appear to arise in the salivary glands.
T65052 156758-156893 Sentence denotes The esophagus is comprised of an inner circular layer and an outer longitudinal layer of skeletal muscle for much or all of its length.
T55499 156894-157067 Sentence denotes In the pig, there is a short segment near the cardia that is comprised of smooth muscle, and in horses and cats, smooth muscle is found in the distal third of the esophagus.
T35243 157068-157235 Sentence denotes The esophagus is lined by stratified squamous epithelium with a variable number of submucosal mucous glands, depending on the species and location along the esophagus.
T59819 157236-157395 Sentence denotes Esophageal protection against aggressive insults resides mainly in mucus and bicarbonate in salivary secretion and is produced by esophageal submucosal glands.
T12078 157396-157582 Sentence denotes The esophagus merits particular attention during the examination of animals with inadequate growth rate, cachexia, ptyalism, dysphagia, regurgitation, vomition, and aspiration pneumonia.
T74551 157583-157716 Sentence denotes In ruminants, tympany may be a sequel naphthalenes is now rare, but can lead to hypovitaminosis A and subsequent squamous metaplasia.
T5100 157717-157801 Sentence denotes Necrotizing sialometaplasia is a distinct and rare disease of dogs, cats and humans.
T31007 157802-157995 Sentence denotes There is characteristic ischemic necrosis of salivary gland lobules with inflammation and squamous metaplasia of the ducts, features easily and often misinterpreted as malignant transformation.
T12278 157996-158156 Sentence denotes The cause is thought to be vascular compromise induced by trauma, although immunemediated destruction of blood vessels or infection have also been hypothesized.
T76370 158157-158281 Sentence denotes The disease is seen in a number of small breed dogs, primarily terriers; the submandibular gland is preferentially affected.
T45814 158282-158361 Sentence denotes Affected dogs are presented in extreme pain with enlarged firm salivary glands.
T3859 158362-158439 Sentence denotes Recurrent vomition is reported, and this is thought to be centrally mediated.
T79 158440-158460 Sentence denotes Benjamino KP, et al.
T84435 158461-158471 Sentence denotes Pharyngeal
T95194 158473-158530 Sentence denotes Neoplasms of the salivary glands are rare in all species.
T89929 158531-158704 Sentence denotes They have been reported in cattle, sheep, goats, horses, dogs, and cats, but not swine; only in dogs and cats do salivary tumors occur often enough to permit generalization.
T16513 158705-158845 Sentence denotes Tumors are usually unilateral, and they may arise from any salivary gland, but the parotid and mandibular glands are most commonly affected.
T20464 158846-158925 Sentence denotes Neoplasms develop mostly in aged animals and are almost exclusively carcinomas.
T42848 158926-159082 Sentence denotes Cats tend to have more aggressive disease at the time of diagnosis and metastasis to regional nodes and distant sites, especially the lungs, is more common.
T63689 159083-159226 Sentence denotes Adenocarcinomas that have metastasized to the nodes or beyond at diagnosis have a worse prognosis than those with tumor localized to the gland.
T62253 159227-159376 Sentence denotes The histologic structure of salivary tumors in animals is as diverse as humans, and morphology typically mimics cell types of normal salivary glands.
T62091 159377-159641 Sentence denotes The phenotype of salivary tumors has little bearing on prognosis, with notable exceptions being acinic cell carcinomas, which are tumors of low grade malignancy, and pleomorphic adenomas (or mixed salivary tumor), which have potential for malignant transformation.
T21267 159642-159917 Sentence denotes The most frequent variety is adenocarcinoma, and although there are various structural patterns (acinar, ductular, trabecular, solid) sometimes within the same tumor, an acinar or nested arrangement is usually evident somewhere, embedded in an often extensive fibrous stroma.
T30824 159918-160086 Sentence denotes Mucoepidermoid carcinomas are composed of a combination of squamous epidermoid cells, mucus-producing cells and esophagus by variously sized, often slit-like apertures.
T11060 160087-160261 Sentence denotes Most are probably acquired, and they occur most often in the lower cervical esophagus near the thoracic inlet and the distal thoracic esophagus just cranial to the diaphragm.
T4467 160262-160474 Sentence denotes Increased intraluminal pressure associated with foreign bodies, obstruction or stenosis are potential causes of pulsion diverticula, in which the mucosa is forced out through the distended or ruptured muscularis.
T23493 160475-160586 Sentence denotes Such diverticula may be large spherical structures with a narrow neck and are most common in the horse and dog.
T2582 160587-160812 Sentence denotes The rare traction diverticulum is the result of contraction of a paraesophageal fibrous adhesion, following perforation and inflammation, drawing with it a pouch of esophageal mucosa that is usually small and inconsequential.
T80207 160813-161020 Sentence denotes In contrast to pulsion diverticula, which have a layer of epithelium lining the inner aspect of a wall of fibrous connective tissue, traction diverticula have a wall comprised of all layers of the esophagus.
T4393 161021-161203 Sentence denotes Ingesta and foreign bodies may accumulate in diverticula, causing gradual enlargement with the potential for local esophagitis, ulceration, and perforation or formation of a fistula.
T61026 161204-161381 Sentence denotes Other rare anomalies of the esophageal mucosa include epithelial inclusion cysts and distal esophageal papillae in cattle resembling those of the rumen, and gastric heterotopia.
T96162 161382-161555 Sentence denotes Hyperkeratosis and hyperplasia of the esophageal epithelium may be signs of vitamin A deficiency or chlorinated naphthalene toxicity, which has been described in herbivores.
T17662 161556-161667 Sentence denotes This is accompanied by squamous metaplasia of mucous glands and ducts of the esophagus and throughout the body.
T64007 161668-161914 Sentence denotes Mild hyperkeratosis may be difficult to assess in herbivores because some degree of keratinization is normal and anorexia or failure to swallow results in loss of the abrasive effect of food passage leading to accumulation of keratinized squames.
T89388 161915-162038 Sentence denotes Parakeratosis and epithelial hyperplasia is indicative of response to epithelial injury (see later section on Esophagitis).
T34677 162039-162167 Sentence denotes In the distal esophagus of pigs, this lesion is often observed concomitant with ulceration of the pars esophagea of the stomach.
T39144 162168-162271 Sentence denotes Esophageal parakeratosis can also occur in pigs with cutaneous parakeratosis caused by zinc deficiency.
T58937 162272-162283 Sentence denotes Adami C, et
T87359 162285-162543 Sentence denotes Erosive and ulcerative esophagitis is a common finding associated with viral diseases causing similar lesions in the oropharynx or reticulorumen, including bovine viral diarrhea, rinderpest, bovine papular stomatitis, infectious bovine to esophageal disease.
T82828 162544-162724 Sentence denotes The presence of a bloat line in the esophagus at the thoracic inlet may indicate a condition causing increased intra-abdominal pressure such as gastric dilation or ruminal tympany.
T21704 162725-162864 Sentence denotes The squamous mucosa is frequently eroded or ulcerated in viral diseases that cause similar lesions elsewhere in the upper alimentary tract.
T97393 162865-163084 Sentence denotes Conditions of striated muscle, such as nutritional myodegeneration and eosinophilic myositis in the ruminant, or polymyositis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and trypanosomiasis in the dog, involve the esophageal muscle.
T41577 163085-163178 Sentence denotes Envenomation following snake bite may lead to myopathy of the esophageal musculature in dogs.
T94079 163179-163352 Sentence denotes Diseases of the neuromuscular junction, as in myasthenia gravis, and peripheral neuropathies, such as giant axonal neuropathy and polyneuritis, result in esophageal disease.
T24143 163353-163466 Sentence denotes The mucosa of the distal portion of the feline esophagus normally has a herringbone pattern of superficial folds.
T66447 163467-163589 Sentence denotes Hypertrophy of the smooth muscle of the distal esophagus, most commonly the inner smooth circular layer, occurs in horses.
T73020 163590-163712 Sentence denotes It is usually found incidentally at autopsy, although some cases also have concurrent terminal ileal muscular hypertrophy.
T34202 163713-163899 Sentence denotes The lesion is considered idiopathic, but potential factors in the pathogenesis include autonomic imbalances or defects in the smooth muscle pacemaker cells normally found at these sites.
T95903 163900-164119 Sentence denotes Congenital anomalies of the esophagus are very rarely recorded in domestic animals, and their interpretation as such can be difficult because similar defects may develop as sequelae of esophageal trauma or inflammation.
T72580 164120-164204 Sentence denotes Congenital duplication cysts of the esophagus have been reported in horses and dogs.
T81106 164205-164276 Sentence denotes Esophageal cysts are classified as duplication by 3 essential criteria.
T85491 164277-164469 Sentence denotes The cyst must (1) be located within the esophageal wall, (2) be lined by columnar, squamous, cuboidal, ciliated, or pseudostratified epithelium, and (3) have a double muscle layer in the wall.
T78880 164470-164623 Sentence denotes Esophageal duplication cysts may be clinically silent; however, they manifest as space-occupying lesions if they fill with cellular debris and secretion.
T48999 164624-164719 Sentence denotes Potential complications are associated with compression of adjacent structures or cyst rupture.
T4464 164720-164800 Sentence denotes Rare segmental aplasia of the proximal esophagus may be apparent in the neonate.
T23042 164801-164963 Sentence denotes A short blind pouch communicates with the pharynx, and a thin fibrous band connects it to the distal patent esophagus that follows a normal course to the stomach.
T56068 164964-165129 Sentence denotes Esophageal atresia and congenital esophagorespiratory communications result from anomalies occurring when the respiratory primordium buds from the embryonic foregut.
T53374 165130-165211 Sentence denotes Esophagorespiratory fistulae without esophageal atresia are also rare in animals.
T84382 165212-165369 Sentence denotes Esophageal fistula formation is likely acquired following foreign body perforation of the esophagus; however, in calves and dogs, some are likely congenital.
T90188 165370-165610 Sentence denotes Short fibrous bands with a narrow epithelial-lined lumen connecting an esophagus of normal diameter with the trachea or bronchus are reported, as are small apertures connecting the lining of esophageal diverticula with the respiratory tree.
T41443 165611-165749 Sentence denotes The lining of such defects changes from stratified squamous to columnar respiratory epithelium in the fistula or wall of the diverticulum.
T49671 165750-165883 Sentence denotes Gastric distention by air in calves, and pneumonia resulting from aspiration, have been associated with esophagorespiratory fistulae.
T80006 165884-166027 Sentence denotes Esophageal diverticula are irregular outpouchings or herniations of the esophageal mucosa through a defect in the esophageal tunica muscularis.
T85808 166028-166110 Sentence denotes They communicate with the erosions, ulcers, or superficial fibrinonecrotic debris.
T55384 166111-166211 Sentence denotes Such damage is most common in the distal esophagus, but in some instances can extend to the pharynx.
T60666 166212-166321 Sentence denotes Epithelial hyperplasia and neutrophilic exocytosis occur in response to mild superficial epithelial necrosis.
T22283 166322-166493 Sentence denotes A consequence of chronic gastroesophageal reflux, well recognized in humans and described in dogs and cats, is columnar and mucous cell metaplasia of the distal esophagus.
T31588 166494-166678 Sentence denotes In humans, the lesion is known as Barrett esophagus and is an important risk factor for development of esophageal adenocarcinoma, but this has not been clearly demonstrated in animals.
T27616 166679-166859 Sentence denotes Hiatus hernia usually involves sliding herniation of all or part of the abdominal esophagus, cardia, and stomach into the thoracic esophagus, rather than periesophageal herniation.
T37256 166860-167008 Sentence denotes It is generally self-reducing, but usually results in lower esophageal sphincter failure and reflux, rather than gastric herniation and obstruction.
T23188 167009-167189 Sentence denotes Gastroesophageal intussusception is a rare event, most reported in puppies of large breeds of dogs, and is associated with recurrent vomition that may lead to aspiration pneumonia.
T85945 167190-167359 Sentence denotes Thrush, or mycotic esophagitis caused by Candida albicans, is seen in piglets and weaner swine, and may involve the squamous mucosa of the entire upper alimentary canal.
T79848 167360-167569 Sentence denotes C. albicans is an opportunist seen secondary to antibiotic therapy, inanition, or esophageal gastric reflux, and is considered more fully in the later section on Mycotic diseases of the gastrointestinal tract.
T44933 167570-167583 Sentence denotes Gibson CJ, et
T43730 167585-167686 Sentence denotes Esophageal obstruction can have intrinsic or extrinsic causes, and the lesions are generally obvious.
T98405 167687-167829 Sentence denotes The esophagus proximal to the stenotic area may be dilated, contain retained ingesta, or have evidence of erosion, ulceration or inflammation.
T14017 167830-168102 Sentence denotes Choke, or esophageal impaction, is the most common example of intrinsic obstruction, and occurs when large or inadequately chewed and lubricated foods, masses of grain or fibrous ingesta, or medically administered boluses lodge in the lumen of the esophagus ( Fig. 1-23 ).
T34339 168103-168309 Sentence denotes Predisposed sites are where the esophagus deviates or is slightly restricted normally: the area overlying the larynx, the thoracic inlet, the base of the heart, and just cranial to the diaphragmatic hiatus.
T69017 168310-168496 Sentence denotes Complications of obstruction include pressure necrosis and ulceration of the mucosa, which may progress to perforation or less commonly development of esophageal diverticula or fistulae.
T98656 168497-168564 Sentence denotes Sharp objects, such as bones, are most likely to cause perforation.
T38338 168565-168714 Sentence denotes Severe cellulitis of the periesophageal tissue ensues, and depending on the site of perforation, may involve rhinotracheitis, and feline calicivirus.
T14211 168715-168867 Sentence denotes Epithelial proliferation or granulation tissue during healing of ulcers may result in raised opaque areas at the lesion margin or surface, respectively.
T36530 168868-169075 Sentence denotes Caustic or irritant chemicals, ionizing radiation, electrochemical reactions (batteries), or heat may cause mucosal injury, the severity of which depends on the nature of the insult and duration of exposure.
T79575 169076-169132 Sentence denotes Mild acute insult may result in reddening of the mucosa.
T20260 169133-169379 Sentence denotes More severe insult results in liquefactive necrosis associated with alkalis, and coagulative necrosis associated with exposure to acids and toxins (paraquat, oak toxicosis) and may result in deep esophageal ulceration and sloughing of the mucosa.
T25428 169380-169496 Sentence denotes Superficial epithelial damage heals uneventfully, though repeated insult may cause irregular epithelial hyperplasia.
T50296 169497-169624 Sentence denotes Ulcerated mucosa heals by granulation, and raised islands of surviving proliferative epithelium may be observed on the surface.
T52457 169625-169718 Sentence denotes The inflammatory reaction in ulceration frequently involves tunica muscularis and adventitia.
T69888 169719-169860 Sentence denotes Fibrosis and scarring may cause stricture or stenosis, if the original defect involved a significant portion of the esophageal circumference.
T88702 169861-170116 Sentence denotes Reflux esophagitis occurs because of a loss of functional integrity of the lower esophageal sphincter associated with airway occlusion and increased intra-abdominal pressure, the pharmacologic effects of preanesthetic agents, or abnormality of the hiatus.
T62508 170117-170261 Sentence denotes Esophagitis is due to the action of gastric acid, pepsin, and probably regurgitated bile salts and pancreatic enzymes, on the esophageal mucosa.
T12870 170262-170459 Sentence denotes Reflux esophagitis is most common in dogs and cats as a sequel to surgery involving general anesthesia, although it may follow chronic gastric regurgitation or vomition for any cause ( Fig. 1-22) .
T44982 170460-170557 Sentence denotes In swine and horses, it may be associated with ulceration of the squamous portion of the stomach.
T38800 170558-170611 Sentence denotes In dogs, it can be associated with hiatus herniation.
T27427 170612-170791 Sentence denotes A high prevalence of apparent gastroesophageal reflux disease in the distal esophagus of premature calves was demonstrated by endoscopy; however, the pathogenesis remains unclear.
T83335 170792-170957 Sentence denotes Stratified squamous epithelium appears more susceptible to the corrosive effects of gastric secretion than other types of mucosa in the lower gastrointestinal tract.
T76265 170958-171098 Sentence denotes Relatively short duration of exposure to refluxed gastric content is required to induce epithelial damage characterized by hyperemia, linear
T56090 171100-171247 Sentence denotes Deglutition is a complex and highly coordinated physical act, which may be conveniently divided into three phases-oral, pharyngeal, and esophageal.
T14105 171248-171575 Sentence denotes Oral dysphagia occurs because of painful lesions involving the oral cavity and tongue, such as stomatitis, glossitis, and gingivitis, or lesions that impair movement of the tongue or delivery of the bolus to the oropharynx, such as loss of hypoglossal nerve function associated with hydrocephalus, trauma, or myasthenia gravis.
T16585 171576-171623 Sentence denotes Cleft palate can result in nasal regurgitation.
T44596 171624-171847 Sentence denotes Pharyngeal dysphagia may be associated with painful inflammatory or neoplastic lesions involving the pharynx, tonsils, or retropharyngeal region, which may physically intrude on the pharyngeal space required for swallowing.
T62094 171848-172105 Sentence denotes Encephalitis involving the medulla oblongata and nuclei or tracts of the major cranial nerves involved in pharyngeal contraction and lingual function (V, IX, X, XII) should be carefully examined in cases of pharyngeal dysphagia unexplained by other lesions.
T35857 172106-172264 Sentence denotes Rabies and brain abscess in all species, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis and listeriosis in ruminants, are important central causes of pharyngeal paralysis.
T37726 172265-172385 Sentence denotes Retropharyngeal abscesses or other lesions of the equine guttural pouch may cause peripheral nerve damage and paralysis.
T16039 172386-172514 Sentence denotes Idiopathic myodegeneration, muscular dystrophies, and myasthenia gravis have been reported to impair pharyngeal muscle function.
T97568 172515-172719 Sentence denotes Cricopharyngeal dysphagia is recognized in dogs as a swallowing disorder of the upper esophageal sphincter characterized by cricopharyngeal muscle asynchrony or achalasia (failure of the muscle to relax).
T47108 172720-172841 Sentence denotes The cause is unknown but this may be a primary muscular disorder because cricopharyngeal myotomy or myectomy is curative.
T16947 172842-173012 Sentence denotes Megaesophagus, or esophageal ectasia, is recognized as dilation of the esophageal lumen, and is the result of atony and flaccidity of the esophageal muscle ( Fig. 1-24 ).
T18890 173013-173234 Sentence denotes This occurs as the result of segmental or diffuse motor dysfunction of the body of the esophagus, and results in failure of peristaltic propulsion of the food bolus through the lower esophageal sphincter into the stomach.
T48239 173235-173401 Sentence denotes Ingesta accumulates in the esophageal lumen, which may lead to putrefaction and esophagitis in dilated or dependent areas; undigested food is eventually regurgitated.
T86628 173402-173567 Sentence denotes The volume of the dilated thoracic and cervical esophagus may greatly exceed that of the stomach causing ventral displacement of the intrathoracic trachea and heart.
T79123 173568-173751 Sentence denotes Animals with megaesophagus may have signs of malnutrition, including emaciation, dehydration, and osteopenia as well as rhinitis and aspiration pneumonia resulting from regurgitation.
T4956 173752-173877 Sentence denotes Congenital idiopathic megaesophagus (CIM) is relatively common in dogs; it may improve functionally to some extent with time.
T6456 173878-174012 Sentence denotes CIM has its highest prevalence in Great Danes, the mediastinum directly or by extension along fascial planes from the cervical region.
T45570 174013-174073 Sentence denotes Perforation of the thoracic esophagus may lead to pleuritis.
T4382 174074-174205 Sentence denotes Sharp objects, such as needles, quills, grass seeds, and awns, may penetrate and track from the esophagus through adjacent tissues.
T9668 174206-174304 Sentence denotes Removal or dissolution of an obstruction may allow healing of the segmentally ulcerated esophagus.
T57949 174305-174431 Sentence denotes As for reflux esophagitis, fibrosis and scarring of large ulcers may result in narrowing of the lumen, stricture, or stenosis.
T93164 174432-174697 Sentence denotes Although hypertrophy of internal and external muscle layers is seen occasionally in the distal esophagus of cattle and horses (in which species the distal esophageal muscle is normally relatively thick), this change is usually not clearly the result of obstruction.
T40348 174698-174899 Sentence denotes Stenosis rarely is caused by intramural or intraluminal neoplasia, or more commonly by external compression which can be due to enlarged thyroid glands, thymus, and cervical or mediastinal lymph nodes.
T89054 174900-175073 Sentence denotes The most common causes of external compression and constriction of the esophagus are vascular ring anomalies seen in dogs, occasionally in cats, and rarely in other species.
T37923 175074-175243 Sentence denotes Persistence of the right fourth aortic arch is the most common of these anomalies, and occurs when the right aortic arch develops instead of the normal left aortic arch.
T9626 175244-175413 Sentence denotes With this condition, the ligamentum arteriosum forms a vascular ring around the esophagus, resulting in entrapment and constriction of the esophagus against the trachea.
T21701 175414-175804 Sentence denotes Other vascular anomalies that may constrict the esophagus are reported only in the dog and include: persistence of both right and left aortic arches, persistent right ductus arteriosus, aberrant left subclavian artery in association with persistent right aortic arch, and aberrant right subclavian artery arising distal to the left subclavian artery and passing dorsally over the esophagus.
T99169 175805-175940 Sentence denotes The Irish Setter, German Shepherd, German Pinscher, and Boston Terrier are breeds most commonly afflicted with vascular ring anomalies.
T89088 175942-176009 Sentence denotes Further reading Dechant JE, et German Shepherds, and Irish Setters.
T2468 176010-176138 Sentence denotes In Miniature Schnauzers, the condition has an inheritance pattern of simple autosomal dominant with incomplete (60%) penetrance.
T3022 176139-176263 Sentence denotes With very rare exceptions, it is not secondary to physical obstruction or failure of the lower esophageal sphincter to open.
T84351 176264-176388 Sentence denotes Motor stimulation to the striated esophageal muscle, despite being carried in the vagus, is not autonomic, and seems intact.
T8517 176389-176557 Sentence denotes There is strong evidence that CIM results from a selective defect in the distension-sensitive afferent autonomic arm of the reflex that coordinates esophageal function.
T67323 176558-176676 Sentence denotes Idiopathic megaesophagus can develop in mature dogs, and based on some studies, this represents the majority of cases.
T42206 176677-176826 Sentence denotes Most cases of idiopathic megaesophagus in dogs are not comparable with humans, in which esophageal achalasia is a significant primary motor disorder.
T51585 176827-177206 Sentence denotes Megaesophagus may be acquired secondary to glycogen storage disease in Lapland dogs, localized or systemic myasthenia gravis, administration of cholinesterase inhibitors, hypoadrenocorticism, canine giant axonal neuropathy, immune-mediated polymyositis, polyradiculoneuritis, canine distemper, systemic lupus erythematosus, lead poisoning, Chagas disease, and snake envenomation.
T52736 177207-177299 Sentence denotes Megaesophagus in the cat may be congenital, and it appears most common in the Siamese breed.
T6157 177300-177328 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis is unclear.
T72946 177329-177424 Sentence denotes Neuronal degeneration or neurogenic atrophy of muscle is not recognized in the esophageal wall.
T71000 177425-177598 Sentence denotes Acquired megaesophagus in cats has been associated with functional pyloric stenosis, hiatus hernia, upper respiratory obstruction/ nasopharyngeal polyps, and lead poisoning.
T75565 177599-177660 Sentence denotes Presumed congenital megaesophagus has been reported in foals.
T60394 177661-177783 Sentence denotes Histologic examination of the segmentally dilated proximal esophagus revealed no significant lesions of muscle or ganglia.
T9230 177784-177849 Sentence denotes Aganglionosis has also been implicated in megaesophagus in foals.
T47412 177850-178007 Sentence denotes Megaesophagus also may be acquired in foals; in such cases there is usually ulceration of the distal esophagus, as well as the pars esophagea of the stomach.
T80568 178008-178192 Sentence denotes Megaesophagus in cattle has been described as congenital, or more commonly an acquired lesion associated with hiatus hernia, or pharyngeal trauma presumably causing vagus nerve damage.
T6363 178193-178245 Sentence denotes Megaesophagus is rarely reported in small ruminants.
T25451 178247-178314 Sentence denotes Sarcosporidiosis occurs in the striated esophageal muscle of sheep.
T10930 178315-178427 Sentence denotes Esophageal sarcocysts appear as ovoid white thinwalled nodules ~1 cm long projecting from the esophageal muscle.
T55783 178428-178557 Sentence denotes Sarcocystis gigantea, the species producing large esophageal cysts and similar large cysts in skeletal muscle, is spread by cats.
T2990 178558-178720 Sentence denotes Microscopic sarcocysts of other species also may be encountered in esophageal striated muscle of a variety of hosts (see section on protistan infections, and Vol.
T20697 178721-178743 Sentence denotes 1, Muscle and tendon).
T76681 178744-178881 Sentence denotes Sarcocysts in esophageal muscle normally incite little or no local inflammatory reaction and are only of significance in meat inspection.
T98603 178882-179070 Sentence denotes Eosinophilic myositis can be observed in the esophageal muscle and, although the cause of this lesion is not certain, it is thought to be associated with rupture of cysts of this parasite.
T24695 179071-179277 Sentence denotes In horses, Gasterophilus spp. larvae may be temporarily attached to the caudal pharyngeal, cranial esophageal or distal esophageal mucosa adjacent to the cardia; ulcers may occur at the sites of attachment.
T2037 179278-179448 Sentence denotes The larvae of the warble fly Hypoderma lineatum reside for some time in the submucosa or adventitia of the bovine esophagus before they migrate to the dermis of the back.
T80140 179449-179603 Sentence denotes Here the small 2-4-mm translucent larvae grow up to 6 times before migrating toward the back of the host, but can cause local hemorrhage and inflammation.
T58889 179604-179841 Sentence denotes Death of first-stage larvae in the esophageal wall following systemic insecticide treatment, for example, can lead to severe acute inflammation in the esophageal submucosa and potentially esophageal obstruction, tympany, and perforation.
T32079 179842-180018 Sentence denotes Spirurid nematodes of the genus Gongylonema may be encountered in the stratified squamous mucosa of the upper alimentary tract, including the esophagus, in ruminants and swine.
T99251 180019-180194 Sentence denotes These white thread-like worms up to 10-15 cm long burrow in the epithelium or propria of the esophagus and produce white or red, blood-filled serpentine tracks ( Fig. 1-25) .
T16890 180195-180241 Sentence denotes Their presence is inconsequential to the host.
T47229 180242-180355 Sentence denotes Spirocerca lupi is a spirurid nematode that parasitizes the esophageal wall of Canidae and some other carnivores.
T18839 180356-180571 Sentence denotes It is most common in warm climates where dogs ingest third-stage larvae either via the dung beetle intermediate host or one of several insectivorous vertebrate paratenic hosts such as rodents, chickens, or reptiles.
T50155 180572-180726 Sentence denotes Larvae penetrate the gastric mucosa and migrate along arteries to the aorta, then subintimally to the caudal thoracic area, which they attain within worm.
T8919 180727-180857 Sentence denotes The granulomas around S. lupi contain highly reactive pleomorphic fibroblasts with large open nuclei and numerous mitotic figures.
T42411 180858-181035 Sentence denotes Neoplasms arising from such lesions have cytologic characteristics typical of fibrosarcoma and osteosarcoma, with local tissue invasion, and in many cases, pulmonary metastasis.
T51598 181036-181121 Sentence denotes The carcinogenic stimuli associated with the development of these tumors are unknown.
T84242 181122-181247 Sentence denotes Hypertrophic pulmonary osteopathy is occasionally found in animals with Spirocerca-associated sarcoma and, rarely, granuloma.
T72021 181248-181268 Sentence denotes Kirberger RM, et al.
T49172 181269-181295 Sentence denotes Spirocerca lupi-associated
T14756 181297-181409 Sentence denotes The rumen represents the central processing unit for ingesta and as such is critical to the animal's well-being.
T15668 181410-181571 Sentence denotes However, because most of this occurs as a chemical process with minimal morphologic correlates, it is an organ that often seems to be overlooked by pathologists.
T20934 181572-181671 Sentence denotes Examination of ruminal contents may provide critical cues with respect to general metabolic states.
T94781 181672-181734 Sentence denotes Overly dry contents are an excellent indicator of dehydration.
T44802 181735-181787 Sentence denotes Voluminous frothy contents occur with primary bloat.
T96857 181788-181856 Sentence denotes Urea toxicity can be detected by an ammoniacal odor and alkaline pH.
T85165 181857-181949 Sentence denotes An odor of cooked turnips or a pungent insecticidal smell is suggestive of organophosphates.
T83894 181950-182022 Sentence denotes In grain overload, contents have a fermentative odor and pH may be <5.0.
T99181 182023-182151 Sentence denotes However, with putrefaction and release of toxic amines into the rumen, pH in cases of acidosis may return to near-normal levels.
T37849 182152-182318 Sentence denotes In these animals, the ruminal epithelium remains adherent to the submucosa despite any intervening postmortem changes, and it is an important clue to mucosal disease.
T14562 182319-182477 Sentence denotes Vagus indigestion, often associated with dysfunction of the esophageal groove, leads to accumulation of large volumes of watery fluid within the forestomachs.
T51948 182478-182597 Sentence denotes The rumen content of animals with Taxus spp. toxicity will have an aromatic odor like cedar several weeks of infection.
T55533 182598-182733 Sentence denotes Following 2-4 months in a granuloma in the aortic adventitia, worms migrate to the subjacent esophagus where they develop to adulthood.
T61831 182734-182873 Sentence denotes Here the adult nematodes are found within large, thick-walled cystic granulomas in the submucosa of the distal esophagus or gastric cardia.
T42854 182874-183074 Sentence denotes A fistula leading to the esophageal lumen is usually present, through which the tail of the female worm may protrude, and which provides the outlet for ova to the gastrointestinal tract ( Fig. 1-26 ).
T57826 183075-183256 Sentence denotes Larvae that adopt aberrant migratory pathways may be found in granulomas in sites such as the subcutis, bladder, kidney, spinal cord, as well as stomach and intrathoracic locations.
T20911 183257-183320 Sentence denotes Aortic lesions associated with Spirocerca are described in Vol.
T72205 183321-183572 Sentence denotes 3, Cardiovascular system, but include intimal and medial hemorrhage and necrosis with eosinophilic inflammation; intimal roughening with thrombosis; aneurysm with rare aortic rupture; intimal and medial mineralization, and heterotopic bone deposition.
T55286 183573-183716 Sentence denotes The presence of persistent aortic lesions in the dog, even in the absence of esophageal granuloma, is evidence of prior infection with S. lupi.
T47830 183717-183891 Sentence denotes Caudal thoracic vertebral body spondylitis occurs in greater than half of cases and is characterized by exostoses or bony spurs arising from the ends of the vertebral bodies.
T4455 183892-183987 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis is unclear, but may by initiated by migrating worms or inflammatory mediators.
T22280 183988-184161 Sentence denotes In some animals with S. lupi, mesenchymal neoplasms develop in the wall of the esophageal granuloma ( Fig. 1-27) ; pulmonary fibrosarcoma has been associated with an ectopic
T42257 184163-184184 Sentence denotes Further reading Berry
T63907 184186-184264 Sentence denotes The ruminal mucosal epithelium usually sloughs within a few hours after death.
T52234 184265-184374 Sentence denotes It separates from the lamina propria in large gray patches, which cover the ingesta when the rumen is opened.
T33421 184375-184440 Sentence denotes Persistent firm attachment of the ruminal epithelium is abnormal.
T20689 184441-184567 Sentence denotes This undue adhesion occurs in acute and chronic rumenitis, especially if caused by fungi, and about scars of healed rumenitis.
T66228 184568-184631 Sentence denotes Adhesion may not occur in the early stages of ruminal acidosis.
T19349 184632-184737 Sentence denotes Tympanitic distention of the forestomachs (tympany, hoven, bloat) may be acute, or chronic and recurrent.
T54444 184738-185051 Sentence denotes The acute or primary tympany of cattle fed legumes or high-concentrate rations is characterized by foaming of the rumen contents, which prevents gas from being eructated, whereas in chronic or recurrent (secondary) tympany, the gas is free but retained because of some physical or functional defect of eructation.
T47435 185052-185096 Sentence denotes Primary tympany is also called frothy bloat.
T3939 185097-185149 Sentence denotes Foam production in ruminal contents occurs normally.
T43812 185150-185209 Sentence denotes However, the amount of foam produced is small and unstable.
T4431 185210-185305 Sentence denotes There is apparently a delicate balance between profoaming and antifoaming factors in the rumen.
T3871 185306-185548 Sentence denotes These factors are multiple, and there is considerable controversy as to the extent to which each one influences the production of the foamy, viscous ruminal content so characteristic of frothy bloat, the most common cause of rumen distension.
T8054 185549-185781 Sentence denotes The formation of foam is dependent on soluble proteins, especially fraction I proteins, which are present in high levels (up to 4.5%) in bloat-inducing legumes, such as alfalfa and clover, especially in the prebloom stage of growth.
T41920 185782-185876 Sentence denotes Other legumes, notably sainfoin, trefoil, and cicer milk vetch, are not associated with bloat.
T82802 185877-186057 Sentence denotes Soluble proteins, released from chloroplasts, are degraded by the rumen microflora, and they rise to the surface where they are denatured, become insoluble, and stabilize the foam.
T85120 186058-186156 Sentence denotes The optimal pH (isoelectric point) for foam production by soluble proteins ranges from 5.4 to 6.0.
T90432 186157-186258 Sentence denotes Pectins are considered to increase viscosity of ruminal fluid and may act as foam-stabilizing agents.
T94085 186259-186451 Sentence denotes Plant lipids may act as antifoaming agents by competing for metal ions with the soluble proteins, thus inhibiting the denaturation of these proteins and resulting in decreased foam production.
T7341 186452-186603 Sentence denotes Eructation is a complex series of muscular contractions in which gas is forced from the rumen through the cardia and is released through the esophagus.
T99774 186604-186678 Sentence denotes The eructation sequence is oil and needles will be present in the ingesta.
T26532 186679-186914 Sentence denotes Recognition of characteristic foliage in rumen content may lead to a diagnosis of poisoning by several different toxic plants, including cyanogenic plants of the genus Prunus, oleandrin-containing plants of the genus Nerium, and so on.
T25971 186915-187030 Sentence denotes Motor oil, paint flakes, or metallic lead present in the rumen would help to support a diagnosis of lead poisoning.
T41151 187031-187125 Sentence denotes Several other toxic substances can be identified by visual inspection of the ruminal contents.
T5954 187126-187307 Sentence denotes The ruminal mucosa is unique in that it has a stratified squamous epithelium that functions in absorption as well as protection from the vat of fermenting bacteria contained within.
T58486 187308-187406 Sentence denotes Langerhans cells are distributed within the mucosa throughout all compartments of the ovine rumen.
T84078 187407-187574 Sentence denotes T lymphocytes are found individually, and in aggregates, in both intraepithelial and subepithelial locations, with most in the cranial sac and relatively few dorsally.
T91618 187575-187754 Sentence denotes Ruminal papillae in newborn calves are rudimentary and their subsequent development is dependent on diet, possibly as a consequence of stimulation by insulin-like growth factor-1.
T32856 187755-187862 Sentence denotes The end products of ruminal carbohydrate fermentation, propionate and butyrate, stimulate papillary growth.
T76875 187863-187963 Sentence denotes Papillae can take a variety of shapes, including long and flat, conical, spade-shaped, or hair-like.
T15072 187964-188124 Sentence denotes High-concentrate rations, which provide abundant propionate and butyrate, tend to produce papillae that are club-shaped, clumped ( Fig. 1-28) , and may be dark.
T43767 188125-188281 Sentence denotes Microscopically, these papillae are covered with epithelium displaying acanthosis, hyperkeratosis, orthokeratosis, and parakeratosis, and hyperpigmentation.
T76614 188282-188393 Sentence denotes Secondary papillae may be hyperplastic as well, creating the clumped appearance or rosette-like configurations.
T47708 188394-188452 Sentence denotes Rumens in animals fed barley rations have similar changes.
T41282 188453-188592 Sentence denotes Hairs from the rachilla of the barley adhere to the mucosa, especially in the interpapillary areas, giving it a distinct matted appearance.
T21833 188593-188709 Sentence denotes These penetrate the mucosa and lamina propria, where they evoke a leukocytic reaction, often causing microabscesses.
T68202 188710-188784 Sentence denotes A diffuse pleocellular reaction is evident in the thickened fibrotic wall.
T74160 188785-188812 Sentence denotes Roughage also plays a role.
T97300 188813-188904 Sentence denotes When animals receive adequate levels (~15%) of coarse roughage, propionic and butyric acids
T60297 188906-188931 Sentence denotes Josefsen TD, Landsverk T.
T44276 188932-189028 Sentence denotes T cell subsets and Langerhans cells in the forestomach mucosa of adult sheep and sheep foetuses.
T81368 189029-189070 Sentence denotes Vet Immunol Immunopathol 1996;51:101-111.
T53124 189071-189085 Sentence denotes Shen Z, et al.
T28170 189086-189241 Sentence denotes An energy-rich diet causes rumen papillae proliferation associated with more IGF type 1 receptors and increased plasma IGF-1 concentrations in young goats.
T57074 189242-189335 Sentence denotes J Nutr 2004; 134:11-17. is the so-called bloat line in the esophageal mucosa ( Fig. 1-29A ).
T71022 189336-189551 Sentence denotes This lesion is formed because of congestion with petechial and ecchymotic hemorrhages in the mucosa of the cervical esophagus, which changes abruptly or gradually to a pale mucosa at the level of the thoracic inlet.
T78444 189552-189770 Sentence denotes Although the presence of this line is usually considered highly suggestive of bloat, a similar change can apparently be seen in other conditions and some pathologists do not interpret this line as diagnostic for bloat.
T5190 189771-189848 Sentence denotes The tracheal mucosa is hemorrhagic, especially cranial to the thoracic inlet.
T53618 189849-189931 Sentence denotes Blood clots are frequently seen in the bronchi, and paranasal and frontal sinuses.
T95201 189932-190015 Sentence denotes The lungs are pale and compressed into the cranial thorax by the bulging diaphragm.
T73131 190016-190156 Sentence denotes There is pressure ischemia of the abdominal viscera, especially the liver, though the extreme margins of the hepatic lobes may be congested.
T53682 190157-190211 Sentence denotes Lymph nodes and the muscles of the hind legs are pale.
T75384 190212-190366 Sentence denotes There may be marked subcutaneous edema, particularly of the vulva, inguinal region, and perineum, and intestines may herniate through the inguinal canals.
T11336 190367-190464 Sentence denotes If the autopsy is done soon after death, the ruminal contents are bulky and foamy ( Fig. 1-29B ).
T3782 190465-190571 Sentence denotes The foam gradually disappears after death and is usually absent if the autopsy is delayed for 10-12 hours.
T90653 190572-190636 Sentence denotes Inguinal hernia and diaphragmatic rupture may occur after death.
T52099 190637-190816 Sentence denotes Secondary tympany (free gas or secondary bloat) may be acute, but is generally chronic, with periods of acute initiated by the presence of free gas in the dorsal sac of the rumen.
T27610 190817-190996 Sentence denotes Thus, if ruminal conditions prevent normal contractions from occurring in the reticulorumen or if movement of free gas through the cardia or esophagus is obstructed, bloat occurs.
T73584 190997-191189 Sentence denotes Excessive foam production causes distention of the rumen because it prevents formation of a free gas cap and the clearing of the cardia, which is essential for normal eructation to take place.
T98111 191190-191304 Sentence denotes When foam enters the esophagus, it stimulates the swallowing reflex, which also interferes with normal eructation.
T97093 191305-191359 Sentence denotes Gassy froth accumulates in the rumen as a consequence.
T17282 191360-191501 Sentence denotes The variation among animals in their susceptibility to bloat may be determined in part by variations in the amount and composition of saliva.
T32277 191502-191584 Sentence denotes Saliva apparently has properties that may promote or prevent foaming in the rumen.
T55409 191585-191697 Sentence denotes When secretion of saliva decreases, the viscosity of ruminal contents increases, which in turn promotes foaming.
T13328 191698-191804 Sentence denotes Cows that have high susceptibility to bloating produce less saliva than cows that have low susceptibility.
T19751 191805-191913 Sentence denotes Succulent and high-concentrate feeds reduce salivary secretion, thus increasing viscosity of rumen contents.
T68149 191914-191985 Sentence denotes The composition of saliva also affects foam production in several ways.
T23843 191986-192214 Sentence denotes Combination of salivary bicarbonate with organic acids such as citric, malonic, and succinic, which are present in high levels in legumes, results in the production of large amounts of carbon dioxide, enhancing bubble formation.
T25799 192215-192289 Sentence denotes Carbon dioxide accounts for 40-70% of the total gas produced in the rumen.
T64567 192290-192418 Sentence denotes High and low susceptibility to bloat can be temporarily transferred between animals by exchange of total reticulorumen contents.
T49571 192419-192544 Sentence denotes The understanding of the full role played by these various factors in bloat is incomplete, and other factors may be involved.
T26518 192545-192666 Sentence denotes Rations high in concentrate and low in roughage not only reduce saliva secretion, but also change the ruminal microflora.
T20470 192667-192846 Sentence denotes They promote the growth of large numbers of encapsulated bacteria, which increase the concentration of polysaccharides, and these, in turn, increase the viscosity, promoting foam.
T99036 192847-192921 Sentence denotes These bacteria are also often mucinolytic and may destroy salivary mucins.
T22770 192922-193039 Sentence denotes Perhaps this explains the more gradual onset of feedlot bloat, because it takes time for the ruminal flora to change.
T45067 193040-193162 Sentence denotes Particle size of the grains fed may be one factor in feedlot bloat, with smaller particle size predisposing more to bloat.
T56016 193163-193251 Sentence denotes The cause of death in bloat is probably a combination of physical and metabolic effects.
T94356 193252-193365 Sentence denotes Increased intra-abdominal pressure on the diaphragm inhibits respiration, and adversely affects cardiac function.
T46506 193366-193417 Sentence denotes Hypoxia may be caused by respiratory embarrassment.
T35727 193418-193572 Sentence denotes Increased intra-abdominal pressure also has a marked effect on the hemodynamics of the abdominal viscera, which are compressed, driving blood out of them.
T93827 193573-193652 Sentence denotes The caudal vena cava is also compressed, decreasing venous return to the heart.
T97552 193653-193734 Sentence denotes Distention also affects mucosal permeability and alters vagosympathetic reflexes.
T72157 193735-194000 Sentence denotes The bloated animal is often found dead and distended with gas; blood exudes from the orifices, and because of the gaseous distention, the carcass often rolls on its back and assumes a sawhorse posture, with forelegs extended forward and rear legs pointing backward.
T49858 194001-194087 Sentence denotes The blood is dark and clots poorly; both features are indicative of death from anoxia.
T44718 194088-194175 Sentence denotes Subcutaneous hemorrhages are prominent in the cranial extremities, which are congested.
T82473 194176-194294 Sentence denotes There is marked edema, congestion, and hemorrhage of the cervical muscles and of the lymph nodes of the head and neck.
T37901 194295-194399 Sentence denotes An inconsistent but suggestive finding A B prehended with the food, to be deposited in the forestomachs.
T57596 194400-194471 Sentence denotes Sheep are largely immune because of their more selective eating habits.
T1935 194472-194586 Sentence denotes Foreign bodies are rarely found in the rumen of goats, despite their reputation for indiscriminate feeding habits.
T22090 194587-194768 Sentence denotes In consequence, a large proportion of adult cattle, and very few goats or sheep, have metallic, wood, or plastic foreign bodies in the rumen and reticulum, but rarely in the omasum.
T35903 194769-194904 Sentence denotes Spherical masses consisting largely of hair or wool (trichobezoars) or plant fibers (phytobezoars) may also form in these compartments.
T45901 194905-195043 Sentence denotes Hairballs are most common in younger ruminants, the hair being swallowed after licking, particularly by animals deprived of dietary fiber.
T73647 195044-195204 Sentence denotes They may have some other foreign body as a nucleus and contain a proportion of plant fibers, the whole mass concreted by organic substances and inorganic salts.
T41872 195205-195253 Sentence denotes The same general comments apply to phytobezoars.
T94412 195254-195446 Sentence denotes Being smooth, neither are important unless regurgitated to lodge in the esophagus or passed on to obstruct the reticulo-omasal orifice, the pylorus, or the intestine, which is very infrequent.
T13789 195447-195498 Sentence denotes Otherwise, these bezoars are an incidental finding.
T50772 195499-195655 Sentence denotes The important foreign bodies are those (such as lead) that cause intoxication when dissolved, and those that (being abrasive or sharp) penetrate the mucosa.
T42452 195656-195819 Sentence denotes In calves on diets low in roughage, ingestion of wood shavings or straw may lead to diffuse transmural inflammation of the forestomachs and sometimes the abomasum.
T32442 195820-195938 Sentence denotes A mixed bacterial flora containing clostridia and other organisms is responsible, presumably following mucosal trauma.
T49272 195939-196031 Sentence denotes The sequel to penetration by sharp objects in adult cattle is traumatic reticuloperitonitis.
T69477 196032-196057 Sentence denotes Abutarbush SM, Naylor JM.
T31185 196058-196121 Sentence denotes Obstruction of the small intestine by a trichobezoar in cattle:
T42041 196122-196207 Sentence denotes 15 cases (1992) (1993) (1994) (1995) (1996) (1997) (1998) (1999) (2000) (2001) (2002)
T31662 196209-196382 Sentence denotes Perforation of the forestomachs by foreign bodies is virtually always caused by a long, thin, and sharp foreign body, usually a wire or nail, penetrating the reticular wall.
T88353 196383-196588 Sentence denotes Incomplete perforation is usually inconsequential, although in some cases focal suppurative or granulomatous inflammation develops in the wall of the reticulum, with or without minor overlying peritonitis.
T33384 196589-196831 Sentence denotes There are no adequate answers as to why perforation occurs, but it is probably caused by forceful contraction of the reticulum, and many cases seem to be predisposed by the increased intra-abdominal pressure of late pregnancy and parturition.
T85880 196832-197031 Sentence denotes The prophylactic use of magnets has become common in many herds, and this probably contributes to the marked decrease in fatal cases of traumatic reticuloperitonitis observed over the past few years.
T61377 197032-197227 Sentence denotes Frequently, these magnets are found incidentally in the reticulum, completely covered by metal foreign bodies, including nails and wires, which might otherwise have penetrated the reticular wall.
T22709 197228-197388 Sentence denotes The replacement of baling wire with twine in many parts of the world is another reason for the apparent decline in the prevalence of this disease. exacerbation.
T50203 197389-197508 Sentence denotes It is usually the result of a physical or functional defect in eructation of gas produced by normal rumen fermentation.
T58222 197509-197683 Sentence denotes The more common physical problems include internal or external obstructions of the esophagus or esophageal groove by tumor, foreign body, or esophageal stenosis of any cause.
T69583 197684-197817 Sentence denotes Reticular adhesions, abscesses, peritonitis, or tumor masses that interfere with contractions of the forestomach can result in bloat.
T41694 197818-198014 Sentence denotes Functional causes of secondary tympany include organophosphate intoxication, and vagal damage caused by adhesions, lymphosarcomatous infiltrates, or right-sided abomasal displacement and volvulus.
T53734 198015-198103 Sentence denotes Secondary tympany is a component of the syndromes collectively termed vagus indigestion.
T64447 198104-198252 Sentence denotes Bloat caused by muscular dystrophy of the diaphragmatic muscles has been described in both Meuse-Rhine-Issel and Holstein-Friesian breeds of cattle.
T28715 198253-198326 Sentence denotes Secondary tympany, which is sometimes fatal, occurs in bucket-fed calves.
T63432 198327-198417 Sentence denotes This may be a persistent problem in some veal calves, which are known as ruminal drinkers.
T32842 198418-198682 Sentence denotes They ingest large amounts of milk, which escapes the reticular groove and flows into the rumen, where it putrefies because of digestion by proteolytic bacteria involving transformation of lactose into lactate by lactobacilli causing ruminal and metabolic acidosis.
T16432 198683-198741 Sentence denotes Casein clot formation in the abomasum is partly inhibited.
T854 198742-198871 Sentence denotes The clinical signs are characterized by inappetence, unthriftiness, recurrent tympany, abdominal distention, and clay-like feces.
T43107 198872-199099 Sentence denotes Because of butyric and lactic acid accumulation in the epithelium of the reticulorumen, ruminal drinking leads to hyperkeratotic parakeratosis and severe reticulorumenitis accompanied by epithelial loss, erosions, and necrosis.
T53103 199100-199198 Sentence denotes Animals fed rations that have too much indigestible roughage may have recurrent episodes of bloat.
T63587 199199-199335 Sentence denotes Feed must contain adequate portions of protein, starch, and/or sugars, and cellulose to stimulate growth of the cellulolytic microflora.
T8372 199336-199473 Sentence denotes Indigestible roughage accumulates in the rumen and reticulum when the intake of digestible nutrients (starches and sugars) is inadequate.
T66222 199474-199644 Sentence denotes As a result, the forestomachs become dilated, which in turn inhibits reticuloruminal contractions that are required for clearance of the cardia and subsequent eructation.
T89543 199645-199874 Sentence denotes A postmortem diagnosis of secondary bloat is based on autopsy findings, which are similar to those described in primary bloat, but without frothy rumen content, and with the addition of any physical causes of impaired eructation.
T90535 199875-199954 Sentence denotes Postmortem distention of the rumen must not be mistaken for antemortem tympany.
T78059 199955-199960 Sentence denotes Braun
T59185 199962-200113 Sentence denotes Further reading Abutarbush lesions may be in the pharyngeal and cervical areas, or intrathoracic, such as lymphosarcomatous infiltration, or abdominal.
T14765 200114-200245 Sentence denotes The latter are usually investment of the nerve in adhesions following reticular perforation, or trauma following abomasal volvulus.
T22705 200246-200303 Sentence denotes In other cases, degeneration of the vagus is not evident.
T70700 200304-200574 Sentence denotes In these, the dysfunction and lesions are more likely to be due to peritonitis and the subsequent abscessation, or adhesions that disrupt the normal tension-receptor activity or cause a pain response that interferes with normal motility of the forestomachs and abomasum.
T65161 200575-200782 Sentence denotes In failure of omasal transport (type II vagus indigestion), there is impairment of movement of ingesta from the reticulorumen to the omasum, associated with abscesses adjacent to the reticulo-omasal orifice.
T91715 200783-200884 Sentence denotes There, lesions probably result in mechanical or neural interference to emptying of the reticulorumen.
T87007 200885-201149 Sentence denotes A diagnosis of vagal indigestion at autopsy is ordinarily dependent on evidence of abnormal abomasal, omasal, or reticuloruminal motility, in association with morphologic lesions of the vagus nerves, adhesions, or neoplasms involving the forestomachs and abomasum.
T49184 201150-201418 Sentence denotes Traumatic pericarditis is a less common sequel now, perhaps because many of the initial penetrations are diagnosed and the foreign body removed surgically, and also because, as explained previously, the cases of traumatic reticuloperitonitis themselves have decreased.
T81865 201419-201475 Sentence denotes The pericardial reaction is copious and fibrinopurulent.
T98492 201476-201550 Sentence denotes There are usually additional lesions of traumatic pneumonia and pleuritis.
T33004 201551-201559 Sentence denotes Braun U.
T61551 201560-201660 Sentence denotes Traumatic The outcome of complete perforation is common, but variations in the pattern are frequent.
T33402 201661-201774 Sentence denotes The perforation is usually in the cranioventral direction and is followed immediately by acute local peritonitis.
T87182 201775-201998 Sentence denotes If the foreign body is short or bent, it may progress no further, and some foreign bodies are apparently withdrawn with the next reticular movement; in such instances, only chronic local peritonitis with adhesions develops.
T85685 201999-202108 Sentence denotes The foreign body may advance to perforate the diaphragm and pericardium, resulting in traumatic pericarditis.
T9104 202109-202201 Sentence denotes A ventral penetration may result in subperitoneal and subcutaneous abscess near the xiphoid.
T10693 202202-202408 Sentence denotes Rare perforation of one of the larger regional arteries may result in sudden death from hemorrhage, and sudden death may also occur if there is penetration of the myocardium or rupture of a coronary artery.
T16929 202409-202465 Sentence denotes Septicemia is also a possible but uncommon complication.
T63357 202466-202583 Sentence denotes Penetration of the thoracic cavity may occur without perforation of the pericardium, causing pneumonia and pleuritis.
T15518 202584-202667 Sentence denotes Right lateral deviation of the penetrating agent involves the wall of the abomasum.
T95270 202668-202773 Sentence denotes It is unusual for the liver or spleen to be penetrated, but metastatic abscesses in the liver are common.
T74770 202774-202964 Sentence denotes As soon as the foreign body penetrates the serosa, local fibrinous peritonitis develops, which later leads to dense adhesion of variable extent between the reticulum and adjacent structures.
T26848 202965-203174 Sentence denotes Further progression of the foreign body is ordinarily slow and produces a canal surrounded by chronic granulation tissue and containing, besides the foreign body, ingesta, purulent exudate, and other detritus.
T4104 203175-203324 Sentence denotes The bacteria commonly active in the tract are Trueperella (Arcanobacterium) pyogenes, Fusobacterium necrophorum, and a variety of putrefactive types.
T25165 203325-203444 Sentence denotes In many cases, a foreign body cannot be found, perhaps because it has rusted away or been withdrawn into the reticulum.
T58566 203445-203665 Sentence denotes One of the variants in the usual pattern of migration of the foreign body is penetration of the right side of the reticulum, leading to suppurative inflammation in the grooves between the reticulum, omasum, and abomasum.
T14688 203666-203906 Sentence denotes The acute local peritonitis causes immediate cessation of ruminal movements; however, persistent ruminal atony or irregular motility with gradual onset of bilateral abdominal distention, inappetence, and decreased milk production may ensue.
T98130 203907-204012 Sentence denotes Clinically this is referred to as vagus indigestion, which also may be a sequel to abomasal displacement.
T27461 204013-204098 Sentence denotes At autopsy, there are very characteristic changes in the stomachs with this syndrome.
T92643 204099-204183 Sentence denotes The rumen is distended with enough fluid to cause sloshing if the carcass is jolted.
T99032 204184-204348 Sentence denotes There is no ruminal fermentation or normal odor, and bits of unmacerated straw and food particles float on the watery fluid; the more-normal ingesta has sedimented.
T77936 204349-204415 Sentence denotes The omasum can be very large and impacted with dehydrated ingesta.
T45097 204416-204546 Sentence denotes The abomasum may be distended and impacted with dry ingesta, presumably because of functional pyloric stenosis or abomasal stasis.
T68678 204547-204660 Sentence denotes The question of the importance of vagal nerve damage in the pathogenesis of vagus indigestion remains unresolved.
T49668 204661-204967 Sentence denotes The consensus is that this syndrome is associated with mechanical or functional impairment of outflow of ingesta from the forestomachs or abomasum, but in some cases the primary defect appears to reside in flaccidity of the reticular groove and in degeneration of its muscle and intramuscular nerve plexus.
T72786 204968-205132 Sentence denotes The rumen and reticulum are dependent on intact vagi for normal movement, and a minority of cases of vagus indigestion appears to be associated with damaged nerves.
T22238 205133-205338 Sentence denotes Vagal Rumenitis assumes significance in subclinical disease or in survivors of acute episodes, by providing a portal for the entry for fungi and Fusobacterium necrophorum, which cause secondary infections.
T53930 205339-205379 Sentence denotes These complications are discussed later.
T22140 205380-205518 Sentence denotes Other complications include coexisting primary tympany (frothy bloat), which may be the fatal partner of grain overload in feedlot cattle.
T13739 205519-205735 Sentence denotes Ruminal acidosis usually follows the ingestion of excess carbohydrate in the form of grain, or other fermentable feedstuffs occasionally used, such as root crops, bread, waste baked goods, brewers' waste, and apples.
T11400 205736-205909 Sentence denotes There is wide variation in the amount of carbohydrate necessary to kill an animal, because tolerance to rations high in starch does develop if they are introduced gradually.
T37808 205910-206013 Sentence denotes Sudden increments in the amount of carbohydrate ingested are of more importance than the actual amount.
T59637 206014-206127 Sentence denotes Sudden changes from concentrates with lower energy values to those with higher values may predispose to acidosis.
T29189 206128-206315 Sentence denotes Extreme environmental temperature changes, either hotter or cooler, may result in temporary reductions in feed consumption, and acidosis may develop once such animals return to full feed.
T44043 206316-206405 Sentence denotes Shortly after the ingestion of a toxic amount of carbohydrate, ruminal pH begins to fall.
T40622 206406-206537 Sentence denotes The decrease in pH during the first few hours is mainly caused by an increase in dissociated volatile fatty acids, not lactic acid.
T82300 206538-206705 Sentence denotes The production of the latter increases after there has been a marked change in the ruminal flora, which is very responsive to the substrate available for fermentation.
T92164 206706-206812 Sentence denotes In cattle and sheep, the normal pH of ruminal fluid varies between 5.5 and 7.5, depending on the diet fed.
T13129 206813-206969 Sentence denotes The gram-negative bacteria that predominate in the normal flora, and the protozoa, are very sensitive to changes in the pH; most die at a pH of 5.0 or less.
T88313 206970-207125 Sentence denotes Once the pH of the ruminal contents starts to fall, streptococci, mainly Streptococcus bovis, proliferate rapidly, acting as a major source of lactic acid.
T76452 207126-207237 Sentence denotes When the pH reaches 5.0-4.5, the numbers of streptococci decrease, with a concomitant increase in lactobacilli.
T39271 207238-207304 Sentence denotes The pH of rumen content may fall as low as 4.0-4.5 in fatal cases.
T60326 207305-207482 Sentence denotes As ruminal pH drops, ruminal atony develops, mainly as the result of an increase in the concentration of the nondissociated volatile fatty acids, lactic, propionic, and butyric.
T54190 207483-207580 Sentence denotes They act on receptors that mediate inhibition of reticuloruminal motility via a vagovagal reflex.
T15611 207581-207698 Sentence denotes Loss of forestomach motility in ruminal acidosis is apparently not dependent on the development of systemic acidosis.
T33368 207699-207795 Sentence denotes There is also cessation of salivary secretion, so that the buffering effect of saliva is absent.
T41051 207796-207898 Sentence denotes The increase in ruminal organic acids, mainly lactate, causes an increase in ruminal osmotic pressure.
T16536 207899-208031 Sentence denotes This results in movement of fluid from the blood into the rumen, producing bulky and liquid ruminal contents and severe dehydration.
T26047 208032-208117 Sentence denotes Plasma volume is reduced; hemoconcentration, anuria, and circulatory collapse follow.
T97621 208118-208222 Sentence denotes Serum protein levels, urea, inorganic phosphorus, lactate, pyruvate, and liver enzymes are all elevated.
T43178 208223-208354 Sentence denotes The osmotic pressure of the intestinal contents also increases when the ingesta with the high lactate concentrations arrives there.
T72524 208355-208540 Sentence denotes Loss of fluid at this level probably contributes further to the dehydration, and it may also play a significant role in the development of the diarrhea that is commonly seen clinically.
T95174 208541-208679 Sentence denotes In addition to the osmotic effects, there is acidosis caused by the absorption of lactate from the rumen, and possibly from the intestine.
T99168 208680-208747 Sentence denotes The low ruminal pH is lethal to much of the normal flora and fauna.
T37930 208748-208914 Sentence denotes The protozoa appear to be particularly sensitive, they can occur subsequent to chemical rumenitis, primary viral rumenitis, sepsis, or intensive antibiotic treatment.
T23237 208915-209122 Sentence denotes Mild inflammation of the forestomachs occurs in some young calves fed milk from a pail, when, because of laxity of the reticular groove reflex, the milk spills into the rumen and reticulum in large quantity.
T46693 209123-209177 Sentence denotes A similar problem occurs with feeding by stomach tube.
T32832 209178-209296 Sentence denotes Putrefaction in these compartments leads to mild rumenitis, with edema and mild neutrophil infiltration of the mucosa.
T84694 209297-209491 Sentence denotes Accidental consumption of excessive quantities of urea, in the form of nonprotein nitrogen supplement, or fertilizer, in liquid or powder form, results in the production of ammonia in the rumen.
T78598 209492-209618 Sentence denotes The toxic effect is accelerated by urease in soybased rations, and is based on the production of high blood levels of ammonia.
T56586 209619-209804 Sentence denotes Rumen contents smell ammoniacal when the organ is opened; the content is alkaline (pH 7.5-8); and there may be congestion or coagulative necrosis of the cranioventral wall of the rumen.
T40032 209805-209954 Sentence denotes Elevated ruminal and abomasal pH values (7.0), without specific lesions, have been associated with ingestion of boron fertilizer by cattle and goats.
T19415 209955-210120 Sentence denotes Ingestion of toxic levels of sulfur results in chemical rumenitis because of the conversion of sulfur to hydrogen sulfide, and possibly sulfurous acid, in the rumen.
T33570 210121-210206 Sentence denotes Large amounts of yellow sulfur particles are usually found in the rumen and abomasum.
T48031 210207-210291 Sentence denotes Eructation and subsequent inhalation of hydrogen sulfide result in acute alveolitis.
T53905 210292-210433 Sentence denotes Absorption of sulfides from the lungs leads to marked depression of the respiratory and cardiovascular centers in the central nervous system.
T52369 210434-210637 Sentence denotes Affected animals also develop acidosis, probably caused by the absorption of acids, and impaired renal function associated with the direct toxic effects of sulfur metabolites on tubular epithelial cells.
T38921 210638-210766 Sentence denotes Inflammation of the forestomachs may be associated with certain plant toxicoses, mainly in Australia, Africa, and South America.
T70885 210767-210923 Sentence denotes Examples are Kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum), prickly paddy melon (Cucumis myriocarpus), and several species of Bryophyllum, Lupinus, and Phytolacca.
T78379 210924-211102 Sentence denotes Feeding rations deficient in fiber, which is increasingly the case in developed countries, can alter the microflora, predisposing the animals to metabolic disorders or rumenitis.
T44368 211103-211218 Sentence denotes In addition, acute chemical rumenitis develops after overeating on rapidly fermentable carbohydrate, usually grain.
T31581 211219-211232 Sentence denotes Pessoa CR, et
T80900 211234-211373 Sentence denotes Ruminal acidosis and rumenitis associated with ingestion of excess carbohydrate are problems mainly of intensive beef and dairy production.
T71823 211374-211440 Sentence denotes Sheep, and especially goats, are also susceptible to this problem.
T92251 211441-211696 Sentence denotes Its importance lies partly in loss of production and partly in mortality because of the acute disease, in which rumenitis is of minor significance and lactic acidosis is the major cause of morbidity and mortality. but many types of bacteria are also lost.
T33507 211697-211928 Sentence denotes In those animals that survive the acute phase of ruminal acidosis, recovery is not complete until a normal ruminal flora is re-established through contact with other animals or by transplant of ruminal content from healthy animals.
T78980 211929-212064 Sentence denotes Temporary recovery may be followed by what appears clinically to be a relapse in acidosis, but which is a developing mycotic rumenitis.
T89846 212065-212191 Sentence denotes If treatment of the initial fluid imbalance is delayed, death may occur in a week or so from ischemic renal cortical necrosis.
T28547 212192-212384 Sentence denotes The gross findings in this metabolic disease are not specific, and a practical diagnosis requires knowledge of access to fermentable carbohydrate and a clinically observed circulatory failure.
T95910 212385-212525 Sentence denotes At autopsy, the eyes are sunken, the blood may be thick and dark because of dehydration and hypoxia, and there is general venous congestion.
T54738 212526-212649 Sentence denotes The appearance of the ruminal contents varies with the time interval between ingestion of the carbohydrate and the autopsy.
T88593 212650-212768 Sentence denotes In the early stages, there is a copious amount of porridge-like rumen content, which has a distinct fermentative odor.
T62388 212769-212951 Sentence denotes The amount of grain, corn, or other source of starch varies considerably and is an unreliable indication of acidosis, and the presence of finely ground concentrate may be overlooked.
T72078 212952-213052 Sentence denotes Ruminal pH is only helpful when it is low (<5.0) because it may rise in later stages of the disease.
T28696 213053-213195 Sentence denotes Although the ruminal contents may appear relatively normal in more advanced cases of acidosis, intestinal contents tend to remain very watery.
T87051 213196-213339 Sentence denotes Absence of protozoa is consistent with chemical rumenitis, but is also influenced by the interval between death and the postmortem examination.
T70527 213340-213402 Sentence denotes The diagnosis of ruminal acidosis at autopsy can be difficult.
T21883 213403-213452 Sentence denotes The most suggestive abnormality is the rumenitis.
T66886 213453-213543 Sentence denotes It is probably chemical and dependent on the low pH, and is not readily discerned grossly.
T55973 213544-213683 Sentence denotes There may be a slight poorly defined blue discoloration in the ventral sac of the rumen, reticulum, and omasum, visible through the serosa.
T22399 213684-213764 Sentence denotes When the epithelium is detached, the lamina propria may be hyperemic in patches.
T63171 213765-213873 Sentence denotes In some cases, the epithelium appears to have undergone fixation because of low pH and is difficult to peel.
T25078 213874-213993 Sentence denotes Microscopic examination of the ruminal mucosa is the most reliable way of confirming a diagnosis of chemical rumenitis.
T43351 213994-214031 Sentence denotes The ruminal papillae appear enlarged.
T62724 214032-214127 Sentence denotes There is marked cytoplasmic vacuolation of the epithelial cells, often leading to vesiculation.
T73221 214128-214220 Sentence denotes A mild to marked neutrophilic reaction is evident in the mucosa and submucosa ( Fig. 1-30 ).
T74901 214221-214285 Sentence denotes Focal areas of erosion and ulceration may or may not be present.
T23724 214286-214372 Sentence denotes Fusobacterium necrophorum is a normal inhabitant of the anaerobic ruminal environment.
T573 214373-214536 Sentence denotes This bacterium is commonly responsible for complications of ruminal acidosis, producing characteristic lesions in the forestomachs ( Fig. 1-31A ) and in the liver.
T62688 214537-214669 Sentence denotes Invasion of the wall of the rumen takes advantage of the foothold provided by the superficial necrosis and inflammation of acidosis.
T26663 214670-214751 Sentence denotes Inflammatory changes favor the adherence of F. necrophorum to ruminal epithelium.
T12165 214752-214906 Sentence denotes Necrobacillary rumenitis is common in feedlot cattle, probably a product of mild acidosis following a too-rapid introduction to a high-concentrate ration.
T43096 214907-214987 Sentence denotes It affects the papillated areas of the ventral sac and occasionally the pillars.
T34707 214988-215209 Sentence denotes On the mucosal surface, the early lesions are visible as multiple irregular patches 2-15 cm across, in which the papillae are swollen, dark, slightly mushy, and are matted together by fibrinocellular inflammatory exudate.
T50491 215210-215309 Sentence denotes Affected papillae are necrotic, but ulceration may be delayed if there is ruminal atony and stasis.
T74974 215310-215432 Sentence denotes If the animal recovers from the immediate effects of overeating, the necrotic epithelium sloughs, the ulcer contracts, and
T49051 215434-215495 Sentence denotes A central area, thickened to 1 cm or more, firm and leathery.
T587 215496-215644 Sentence denotes There is acute fibrinohemorrhagic inflammation of the overlying peritoneum, and beneath it in the grooves there is bloodstained, inflammatory edema.
T95099 215645-215677 Sentence denotes The spleen also may be affected.
T17320 215678-215874 Sentence denotes On the inner surface of the rumen, the lesions are more hemorrhagic than those of necrobacillosis, and more irregular in outline ( Fig. 1-33B) , and the necrotic epithelium is difficult to detach.
T50050 215875-216047 Sentence denotes Histologically, the rumenitis is characterized by hemorrhagic necrosis of all structures in the wall; by copious fibrinous exudate; and by rather scant leukocytic reaction.
T58275 216048-216176 Sentence denotes Fungal hyphae with nonparallel walls are readily visible in the necrotic tissues and the lumina of the thrombosed blood vessels.
T24285 216177-216286 Sentence denotes More chronic cases are characterized by granulomatous inflammation in the deeper parts of the mucosal lesion.
T56452 216287-216375 Sentence denotes Mycotic rumenitis and omasitis may occur in cows that do not have a history of acidosis.
T74312 216376-216596 Sentence denotes It has been suggested that these cases may be a sequel of sepsis, with reflux of abomasal fluid into the forestomachs, and therapy with broad-spectrum antimicrobials acting as predisposing factors for mycotic infections.
T77143 216597-216693 Sentence denotes It can also be a sequel to ruminal damage in survivors of bovine viral diarrhea virus infection.
T33303 216694-216804 Sentence denotes Roughly circular and dark areas of infarction, most of them with a pale center, involving rumen and reticulum.
T76605 216805-216845 Sentence denotes Notice that the spleen is also affected.
T75906 216846-216848 Sentence denotes B.
T72281 216849-216939 Sentence denotes Appearance of mucosal surface of rumen; superficial necrosis overlies congested submucosa.
T3507 216940-216992 Sentence denotes A B epithelial regeneration begins from the margins.
T8796 216993-217081 Sentence denotes The regenerated epithelium is flat and white, and the papillae do not return completely.
T72809 217082-217185 Sentence denotes A stellate scar often remains, but many of the smaller lesions may disappear completely ( Fig. 1-31B ).
T46112 217186-217353 Sentence denotes Liver abscesses are the main complication of the F. necrophorum rumenitis and the term "rumenitis-liver abscess complex" is frequently used to describe this condition.
T4093 217354-217639 Sentence denotes Although the precise mechanism is not fully understood, it is recognized that bacterial emboli are released from the F. necrophoruminfected ruminal wall into the portal circulation, followed by bacteria being filtered by the liver, resulting in hepatic infection and abscess formation.
T42246 217640-217875 Sentence denotes Hepatic lesions are initially the typical coagulative necrosis of necrobacillosis, but in time they liquefy to form abscesses ( Fig. 1-32 ), and these often persist long after the initial ruminal lesions have cicatrized or disappeared.
T65148 217876-218082 Sentence denotes It is unusual for ruminal necrobacillosis in cattle to be more than a superficial infection, and although the muscle layers are involved in the inflammation, they are not ordinarily invaded by the organism.
T79132 218083-218135 Sentence denotes However, perforation of the omasal leaves is common.
T23878 218136-218236 Sentence denotes In sheep, the infection is more aggressive, although less frequently observed, than it is in cattle.
T84790 218237-218343 Sentence denotes Fusobacterium varium has also been reported to produce liver abscesses associated with rumenitis in sheep.
T63977 218344-218490 Sentence denotes Mycotic infection should be suspected when inflammation in the wall of the forestomachs extends to the serosa and is hemorrhagic and angiocentric.
T46356 218491-218686 Sentence denotes The fungi, which, like F. necrophorum, are opportunists, are usually zygomycetes of the genera Mucor, Rhizopus, and Absidia, which cannot be differentiated from each other in histologic sections.
T13306 218687-218789 Sentence denotes Mycotic rumenitis is much more severe and extensive than necrobacillary rumenitis, and is often fatal.
T8609 218790-218930 Sentence denotes The basis for the lesion is submucosal venular thrombosis caused by fungal invasion, causing venous infarction of the tissue field involved.
T90842 218931-219056 Sentence denotes The inflammation extends to the peritoneum, causing hemorrhagic and fibrinous peritonitis that mats the omentum to the rumen.
T36088 219057-219161 Sentence denotes In fatal cases, most of the ventral sac and parts of the reticulum, omasum and/or abomasum are involved.
T33803 219162-219311 Sentence denotes The lesions are very striking and suggest on initial inspection that the walls have been massively infarcted, which in part they have ( Fig. 1-33A ).
T81052 219312-219393 Sentence denotes The margins are well demarcated, usually by a narrow zone of congestive swelling.
T59107 219394-219490 Sentence denotes The affected areas are roughly circular, red to black, sometimes with a pale Paramphistomum spp.
T48360 219491-219547 Sentence denotes Larval paramphistomes in the duodenum can cause disease.
T63540 219548-219716 Sentence denotes The biology and pathogenicity of paramphistomes are discussed in detail the section on Infectious and parasitic diseases of the alimentary tract, later in this chapter.
T65883 219717-219870 Sentence denotes Myiasis of the rumen caused by larvae of the screwworm fly Cochliomyia hominivorax is occasionally a cause of mortality in young calves in South America.
T34502 219871-219944 Sentence denotes The larvae are presumed to be licked from cutaneous wounds and swallowed.
T65311 219945-219986 Sentence denotes They lodge in the rumen and perforate it.
T99971 219987-220000 Sentence denotes Gordon DK, et
T76275 220002-220109 Sentence denotes Neoplasia of the esophagus and reticulorumen is, with the exception of papilloma, rare in domestic animals.
T99416 220110-220201 Sentence denotes Papillomas of the esophagus in dogs are uncommon and may be associated with oral papilloma.
T82315 220202-220284 Sentence denotes In cattle, papillomata of the esophagus and forestomachs are common in some areas.
T33246 220285-220423 Sentence denotes They are caused by bovine papillomavirus 4 (BPV-4), which infects only squamous mucosa of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, and forestomachs.
T50915 220424-220601 Sentence denotes Bovine alimentary papillomatosis in healthy immunocompetent animals is usually mild with solitary papillomata, although a minority of infected animals may have multiple lesions.
T12854 220602-220672 Sentence denotes Most are small (<1 cm), broadly pedunculate tapering acuminate masses.
T98867 220673-220841 Sentence denotes They are composed of a number of closely packed fronds of squamous epithelium, each supported by a light core of fibrous stroma, and arising from a common fibrous base.
T28339 220842-221054 Sentence denotes Viral replication and the microscopic changes in infected epithelium are typical, as described earlier for canine oral papillomas, although the characteristic koilocytes and intranuclear inclusions can be sparse.
T45637 221055-221159 Sentence denotes These papillomas are usually rejected by a cell-mediated immune response within approximately 12 months.
T76131 221160-221361 Sentence denotes However, severe Metastases sometimes occur in the liver and cause necrotizing thrombophlebitis of the portal radicles visible as small irregular tan areas of infarction surrounded by a deep red margin.
T48148 221362-221547 Sentence denotes Other conditions that have been associated with ruminal acidosis are laminitis and an encephalopathy which morphologically resembles the lesions of early polioencephalomalacia (see Vol.
T43280 221548-221577 Sentence denotes 1, Integumentary system; Vol.
T85155 221578-221597 Sentence denotes 1, Nervous system).
T80405 221598-221611 Sentence denotes Foster AP, et
T39200 221613-221667 Sentence denotes Gongylonema spp. occur in the epithelium of the rumen.
T19329 221668-221734 Sentence denotes They appear as described in the esophagus, and are not pathogenic.
T79703 221735-221832 Sentence denotes More important parasites are the conical rumen flukes belonging to the family Paramphistomatidae.
T33491 221833-222043 Sentence denotes Although several species of Paramphistomum have been described, Paramphistomum cervi is probably the most widespread species; Calicophoron daubneyi is reported to be common in cattle and sheep in Great Britain.
T97893 222044-222152 Sentence denotes Paramphistomum parasites are found in cattle and sheep in warm temperate, subtropical, and tropical regions.
T90431 222153-222344 Sentence denotes These red, plump, droplet-shaped flukes are about the size of the papillae between which they reside in the rumen, where they are usually considered to be mostly nonpathogenic ( Fig. 1-34A ).
T34812 222345-222527 Sentence denotes However, if present in very high numbers, they can cause rumenoreticulitis, with atrophy of papillae and excessive cornification of the stratum corneum and granulosum ( Fig. 1-34B ).
T63015 222528-222651 Sentence denotes Loss of condition has been observed in adult cattle with massive ruminal infestation of esophagus and adjacent mediastinum.
T74617 222652-222751 Sentence denotes In horses, squamous cell carcinoma of the stomach may also involve the adjacent terminal esophagus.
T61314 222752-222859 Sentence denotes Rare squamous cell carcinoma, and adenocarcinomas arising from the esophageal glands, are reported in dogs.
T77090 222860-222977 Sentence denotes Invasion of, or metastasis to, the canine esophagus by thyroid, respiratory, and gastric carcinomas is also reported.
T30986 222978-223196 Sentence denotes Mesenchymal tumors of the esophagus, with the exception of the Spirocerca-associated fibrosarcomas and osteosarcomas in dogs, referred to previously in the section on parasitic diseases of the esophagus, are very rare.
T17638 223197-223275 Sentence denotes However, leiomyoma, osteosarcoma, and plasmacytoma have been reported in dogs.
T19038 223276-223411 Sentence denotes Connective tissue tumors of the ruminant forestomachs are similarly rare, although fibromas of the reticular groove have been reported.
T41967 223412-223570 Sentence denotes Occasional involvement of the rumen, omasum, and reticulum may occur in cattle with lymphosarcoma, usually also involving the abomasum and more distant sites.
T23644 223572-223746 Sentence denotes The stomach should be carefully examined in animals of any species with a history of inappetence or anorexia, cachexia, hypoproteinemia, diarrhea, regurgitation, or vomition.
T68099 223747-223824 Sentence denotes Abdominal distention may be associated with gastric dilation or displacement.
T45630 223825-223885 Sentence denotes Hematemesis, melena, or anemia may signify gastric bleeding.
T47427 223886-223993 Sentence denotes Many infectious diseases, with major systemic or alimentary tract signs elsewhere, produce gastric lesions.
T93195 223994-224094 Sentence denotes Systemic states such as uremia and endotoxemia cause characteristic gastric lesions in some species.
T10249 224095-224183 Sentence denotes The stomach has long been considered to lack a normal bacterial population (microbiota).
T6691 224184-224312 Sentence denotes However, bacteria have been identified in the glandular stomach of healthy animals, including members of the genus Helicobacter.
T32405 224313-224398 Sentence denotes In the horse and pig, an obvious smooth white or yellow esophageal region is present.
T69549 224399-224543 Sentence denotes It is covered by stratified squamous epithelium, with susceptibility to insult and reparative capacity similar to that of the esophageal lining.
T94274 224544-224739 Sentence denotes Chronic inflammatory infiltrates and lymphoid follicles are normally present in the lamina propria and submucosa of the cardiac gland mucosa abutting the esophageal region, especially in the pig.
T20121 224740-224903 Sentence denotes The cardiac gland zone is gray and is particularly well developed in this species, lining the gastric diverticulum, fundus, and about half the body of the stomach.
T4018 224904-225011 Sentence denotes In the dog, cat, and ruminant, cardiac glands are limited to a narrow zone at the cardia or omasal opening.
T69370 225012-225110 Sentence denotes Cardiac glands are branched tubular structures, lined almost exclusively by columnar mucous cells.
T63566 225111-225242 Sentence denotes The fundic, or oxyntic, gland acid-secretory mucosa in the horse and pig is red-brown and slightly irregular but not highly folded.
T40094 225243-225365 Sentence denotes More prominent longitudinally oriented rugae, or plicae, are present in the dog and cat, and in the abomasum of ruminants.
T55479 225366-225450 Sentence denotes Gastric secretion undiluted by ingesta in the dog or cat normally should be pH <3.0.
T15176 225451-225734 Sentence denotes Abomasal content should be pH <3.5-4.0. papillomatosis, often accompanied by development of squamous cell carcinomas (see later) in the same location has been described in the esophagus and forestomachs of bracken fern immunosuppressed, BPV-4 infected cattle in Scotland and England.
T19310 225735-225930 Sentence denotes Fibropapillomas, limited to the esophagus, esophageal groove and rumen of cattle, are caused by bovine papillomavirus 2 (BPV-2), normally associated with cutaneous papillomas and fibropapillomas.
T87357 225931-226082 Sentence denotes Alimentary fibropapillomas are smooth nodular pearly-white masses, usually about 0.5-1.0 cm in diameter, but occasionally up to 3.0 cm and plaque-like.
T32055 226083-226194 Sentence denotes They are comprised of fibromatous stroma covered by acanthotic epithelium, which occasionally may be ulcerated.
T88117 226195-226324 Sentence denotes No evidence of expression of BPV-2 is found in alimentary fibropapillomas, the viral genome being identified by molecular probes.
T87388 226325-226527 Sentence denotes Papillomas and fibropapillomas are normally asymptomatic, though large lesions of the reticular groove and esophagus may interfere with eructation and deglutition, causing bloating or loss of condition.
T7400 226528-226625 Sentence denotes Malignant neoplasms of the esophagus and forestomachs in ruminants are ordinarily extremely rare.
T36540 226626-226801 Sentence denotes However, in several localities, squamous cell carcinoma is relatively common in cattle, associated with BPV-4-induced papilloma (but not with fibropapilloma because of BPV-2).
T62888 226802-226879 Sentence denotes However, BPV-4 viral antigens or genome are not detected in these carcinomas.
T17116 226880-227080 Sentence denotes An interaction between papillomavirus and ingestion of carcinogens in bracken fern predisposes to the development of squamous cell carcinomas of the esophagus and forestomachs in Scotland and England.
T56608 227081-227253 Sentence denotes Immunocompromise caused by bracken fern intoxication, which is permissive of severe papillomatosis, is also a co-factor in neoplastic transformation to squamous carcinomas.
T60631 227254-227355 Sentence denotes In Brazil and Bolivia, a similar association is made with carcinomas of the oropharynx and esophagus.
T14827 227356-227632 Sentence denotes A high prevalence of carcinoma of the esophagus and forestomachs has also been reported from a single valley in Kenya, in association with papillomata not confirmed as viral, and with a yet undetermined carcinogen apparently ingested with or derived from native forest plants.
T5834 227633-227794 Sentence denotes Esophageal and ruminal carcinomas are associated with dysphagia or difficult deglutition, ruminal tympany, and apparent abdominal pain with progressive cachexia.
T90540 227795-227988 Sentence denotes Concurrent papillomas, carcinomas, and hemangiomas of the bladder, like those causing enzootic hematuria, but associated with BPV-2, are often found in cattle with esophageal or ruminal cancer.
T59212 227989-228065 Sentence denotes In Scotland, intestinal adenomas or adenocarcinoma also occur in many cases.
T25517 228066-228267 Sentence denotes Esophageal and ruminal carcinoma may be seen developing from recognizable papillomas; as brown irregular roughened hyperplastic epithelium; or as ulcerated or irregular proliferative fungating lesions.
T3539 228268-228386 Sentence denotes Distal esophagus, reticular groove, and the adjacent ruminal wall are the sites most commonly affected with carcinoma.
T74132 228387-228534 Sentence denotes Microscopically, they are typical squamous cell carcinomas, and invade locally, their scirrhous nature causing induration of the wall of the organ.
T60682 228535-228622 Sentence denotes They may metastasize to local lymph nodes, and to distant sites such as liver and lung.
T80626 228623-228742 Sentence denotes In sheep and goats, alimentary papillomas and squamous cell carcinomas are rare, and little is known of their etiology.
T29241 228743-229011 Sentence denotes Rarely, squamous cell carcinomas also may be encountered in the esophagus of aged cats, where they develop in the midthoracic portion, forming proliferative plaques of neoplastic cells that eventually ulcerate and invade the wall of the mucosae in the stomach of cats.
T87902 229012-229051 Sentence denotes The cause and significance are unknown.
T57316 229052-229247 Sentence denotes Hydrolysis of protein in preparation for subsequent intestinal digestion and absorption is accomplished in the stomach by acid and by pepsin, activated by autocatalysis from pepsinogen at low pH.
T53853 229248-229386 Sentence denotes Secretion of acid is the function of the oxyntic, or parietal cells, about one billion of which are present in the stomach of a 20-kg dog.
T50189 229387-229553 Sentence denotes Regulation of the volume and acidity of gastric secretion is physiologically complex and highly integrated, involving neurocrine, endocrine, and paracrine mechanisms.
T78431 229554-229667 Sentence denotes The parietal cell secretes hydrochloric acid in response to stimulation by histamine, acetylcholine, and gastrin.
T68816 229668-229754 Sentence denotes All 3 agonists are probably continuously present and involved in basal acid secretion.
T30209 229755-229890 Sentence denotes However, the effects of acetylcholine and gastrin are largely dependent on concurrent stimulation by the permissive agonist, histamine.
T23138 229891-230048 Sentence denotes Histamine is a paracrine stimulant, continuously present in the environment of the oxyntic cells, and secreted by mast cells and enterochromaffin-like cells.
T46899 230049-230171 Sentence denotes Occupation of the H 2 histamine receptor on the oxyntic cell causes enhanced generation of cyclic adenosine monophosphate.
T21577 230172-230320 Sentence denotes This in turn stimulates protein kinase cascades culminating in translocation of the proton pump to the apical cell membrane, where acid is secreted.
T55263 230321-230451 Sentence denotes Acetylcholine, the neurocrine agonist, is released near the oxyntic cell from processes of parasympathetic postganglionic neurons.
T93353 230452-230570 Sentence denotes Its release is enhanced by vagal activity during the central stimulation of the cephalic phase-the Pavlovian response.
T64767 230571-230675 Sentence denotes Gastric distention also stimulates the parietal cell via vagovagal and short intramural reflex pathways.
T31894 230676-230788 Sentence denotes Acetylcholine acting on muscarinic M 3 receptors elevates intracellular Ca 2+ , which stimulates acid secretion.
T195 230789-230882 Sentence denotes Gastrin is released into the bloodstream by G cells, many of which are in the pyloric antrum.
T48692 230883-230978 Sentence denotes Calcium, amino acids, and peptides in ingesta, impinging on G cells, stimulate gastrin release.
T20914 230979-231166 Sentence denotes Vagal stimulation during the cephalic phase, and fundic-pyloric vagovagal reflexes, in concert with local pyloric reflexes, initiated by distention, also cause G cells to release gastrin.
T21778 231167-231276 Sentence denotes Gastrin acts mainly by a receptor-mediated process to release histamine from the enterochromaffin-like cells.
T84870 231277-231415 Sentence denotes Gastrin alone is a weak stimulant of acid production, but it synergizes secretion by oxyntic cells exposed to histamine and acetylcholine.
T60379 231416-231541 Sentence denotes In addition, gastrin has an important trophic effect, increasing the number of parietal and endocrine cells in fundic mucosa.
T18528 231542-231616 Sentence denotes In turn, parietal cell mass seems to impact on chief cell differentiation.
T63562 231617-231812 Sentence denotes Acid production during the gastric phase of secretion is depressed by the negative-feedback effect of acid in the antrum, through the inhibitory effect of somatostatin on the G cell below pH 3.0.
T53840 231813-232079 Sentence denotes Acid, fat, and hyperosmolal solutions in the proximal small intestine also inhibit acid secretion, perhaps by the mediation of neural reflexes, secretin, gastric-inhibitory polypeptide, epidermal growth factor, transforming growth factor-α, or other enterogastrones.
T15679 232080-232146 Sentence denotes Prostaglandin E 2 also inhibits acid production by parietal cells.
T15475 232147-232249 Sentence denotes The chief cell is probably susceptible to the same general stimuli for secretion as the parietal cell.
T43413 232250-232413 Sentence denotes Gastric motility is the outcome of an interaction among myogenic, hormonal, and neuronal factors, the latter two impinging directly or indirectly on smooth muscle.
T11780 232414-232628 Sentence denotes Mediating at least part of the neural component of this control system, by as yet uncertain mechanisms, are the interstitial cells of Tall columnar mucous cells cover the gastric surface, and line pits or foveolae.
T99535 232629-232752 Sentence denotes The junction of the base of the foveola and the upper portion of the neck of the fundic gland proper is termed the isthmus.
T75273 232753-232850 Sentence denotes Cuboidal or low columnar pluripotential stem cells in a narrow zone in this area undergo mitosis.
T52636 232851-232958 Sentence denotes Three lineages are identified: (1) pit (foveolar) cells; (2) parietal cells; and (3) zymogen (chief) cells.
T97309 232959-233128 Sentence denotes Daughter cells of the pit cell lineage differentiate into foveolar mucous cells, migrating up on to the gastric surface, where they are lost, probably in about 4-6 days.
T73213 233129-233273 Sentence denotes The neck of the oxyntic gland below the isthmus is lined by pyramidal, peripherally located acid- and intrinsic factor-producing parietal cells.
T2022 233274-233461 Sentence denotes Interspersed are inconspicuous mucous neck cells, mainly in the upper neck and probably stages in the differentiation of chief, and perhaps, parietal cells, and scattered endocrine cells.
T24077 233462-233554 Sentence denotes In the base of the gland the pepsinogen-producing zymogen, or chief, cells are concentrated.
T47117 233555-233646 Sentence denotes Mucous neck cells, like foveolar mucous cells, contain periodic acid-Schiff-positive mucus.
T42357 233647-233798 Sentence denotes Parietal cells differentiate from cells proliferating at the isthmus, and appear to be relatively long-lived, that is, of the order of weeks to months.
T25089 233799-233970 Sentence denotes A complex tubulovesicular/canalicular structure upon which the hydrogen ion-secretory proton pump is inserted opens at the luminal apex of the cell in the secretory state.
T19220 233971-234192 Sentence denotes A number of long-lived enteroendocrine cells, derived from proliferative cells at the isthmus, are recognized in the oxyntic gland, secreting histamine, serotonin, and somatostatin, among other endocrine/paracrine agents.
T23366 234193-234331 Sentence denotes Endocrine cells usually abut the basement membrane of the gland, lack exposure to the gland lumen, and have characteristic basal granules.
T8524 234332-234420 Sentence denotes The chief cells are apparently long-lived cells, derived from stem cells at the isthmus.
T35041 234421-234542 Sentence denotes Ultrastructurally they have extensive rough endoplasmic reticulum, a prominent Golgi zone, and numerous zymogen granules.
T24289 234543-234688 Sentence denotes Normally, mitotic figures are not common in cells at the isthmus of fundic glands, and are virtually never seen at any distance from the isthmus.
T13768 234689-234818 Sentence denotes However, the fundic mucosa of newborn ruminants and especially piglets may be relatively poorly differentiated and proliferative.
T8123 234819-234949 Sentence denotes The proliferative compartment, if active, is sensitive to radiomimetic insults, such as cytotoxic agents and parvoviral infection.
T3135 234950-235062 Sentence denotes This is reflected by narrowing of the isthmus and upper neck and attenuation of the epithelium lining the gland.
T88355 235063-235236 Sentence denotes The pyloric mucosa forms a slightly pitted or irregular surface in the distal portion of the stomach; it extends further cranial along the lesser than the greater curvature.
T44629 235237-235314 Sentence denotes The knoblike torus pyloricus at the pylorus of the pig is a normal structure.
T2253 235315-235433 Sentence denotes The tubular glands of the pyloric mucosa open into deep gastric pits that may extend half the thickness of the mucosa.
T91175 235434-235561 Sentence denotes The glands are lined by pale mucous cells, with interspersed endocrine elements, mainly G (gastrin) and D (somatostatin) cells.
T96776 235562-235668 Sentence denotes Scattered parietal cells may be present, especially in glands in the zone intergrading with fundic mucosa.
T60265 235669-235781 Sentence denotes The stromal elements of the gastric lamina propria are relatively inconspicuous, in fundic mucosa in particular.
T38280 235782-235893 Sentence denotes Normally, a few lymphocytes and plasma cells, and scattered mast cells are present, mainly deep between glands.
T32414 235894-235990 Sentence denotes Occasional lymphocytic nodules or follicles may be present, usually near the muscularis mucosae.
T41214 235991-236045 Sentence denotes Lymphoid infiltrates are more common in antral mucosa.
T99085 236046-236197 Sentence denotes A thick band of amorphous hyalinized connective tissue, sometimes termed the lamina densa, is seen sporadically on the luminal aspect of the muscularis
T45433 236198-236372 Sentence denotes Restitution of acute erosive physical or chemical trauma to the mucosal surface is by rapid (minutes to hours) immigration of surviving attenuated surface and foveolar cells.
T49562 236373-236606 Sentence denotes Under the initial control of transforming growth factor-β and later influenced by epidermal growth factor, repair by proliferation of cells in the isthmus follows, if the erosive lesion is superficial and spares the progenitor cells.
T97961 236607-236778 Sentence denotes The "sonic hedgehog" protein is secreted by parietal cells and has been shown to be important in epithelial cell differentiation and gastric wound repair in animal models.
T24526 236779-236942 Sentence denotes A cap of mucus, exfoliated epithelium, and fibrin over a mucosal defect may form a protective barrier conducive to effective restitution of the mucosal epithelium.
T84571 236943-237103 Sentence denotes An acute inflammatory reaction demarcates severely eroded or superficially necrotic mucosa, and hemorrhage may be evident on the surface and in adjacent mucosa.
T80342 237104-237145 Sentence denotes Mitoses become common in the upper gland.
T74405 237146-237207 Sentence denotes After a gastric insult, mucosal blood flow rapidly increases.
T63301 237208-237325 Sentence denotes This is protective by aiding in dilution and removal of back-diffusing acid and injurious substances from the mucosa.
T82044 237326-237495 Sentence denotes During the early phase of repair, cells lining shallow foveolae and covering the surface are basophilic, poorly differentiated, and flattened, cuboidal, or low columnar.
T36191 237496-237600 Sentence denotes Sites of epithelial exfoliation and neutrophil transmigration or effusion into the lumen may be evident.
T15788 237601-237698 Sentence denotes Congestion, edema, mild neutrophilia, and fibroplasia are seen in the superficial lamina propria.
T9569 237699-237803 Sentence denotes The evolution and repair of gastric ulceration, to which erosion may be antecedent, are discussed later.
T67570 237804-238028 Sentence denotes The progenitor cells of the fundic mucosa have the potential to produce tall columnar mucous cells of the foveolar or surface type, to produce mucous neck cells, and by further differentiation, to evolve into parietal cells.
T41020 238029-238146 Sentence denotes Cajal, pacemakers that are variously found between the layers of gastric smooth muscle, or among smooth muscle cells.
T90 238147-238306 Sentence denotes The gastric mucosal barrier to acid back-diffusion and autodigestion resides largely in the single layer of foveolar and surface mucous cells and its products.
T74130 238307-238412 Sentence denotes Tight junctions are present between epithelial cells and are critical in maintenance of barrier function.
T33020 238413-238507 Sentence denotes Integrity of the gastric mucosal barrier implies continuity of the mucosal surface epithelium.
T53290 238508-238785 Sentence denotes The capacity of these cells to maintain tight junctions, to migrate rapidly to fill defects, and to secrete mucus, bicarbonate, and a hydrophobic phospholipid surface layer, is central to protecting the gastric mucosa against progressive injury by insults arising in the lumen.
T37016 238786-238977 Sentence denotes Gastric mucus is freely permeable to hydrogen ions and has little innate buffering capacity, but it resists hydrolysis by intraluminal pepsin, protecting the integrity of the mucosal surface.
T41798 238978-239124 Sentence denotes Mucus forms a layer immediately over the gastric epithelial cells termed the "unstirred mucus layer" and is the first line of defense from injury.
T45845 239125-239217 Sentence denotes This layer consists of a number of different types of mucin, bicarbonate, and phospholipids.
T45475 239218-239351 Sentence denotes Cardiac gland mucosa in the pig, and pyloric mucosa, secrete bicarbonate in considerable quantities, and normally resist acid attack.
T83318 239352-239459 Sentence denotes Fundic surface mucous cells also actively secrete bicarbonate into a thin unstirred layer of surface mucus.
T40710 239460-239544 Sentence denotes Bicarbonate and mucus secretion by mucous cells is stimulated by prostaglandin E 2 .
T78381 239545-239657 Sentence denotes Acid is buffered by bicarbonate in the thin unstirred layer of mucus, preventing back-diffusion into the mucosa.
T11731 239658-239844 Sentence denotes In addition, the "alkaline tide" of bicarbonate, released into the gastric interstitial space during the course of acid secretion, further buffers the mucosa against acid back-diffusion.
T11031 239845-240118 Sentence denotes Prostaglandins, particularly of the E series, ubiquitous in gastric mucosal lamina propria, may have protective effects other than by stimulation of bicarbonate and mucus secretion by mucous cells, and by inhibition of histamine-stimulated acid secretion by parietal cells.
T45180 240119-240206 Sentence denotes They cause proliferation, resulting in an increased mass of foveolar mucous epithelium.
T21250 240207-240404 Sentence denotes They may promote incorporation of surfactant molecules into the apical cell membrane of surface mucous cells, increasing its hydrophobicity and imparting greater resistance to watersoluble insults.
T96245 240405-240553 Sentence denotes They also may be involved in gastric mucosal cytoprotection by sulfhydryl compounds, which may neutralize free radicals and other toxic metabolites.
T84172 240554-240769 Sentence denotes Prostaglandins and basal nitric oxide production cause vasodilation and increased blood flow, in addition to inhibiting acid secretion by parietal cells, and promoting bicarbonate secretion by foveolar mucous cells.
T49643 240770-241085 Sentence denotes Bicarbonate in the local circulation, resulting from the alkaline tide generated by acid secretion in glands deeper in the mucosa, is probably important in buffering the superficial lamina propria against backdiffusion of acid; adequate blood flow flushes injurious free radicals from the vicinity of surface cells.
T95228 241086-241194 Sentence denotes Experimentally, high blood flow is protective against many mucosal insults, whereas ischemia is ulcerogenic.
T98433 241195-241454 Sentence denotes Epidermal growth factor, originating in salivary glands, and transforming growth factor-α, produced locally in the gastric mucosa, also appear protective, in that they may promote cell proliferation and migration to fill defects, and suppress acid production.
T2237 241455-241586 Sentence denotes Bombesin is probably protective through stimulation of gastrin-mediated nitric oxide release, promoting gastric mucosal blood flow.
T48059 241587-241800 Sentence denotes The gastric microvascular network is also from fundic atrophy associated with the loss of appetite on the basis of the degree of mucous cell hyperplasia and differentiation, and the presence of inflammatory cells.
T80963 241801-241880 Sentence denotes The cause and functional significance of gastric mucous metaplasia are unclear.
T81438 241881-242045 Sentence denotes Parietal cells are important for epithelial homeostasis and their loss during chronic inflammation may contribute to epithelial dysregulation and mucous metaplasia.
T11011 242046-242374 Sentence denotes Presumably loss of parietal cells and hyperplasia of mucous neck cells is partly a response to soluble local immunemediated stimuli or products of inflammation because it is localized in the vicinity of glands containing larvae in gastric parasitism, but, as a general phenomenon, seems independent of parasite-specific factors.
T45803 242375-242520 Sentence denotes Tumor necrosis factorα, interleukin-1, and interferon-γ are candidate cytokines involved in inflammatory mucous metaplasia of the fundic stomach.
T83597 242521-242689 Sentence denotes In vitro, interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α inhibit acid secretion by isolated parietal cells, and tumor necrosis factor-α induces apoptosis of parietal cells.
T63914 242690-242848 Sentence denotes Replacement of parietal cells by mucous neck cells, or an apparently more fully differentiated mucous cell in chronic gastritis, may be a protective response.
T43140 242849-243014 Sentence denotes It may eliminate the threat of local acid corrosion, and promote the transfer into the lumen of protective soluble factors such as lysozyme and IgA or its analogues.
T69087 243015-243137 Sentence denotes In animal models, gastric mucous metaplasia has been identified as an early event in the progression to gastric neoplasia.
T71351 243138-243208 Sentence denotes Achlorhydria ensues in severe chronic gastritis and mucous metaplasia.
T15046 243209-243379 Sentence denotes The pH of gastric secretion approaches or exceeds neutrality under some circumstances, as sodium ion replaces hydrogen ion in gastric content and bicarbonate is secreted.
T87863 243380-243501 Sentence denotes With diminished gastric acid concentration, progressive microbial colonization of the stomach and upper intestine ensues.
T37599 243502-243693 Sentence denotes Parietal cell atrophy and replacement by mucous neck cells in ruminants with anorexia caused by enteric disease may predispose to mycotic invasion of the mucosa if it is physically disrupted.
T39795 243694-243851 Sentence denotes However, mucous metaplasia and hyperplasia, as seen in chronic gastritis or conditions like ostertagiosis, do not seem to render the mucosa prone to mycosis.
T97997 243852-244126 Sentence denotes Loss of the hydrolytic effects of acid and pepsin, in achlorhydria, seems to have little effect on digestion of protein and uptake of nitrogen, at least in animals with ostertagiosis, and the effect on protein digestion of atrophic gastritis in humans appears to be minimal.
T27913 244127-244523 Sentence denotes Rather, at least in parasitic gastritis, inappetence diminishes nutrient intake on the one hand, whereas mucosal permeability permits protein loss through the mucosa (protein-losing gastropathy); together, these impact on the nitrogen economy of the animal to cause reduced productive efficiency, or loss of body condition, depending on whether the animal enters negative nitrogen balance or not.
T16 244524-244665 Sentence denotes Evaluation of gastric biopsies is governed by the same caveats discussed in the section on interpretation of intestinal and colonic biopsies.
T46023 244666-244714 Sentence denotes Rapid fixation of gastric biopsies is paramount.
T30717 244715-244815 Sentence denotes Gastritis, and the pathogenesis of gastrointestinal parasitism, are discussed later in this chapter.
T88998 244816-244999 Sentence denotes Atrophy of parietal cell mass without extensive mucous cell hyperplasia occurs in animals, particularly ruminants, which have signs of gastrointestinal disease, including inappetence.
T90962 245000-245034 Sentence denotes The change is not evident grossly.
T81274 245035-245154 Sentence denotes Microscopically, fewer parietal cells are seen in the upper neck of fundic glands, and often in the depth of the gland.
T34575 245155-245297 Sentence denotes This is accompanied by epithelial proliferation, indicated by moderate numbers of mitotic figures at the isthmus and in the neck of the gland.
T39432 245298-245363 Sentence denotes Mucous neck cells become the predominant cell in the upper gland.
T13970 245364-245458 Sentence denotes In extreme cases mucous neck cells are present to the base of glands, and achlorhydria occurs.
T2167 245459-245553 Sentence denotes Similar findings occur in animals with a wide variety of syndromes involving loss of appetite.
T8213 245554-245622 Sentence denotes Starvation of moderate duration does not produce comparable lesions.
T6095 245623-245874 Sentence denotes This lesion may be the result of reduced trophic stimulation of the fundic mucosa, and is not to be confused with atrophic gastritis, in which loss of parietal cell mass and atrophy of mucosal thickness are accompanied by usually chronic inflammation.
T66068 245875-246011 Sentence denotes Mucous metaplasia and hyperplasia of glands in the fundic stomach in all species are associated with chronic inflammation of the mucosa.
T89951 246012-246241 Sentence denotes As the lesion evolves, parietal cells seem to be lost at an accelerated rate because they are only present in the basal portion of the glands, and they appear to be progressively displaced from above by hyperplastic mucous cells.
T40396 246242-246324 Sentence denotes Mitotic figures may be numerous throughout the neck of the gland, which elongates.
T63054 246325-246405 Sentence denotes The metaplastic epithelium in early lesions tends to resemble mucous neck cells.
T54134 246406-246532 Sentence denotes In established lesions, columnar mucous cells with regular nuclear polarity, similar to foveolar mucous cells, may be present.
T29824 246533-246631 Sentence denotes When inflammatory infiltrates are local, the mucous change is limited to a few surrounding glands.
T99847 246632-246736 Sentence denotes More diffuse inflammation is associated with the development of widespread epithelial mucous metaplasia.
T42554 246737-246844 Sentence denotes Focal or diffuse, superficial or mucosal, proprial infiltrates of plasma cells and lymphocytes are typical.
T57642 246845-246998 Sentence denotes Often, neutrophils, eosinophils, and Russell-body cells will be present in the lamina propria, and lymphocytes may be between epithelial cells in glands.
T67571 246999-247101 Sentence denotes Globule leukocytes may be present in the epithelium of glands, especially in the parasitized abomasum.
T229 247102-247357 Sentence denotes This mucous metaplasia, hyperplasia, and chronic inflammation is associated with a variety of causes, including chronic traumatic insults, such as those caused by implanted foreign bodies, as well as in the abomasa of ruminants infected with lentiviruses.
T7426 247358-247694 Sentence denotes The specific agency most commonly recognized is gastric parasitism by nematodes such as Ostertagia spp., Trichostrongylus axei, Hyostrongylus spp., and Ollulanus tricuspis, where the distribution of the lesion is often closely related to the physical presence of nematodes and to the interstitial inflammatory reaction that they incite.
T61201 247695-247844 Sentence denotes Mucous metaplasia and hyperplasia are also typically present around the healing margins of chronic ulcers, perhaps in response to local inflammation.
T84551 247845-248047 Sentence denotes The mucosa affected in these circumstances is grossly thickened, as on the overhanging margin of an ulcer, or in an Ostertagia "nodule," with a pebbled or convoluted surface if the lesion is widespread.
T3493 248048-248163 Sentence denotes Gastric rugae or plicae are thickened, partially as a result of mucosal hypertrophy, perhaps with submucosal edema.
T8579 248164-248293 Sentence denotes The surface of the stomach is usually paler than normal in affected areas; however, local congestion or hyperemia may be evident.
T10026 248294-248381 Sentence denotes Although the surface may be glistening, profuse mucus secretion is not usually obvious.
T78973 248382-248448 Sentence denotes Achlorhydria is the consequence of widespread change of this type.
T36799 248449-248501 Sentence denotes Mucous metaplasia and hyperplasia are differentiated
T42582 248502-248688 Sentence denotes Further reading Barker hypertrophy of glands, which may involve foveolar or deeper glandular elements alone, or in combination, perhaps with cystic dilation of deeper portions of glands.
T72516 248689-248846 Sentence denotes There is usually a concomitant chronic inflammatory infiltrate in the mucosa and occasionally submucosa, and small erosions of the mucosal surface may occur.
T86346 248847-248985 Sentence denotes If there is muscular hypertrophy, this is reflected on the cut surface of the pylorus by irregular firm thickening of the circular muscle.
T74260 248986-249075 Sentence denotes Microscopically, smooth-muscle fibers in affected fascicles are irregularly hypertrophic.
T49953 249076-249191 Sentence denotes Recognition of smooth-muscle hypertrophy requires a full-thickness biopsy, which will not be obtained by endoscopy.
T63210 249193-249397 Sentence denotes Gastric dilation in the horse is often secondary to obstruction of the stomach, small bowel, or of colic with ileus, and is also part of the syndrome "grass sickness," discussed elsewhere in this chapter.
T11324 249398-249523 Sentence denotes Ingestion of Datura sp. seeds, which contain a parasympatholytic alkaloid, can also cause ileus, leading to gastric dilation.
T32221 249524-249682 Sentence denotes Primary gastric dilation in horses is a sequel to consumption of excess fermentable carbohydrate, sudden access to lush pasture, or excessive intake of water.
T59130 249683-249783 Sentence denotes Dilation associated with intake of fermentable feed is likely analogous to grain overload in cattle.
T40086 249784-249853 Sentence denotes Ingesta may swell through absorption of saliva and gastric secretion.
T45977 249854-250001 Sentence denotes Evolution of gas and organic acids, including lactic acid, by bacterial fermentation of carbohydrate, occurs in the cranial portion of the stomach.
T55517 250002-250154 Sentence denotes An influx of water follows as the result of increased osmotic pressure in the stomach, contributing to increased distension and to systemic dehydration.
T47400 250155-250249 Sentence denotes Animals surviving for any time with acute gastric dilation of this type may develop laminitis.
T96802 250250-250389 Sentence denotes Gastric rupture may follow primary or secondary dilation of the equine stomach; it may be idiopathic, in that no clear cause is identified.
T21314 250390-250480 Sentence denotes Gastric rupture is diagnosed in ∼5% of horses with colic admitted to veterinary hospitals.
T57685 250481-250642 Sentence denotes Rupture usually occurs along the greater curvature, parallel to the omental attachment, releasing gastric content into the omental bursa or the abdominal cavity.
T82449 250643-250703 Sentence denotes Death ensues acutely as the result of shock and peritonitis.
T91003 250704-250851 Sentence denotes The margins of the laceration show evidence of antemortem hemorrhage, which differentiates the lesion from postmortem rupture of a dilated stomach.
T45775 250852-250981 Sentence denotes There also may be congestion of the cervical esophagus and blanching of the thoracic esophagus, producing a prominent bloat line.
T80354 250982-251170 Sentence denotes This, and compression atelectasis of the lungs in some cases, attests to the tremendous increase in intraabdominal and intrathoracic pressure exerted by the dilated stomach before rupture.
T54116 251171-251310 Sentence denotes Perforation, as distinct from rupture, of the stomach in the horse is rare, and is associated with parasitism, gastric ulcer, or neoplasia.
T73434 251312-251465 Sentence denotes Pyloric stenosis is a functional and sometimes anatomic problem, which in part represents probably the only anomaly of the stomach recognized in animals.
T27219 251466-251513 Sentence denotes Pyloric stenosis can be congenital or acquired.
T21838 251514-251575 Sentence denotes It is relatively common in dogs, and rare in cats and horses.
T26825 251576-251692 Sentence denotes Recurrent vomition and poor growth in recently weaned animals suggest the clinical diagnosis of a congenital lesion.
T59898 251693-251761 Sentence denotes Contrast radiographic studies will confirm delayed gastric emptying.
T50628 251762-251834 Sentence denotes There is limited critical functional information on congenital stenosis.
T33216 251835-252101 Sentence denotes An analogous condition in humans is associated with a lack of the interstitial cells of Cajal, but this association has not been clearly demonstrated in domestic animals, nor have morphological or significant immunohistochemical neural abnormalities been identified.
T99433 252102-252198 Sentence denotes In some dogs there may be hypertrophy of pyloric smooth muscle, which appears grossly thickened.
T15039 252199-252331 Sentence denotes Tonic stenosis of the pyloric sphincter may occur in dogs, perhaps because of alterations of the myenteric plexus or gastrin excess.
T72401 252332-252420 Sentence denotes Hypertrophy of the pyloric smooth muscle and stenosis has been reported in Siamese cats.
T2268 252421-252486 Sentence denotes An association with esophageal dilation has been made in the cat.
T33367 252487-252606 Sentence denotes Congenital pyloric stenosis in a foal was associated with signs of abdominal pain and reluctance to consume solid feed.
T42970 252607-252682 Sentence denotes In all species, the clinical problem is usually abolished by pyloromyotomy.
T48563 252683-252949 Sentence denotes Physical causes of acquired pyloric stenosis or obstruction include: ulceration, granulation, and stricture of the pyloric canal in any species; foreign bodies; as a complication of polyps and tumors in the area; and chronic hypertrophic pyloric gastropathy in dogs.
T7851 252950-253161 Sentence denotes Chronic hypertrophic pyloric gastropathy is the term coined for a syndrome of pyloric obstruction in dogs, associated with mucosal hypertrophy, hypertrophy of circular smooth muscle, or a combination of the two.
T87348 253162-253340 Sentence denotes Mucosal hypertrophy alone is the most common lesion; muscular hypertrophy alone is the least common, although some degree of muscular hypertrophy is seen in about half the cases.
T51694 253341-253420 Sentence denotes Affected animals are typically of small breeds, and those middle-aged or older.
T329 253421-253445 Sentence denotes Males outnumber females.
T46347 253446-253653 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis is speculative, and it is not clear whether muscular hypertrophy is primary, as it seems to be in some cases, or whether it is secondary, in response to obstruction related to excess mucosa.
T71978 253654-253751 Sentence denotes Because mucosal and muscular lesions can be present independently, they may have separate causes.
T28375 253752-253848 Sentence denotes The mucosal hypertrophy has features in common with hypertrophic gastritis, described elsewhere.
T92280 253849-253981 Sentence denotes The cardinal presenting sign is chronic intermittent vomition, perhaps with weight loss, and with gastric distention in a few cases.
T75436 253982-254135 Sentence denotes Gross examination, by gastroscopy, at gastrotomy, or autopsy, in most cases reveals enlarged mucosal folds surrounding and obstructing the pyloric canal.
T64334 254136-254228 Sentence denotes This reflects completely occluded in volvulus, which may involve rotation of up to 270-360°.
T26551 254229-254348 Sentence denotes Venous infarction of the gastric mucosa ensues, as volvulus progressively constricts outflow of blood from the stomach.
T82083 254349-254505 Sentence denotes The mucosa, and usually the full thickness of the gastric wall, is edematous and dark red to black, and there is bloody content in the lumen of the stomach.
T47827 254506-254568 Sentence denotes Ischemic mucosa becomes necrotic, and the stomach may rupture.
T12470 254569-254643 Sentence denotes Hemoperitoneum may occur as a result of avulsion of gastric blood vessels.
T67549 254644-254900 Sentence denotes Obstruction of veins by volvulus, and pressure exerted by the distended stomach, result in decreased venous return via the portal vein and caudal vena cava, causing reduced perfusion of intra-abdominal organs, reduced cardiac output, and circulatory shock.
T10831 254901-254990 Sentence denotes Increased intra-abdominal pressure impinges on the diaphragm and compromises respiration.
T28708 254991-255147 Sentence denotes A variety of acid-base and electrolyte abnormalities ensue in dogs with gastric dilation and volvulus, contributing to the physiologically precarious state.
T19194 255148-255369 Sentence denotes Cardiac arrhythmias as a sequel to gastric dilation and volvulus have been associated with putative release of myocardial depressant factor from an ischemic pancreas, and with myocardial necrosis, resulting from ischemia.
T28828 255370-255453 Sentence denotes Death is inevitable in dogs with acute gastric volvulus that are not treated early.
T63846 255454-255589 Sentence denotes Rare cases of chronic gastric volvulus are reported, with fixation of the spleen in the right side of the abdomen by omental adhesions.
T99101 255590-255756 Sentence denotes In swine, gastric volvulus is a cause of sudden death in adult sows, perhaps with a brief premonitory period of anorexia, abdominal distention, dyspnea, and drooling.
T23161 255757-255946 Sentence denotes It is associated with excitement in anticipation of feeding among pigs that are fed at regular, often long, intervals, and may be a sequel to unduly rapid ingestion of feed, water, and air.
T96369 255947-256063 Sentence denotes The twist may occur in either direction about the long axis of the stomach, although clockwise torsion predominates.
T99456 256064-256291 Sentence denotes Abomasal displacement and volvulus is a common clinical problem in high-producing, intensively managed dairy cattle, particularly around the time of parturition, but it also occurs in animals that are predominantly pasture fed.
T27673 256292-256357 Sentence denotes The displacement is usually ventral and to the left of the rumen.
T13941 256358-256471 Sentence denotes Many affected animals have concurrent problems, including ketosis, hypocalcemia, metritis, and retained placenta.
T82985 256472-256607 Sentence denotes Affected abomasa have decreased sensitivity to acetylcholine, and abomasal atony has been implicated as a prerequisite to displacement.
T56815 256608-256718 Sentence denotes Alterations in the enteric nervous system in the abomasum, including substance P levels, may also play a role.
T77873 256719-256815 Sentence denotes Evolution of gas in the abomasum is directly related to the amount of concentrate in the ration.
T47992 256816-256924 Sentence denotes Left displacement of the gas-filled abomasum is amenable to treatment, and is rarely encountered at autopsy.
T31560 256925-257005 Sentence denotes Handling of an affected animal postmortem may correct displacements in any case.
T97584 257006-257091 Sentence denotes Other than possible scarring of the lesser omentum, the abomasum may be unremarkable.
T97691 257092-257312 Sentence denotes Abomasal fistulae, draining in the right paramedian area, may ensue if, during abomasopexy to prevent recurrent displacement, nonabsorbable sutures fixing the abomasum to the abdominal wall penetrate the abomasal mucosa.
T33723 257313-257430 Sentence denotes Simple right displacement, which accounts for ~15% of abomasal displacements, is probably caused by similar agencies.
T92366 257431-257565 Sentence denotes However, right displacement may be complicated in about 20% of cases by progression to abomasal volvulus, which is clinically serious.
T51932 257566-257693 Sentence denotes Abomasal volvulus is probably the sequel to rotation of a loop formed by a distended abomasum and attached omasum and duodenum.
T21901 257694-257837 Sentence denotes The volvulus is counterclockwise about a Gastric dilation and volvulus ( Fig. 1-35 ) occur relatively commonly in dogs, and uncommonly in cats.
T36891 257838-258073 Sentence denotes In dogs, gastric dilation and volvulus are usually problems associated with eating, and probably aerophagia, especially in the deep-chested breeds, such as Great Danes, St. Bernards, Irish Setters, Wolfhounds, Borzois, and Bloodhounds.
T82076 258074-258366 Sentence denotes Predisposing factors are controversial but may include: increased laxity of the hepatogastric ligament; prior splenectomy; a diet of small food particles; recent kenneling; having a raised feed bowl; and infection with the nasal mite Pneumonyssoides caninum, which causes "reversed sneezing."
T7239 258367-258532 Sentence denotes The gas that contributes to the development of dilation is probably the result of aerophagia, and possibly the evolution of carbon dioxide by physiologic mechanisms.
T1005 258533-258787 Sentence denotes Inability to relieve the accumulation of food, fluid, and gas in the stomach causes the organ to dilate and alter its intra-abdominal position, so that its long axis rotates from a transverse left-right orientation to one paralleling that of the abdomen.
T18032 258788-258974 Sentence denotes In simple dilation, the esophagus is not physically completely occluded, the spleen remains on the left side, and the duodenum is only slightly displaced dorsally and toward the midline.
T98871 258975-259176 Sentence denotes Repeated episodes of gastric dilation probably compromise splenic venous return during periods when the stomach is distended, and eventually lead to episodes of splenic ischemia and segmental infarcts.
T13638 259177-259261 Sentence denotes For reasons that are unclear, gastric dilation may be converted to gastric volvulus.
T43193 259262-259361 Sentence denotes The stomach rotates about the esophagus in a clockwise direction, as viewed from the caudal aspect.
T22218 259362-259480 Sentence denotes The greater curvature of the distended organ moves ventrally and caudally, and then rotates dorsally and to the right.
T4250 259481-259585 Sentence denotes This forces the pylorus and terminal duodenum cranially to the right and clockwise around the esophagus.
T5425 259586-259723 Sentence denotes Ultimately they lie to the left of midline across and ventral to the esophagus, compressed between the esophagus and the dilated stomach.
T83701 259724-259909 Sentence denotes Depending on the degree of volvulus, the spleen, which follows the gastrosplenic ligament, usually ends up lying in a right-ventral position, between the stomach and liver or diaphragm.
T97850 259910-260043 Sentence denotes It is bent into a V shape by tension on its ligaments, becomes extremely congested, and may undergo torsion, infarction, and rupture.
T98351 260044-260065 Sentence denotes The esophagus becomes
T82691 260067-260149 Sentence denotes A variety of foreign bodies may be encountered in the stomach and in the abomasum.
T74989 260150-260284 Sentence denotes Most are incidental findings, or at worst, associated with vomition, mild acute or chronic gastritis, or occasionally with ulceration.
T20987 260285-260466 Sentence denotes Trichobezoars (hairballs) are often found in the stomach of long-haired cats, and in calves reared on diets low in roughage, where most are in the rumen, with a few in the abomasum.
T35611 260467-260682 Sentence denotes Phytobezoars (nondigestible plant material) and trichophytobezoars have been implicated as the cause of pyloric obstruction and death in young lambs on pasture and, in some regions, in cattle grazing fibrous plants.
T95691 260683-260784 Sentence denotes Fine sand may accumulate in the abomasum in considerable amounts, usually with no detrimental effect.
T35260 260785-260960 Sentence denotes Gastric impaction by inspissated content in horses is related to factors such as consumption of fibrous roughage and persimmons, inadequate water intake, and poor mastication.
T53025 260961-261233 Sentence denotes It may cause anorexia, mild colic, and loss of body condition, and is to be differentiated clinically and at autopsy from gastric impaction secondary to pyrrolizidine alkaloid poisoning, from dilation secondary to intestinal obstruction, and from primary gastric dilation.
T61095 261234-261374 Sentence denotes Primary abomasal impaction in cattle may result from restricted water intake and coarse, high-roughage feed, such as wheat stubble or straw.
T63741 261375-261470 Sentence denotes Secondary abomasal impaction may follow pyloric stenosis, physical or functional, of any cause.
T99868 261471-261579 Sentence denotes It is perhaps most common as a functional abomasal stasis in one of the manifestations of vagus indigestion.
T85038 261580-261934 Sentence denotes Loss of abomasal motility may be the product of intrathoracic inflammatory or neoplastic vagal lesions; vagal involvement in adhesions following traumatic reticuloperitonitis; vagal trauma in surgically corrected abomasal volvulus; adhesions of the abomasum and omasum that may physically impair motility; or systemic disease that causes abomasal stasis.
T75190 261935-262061 Sentence denotes The abomasum is impacted with thick porridge-like or inspissated coarse fibrous digesta, despite an apparently patent pylorus.
T42577 262062-262186 Sentence denotes Abomasal rupture may ensue, particularly in primary impaction associated with coarse feed, resulting in diffuse peritonitis.
T10916 262187-262277 Sentence denotes Most commonly, the laceration is near the omasalabomasal orifice, but it may be elsewhere.
T88570 262278-262437 Sentence denotes Omasal dilation and ruminal distention are also found in many of these cases; omasa usually contain inspissated digesta, while rumen content tends to be fluid.
T58390 262438-262669 Sentence denotes Metabolic derangement owing to sequestration of chloride in the rumen following regurgitation from the obstructed abomasum, and hypokalemia resulting from transverse axis through the lesser omentum, when viewed from the right side.
T34520 262670-262756 Sentence denotes Rotation, buoyed by the gas-filled body of the abomasum, may be in the sagittal plane.
T19468 262757-262979 Sentence denotes With a 360° volvulus, the pylorus ends in the cranial right portion of the abdomen dorsal to the twisted omasum, with the duodenum trapped medial to the omasum and lateral to the partially rotated reticulum ( Fig. 1-36 ).
T65597 262980-263078 Sentence denotes Alternative modes of displacement and rotation are possible, but all may end in this relationship.
T19989 263079-263227 Sentence denotes Obstruction of duodenal outflow in volvulus results in sequestration of chloride in the abomasal content and the development of metabolic alkalosis.
T13317 263228-263367 Sentence denotes Severe volvulus causes obstruction of blood vessels at the neck of the omasum, as well as causing trauma to the vagus nerves in the region.
T15954 263368-263432 Sentence denotes The abomasum becomes distended with blood-stained fluid and gas.
T79269 263433-263577 Sentence denotes Venous infarction of the deeply congested mucosa may result in ultimate abomasal rupture, often near the omasoabomasal orifice, and peritonitis.
T87112 263578-263732 Sentence denotes Damage to the vagal branches may prohibit return of normal abomasal motility in animals successfully withstanding surgery, resulting in vagus indigestion.
T69260 263733-263838 Sentence denotes Cases of abomasal volvulus are also occasionally reported in preruminant calves; these are usually fatal.
T12404 263839-263925 Sentence denotes Sarcina-like bacteria have been associated with abomasal diseases in lambs and calves.
T98298 263926-264017 Sentence denotes Pathologic findings include various combinations of abomasal bloat, hemorrhage, and ulcers.
T17328 264018-264258 Sentence denotes Gastroesophageal intussusception, gastroduodenal intussusception, and pylorogastric intussusception are uncommon displacements, involving the stomach of dogs with signs of upper alimentary tract obstruction that require surgical correction.
T11657 264259-264298 Sentence denotes Applewhite AA, et al but is not common.
T83213 264299-264442 Sentence denotes In such dogs there may be no gross gastric lesion, or variable edema and thickening of rugal mucosa, perhaps with focal ulceration, is evident.
T42957 264443-264552 Sentence denotes Microscopically, in dogs, the lamina propria between glands is edematous, and there are increased mast cells.
T24485 264553-264730 Sentence denotes Deposits of basophilic ground substance and mineral are found, especially on the basement membrane of vessels and glands, or on collagen fibrils and in degenerate smooth muscle.
T53448 264731-264812 Sentence denotes These changes occur particularly in the middle and deeper portions of the mucosa.
T78748 264813-264873 Sentence denotes Parietal cells in this area are usually mineralized as well.
T77142 264874-264984 Sentence denotes More extensive mineral deposition also involves the muscular coats and arterioles of the submucosa and serosa.
T32305 264985-265088 Sentence denotes Such vessels also show evidence of endothelial damage, medial necrosis, and, in some cases, thrombosis.
T86577 265089-265320 Sentence denotes Severe mucosal congestion, edema, and necrosis are possibly related to ischemia secondary to the vascular lesions, although perhaps not directly associated with arterial thrombosis and obstruction, which is often not readily found.
T69153 265321-265461 Sentence denotes In cats with uremic gastropathy, gastric fibrosis and mineralization occur, but not gastric ulceration, edema, or vascular fibrinoid change.
T35845 265462-265546 Sentence denotes The cause of the vascular lesions associated with uremia is incompletely understood.
T87790 265547-265784 Sentence denotes Mineral deposition is probably the product of altered systemic metabolism of calcium in renal failure, perhaps coupled with the local microenvironment resulting from bicarbonate moving across the basal border of secreting parietal cells.
T65133 265785-265898 Sentence denotes Membrane lesions in metabolically compromised parietal cells may also act as foci of mineral deposition (see Vol.
T41949 265899-265946 Sentence denotes 2, Urinary system, for a discussion of uremia).
T30504 265947-266068 Sentence denotes Metabolic acidosis and inflammatory cytokines including tumor necrosis factor-α may also promote vascular mineralization.
T48986 266069-266128 Sentence denotes Mineralization is also a feature of vitamin D intoxication.
T33094 266129-266232 Sentence denotes Gastric venous infarction is a common lesion in swine, and is also encountered in ruminants and horses.
T99142 266233-266367 Sentence denotes It is related to endothelial damage and thrombosis in venules, usually associated with endotoxemia or other bacterial or toxic damage.
T41305 266368-266577 Sentence denotes Salmonellosis and Escherichia coli septicemia in all species, and in addition, in swine, postweaning coliform gastroenteritis, erysipelas, swine dysentery, and Glasser's disease are associated with the lesion.
T73515 266578-266673 Sentence denotes Porcine dermatopathy and nephropathy syndrome has also been associated with gastric infarction.
T47598 266674-266783 Sentence denotes The fundic mucosa is bright red or deep red-black and may have excess mucus or perhaps fibrin on the surface.
T35605 266784-266920 Sentence denotes Occasionally the superficial mucosa is obviously necrotic, adopting a yellowbrown caseous appearance, and may lift off with the ingesta.
T86483 266921-267059 Sentence denotes In section there is thrombosis of venules in the mucosa and often at the mucosal-submucosal junction, usually with prominent fibrin plugs.
T90735 267060-267243 Sentence denotes Thrombosed capillaries and venules may be present at any level of the mucosa, along the base of the ischemic zone of superficial coagulative necrosis, with local hemorrhage and edema.
T96131 267244-267332 Sentence denotes There may be an acute inflammatory reaction delineating the necrotic area in the mucosa.
T49913 267333-267609 Sentence denotes Sometimes the full thickness of the gastric mucosa, focally or diffusely, may be necrotic. decreased intake in feed in the face of continued normal renal excretion, place these animals in perilous physiologic circumstances, often before inanition becomes a significant factor.
T52764 267610-267717 Sentence denotes A syndrome known clinically as abomasal dilation and emptying defect occurs in Suffolk and Hampshire sheep.
T77181 267718-267875 Sentence denotes The animals develop chronic inappetence and weight loss, and at autopsy they have a markedly distended abomasum containing digesta resembling rumen contents.
T59723 267876-268078 Sentence denotes No morphologic gross or microscopic lesions of the stomach, vagus nerve, or other organs have been found, except scattered chromatolytic and necrotic neurons in the celiacomesenteric autonomic ganglion.
T26489 268079-268228 Sentence denotes The cause is unknown, but it is suggested that it may be an acquired dysautonomia, possibly toxic, requiring a genetic predisposition for expression.
T66524 268229-268359 Sentence denotes Although rumen chloride levels are elevated, few animals become hypochloremic and alkalotic, as do cattle with abomasal impaction.
T8065 268360-268370 Sentence denotes Bird A, et
T20239 268372-268601 Sentence denotes Edema of the gastric rugae occurs with hypoproteinemia in any species, in portal hypertension, and is found in the abomasum of cattle poisoned by arsenic, sheep ingesting tannic acid, and both cattle and sheep with ostertagiasis.
T61233 268602-268719 Sentence denotes Edema fluid collects in the submucosa of the folds, and is particularly obvious in the normally thin abomasal plicae.
T54730 268720-268786 Sentence denotes Edema may contribute to the thickening of rugae seen in gastritis.
T76998 268787-268884 Sentence denotes Edema of the submucosa of the stomach is a common and important lesion in edema disease of swine.
T99859 268885-269043 Sentence denotes It is best appreciated by making several slices through the serosa and external muscle to the submucosa on the greater curvature over the body of the stomach.
T23382 269044-269160 Sentence denotes Edema disease is considered fully in the later section on Infectious and parasitic diseases of the alimentary tract.
T72330 269161-269329 Sentence denotes Hyperemia of the gastric mucosa occurs with ingestion of chemicals, which usually also cause superficial erosion and necrosis, discussed later under chemical gastritis.
T85577 269330-269475 Sentence denotes Focal hyperemia may be related to local irritation of the mucosa by foreign bodies, and with focal acute viral lesions of the abomasum in cattle.
T48316 269476-269595 Sentence denotes Congestion of the mucosa can occur in conditions causing portal hypertension, including cirrhosis and shock in the dog.
T1220 269596-269811 Sentence denotes Uremic gastritis, seen as severe congestion and hemorrhage of the body of the stomach, associated with signs of hematemesis and melena, is found in some dogs, and occasionally in cats and horses, with renal disease.
T2311 269812-269872 Sentence denotes In such animals, the mucosa is thickened and deep red-black.
T18103 269873-269941 Sentence denotes There may be granular material typical of mineral within the mucosa.
T65080 269942-270116 Sentence denotes Lesions vary in severity from case to case, and premonitory changes without severe hemorrhage and necrosis are present in animals euthanized earlier in the course of disease.
T3983 270117-270169 Sentence denotes Gastric ulceration may occur, or idiopathic insults.
T66231 270170-270406 Sentence denotes Following the discovery of Helicobacter pylori as a major cause of gastric ulceration in humans, there was a flurry of activity to document its significance as a cause of gastritis and/or gastric ulceration in other monogastric species.
T62480 270407-270666 Sentence denotes The picture that has emerged is a confusing one because of substantial flux in the taxonomy of the various gastric spiral organisms, and because of the existence of many different species of Helicobacter (only some of which have been successfully cultivated).
T6619 270667-270795 Sentence denotes At least 20 different Helicobacter species, distinguished by mRNA sequencing, have been reported from various mammalian species.
T85699 270796-271028 Sentence denotes It is safe to say that probably all mammals have one or more species of Helicobacter as part of the normal gastric flora, and thus determining a causal relationship between Helicobacter and gastric disease has proved very difficult.
T25303 271029-271165 Sentence denotes Helicobacter pylori is a common cause of acute and chronic gastritis affecting antrum, corpus, or both, in humans and in other primates.
T43215 271166-271225 Sentence denotes In humans it is the leading cause of chronic peptic ulcers.
T73365 271226-271328 Sentence denotes This may progress in some cases to gastric mucosal atrophy, with loss of antral and/or oxyntic glands.
T15230 271329-271462 Sentence denotes Chronic Helicobacter infection in humans also significantly increases the risk for the development of gastric carcinoma and lymphoma.
T30121 271463-271608 Sentence denotes On the other hand, H. pylori appears to be a very uncommon infection in other species, and has never been proved to cause disease in nonprimates.
T775 271609-271729 Sentence denotes Among nonprimates, the most convincing evidence for clinically significant gastric Helicobacter infection is in ferrets.
T38609 271730-271958 Sentence denotes Although virtually all adult ferrets have H. mustelae as part of the normal gastric flora, heavily colonized ferrets develop diffuse lymphocyticplasmacytic gastritis with lymphofollicular hyperplasia and sometimes with erosions.
T55506 271959-272008 Sentence denotes Progression to neoplasia has not been documented.
T69470 272009-272088 Sentence denotes H. heilmannii has been incriminated in development of gastric lymphoma in cats.
T68131 272089-272203 Sentence denotes The role of Helicobacter in the development of gastritis or gastric ulceration in other species remains uncertain.
T49255 272204-272439 Sentence denotes Claims for the significance of Helicobacter acinonychis as a cause for gastritis in captive cheetahs remain unproved, in that antibiotic treatment improves the clinical disease but does not eradicate the gastric Helicobacter infection.
T39113 272440-272530 Sentence denotes Furthermore, wild cheetahs have the same Helicobacter colonization, but not the gastritis.
T51834 272531-272727 Sentence denotes In dogs and cats, it is routine to see various spiral organisms colonizing the gastric surface and within canaliculi in parietal cells in normal animals and in those with gastrointestinal disease.
T30140 272728-272845 Sentence denotes Depending on detection methods, the prevalence of colonization is at least 50% and may be nearly universal in adults.
T96063 272846-273020 Sentence denotes The prevalence of such colonization as determined by direct visualization or by culture is as high in clinically healthy animals as in those with clinical signs of gastritis.
T53148 273021-273347 Sentence denotes On the other hand, there are several studies claiming that dogs or cats with natural or experimental Helicobacter infection have a higher prevalence of mucosal mononuclear leukocytes and mucosal lymphoid follicles, and faster mucosal turnover, than is seen in animals in which Helicobacter infection could not be demonstrated.
T93182 273348-273464 Sentence denotes The problem is that the modest histologic changes have not been correlated with the development of clinical disease.
T3987 273465-273706 Sentence denotes The changes described resemble the kind of changes seen elsewhere in the intestinal tract with, for example, acquisition of the normal flora by germfree animals, or even as part of normal immunologic maturation of the gastrointestinal tract.
T40350 273707-273851 Sentence denotes Improvement in clinical signs following antibiotic therapy appropriate for the elimination of Helicobacter has not been documented convincingly.
T1562 273853-274024 Sentence denotes Gastritis is a term used clinically as a presumptive diagnosis for those cases of vomiting that are thought to arise from gastric irritation rather than disease elsewhere.
T17841 274025-274209 Sentence denotes In pathology, the term is often used with equal imprecision, referring to a wide range of gastric injury in which histologic criteria of inflammation may not be particularly prominent.
T64116 274210-274734 Sentence denotes Under the broad umbrella of gastritis fall several different types of lesions: gastric mucosal necrosis, erosion or ulceration caused by mechanical, chemical, or ischemic insults, among which is uremic gastritis, described earlier; true gastritis, in which the lamina propria contains the leukocytic and vascular changes characteristic of inflammation; and finally, lesions of gastric mucosal atrophy, fibrosis, and lymphofollicular hyperplasia that arguably are the residual lesions of previous active inflammatory disease.
T54516 274735-275069 Sentence denotes Chemical gastritis or abomasitis, reflected in diffuse gastric congestion, hemorrhage, necrosis, and ulceration, may be induced by chemicals such as arsenic, thallium, formalin, bronopol, steroidal and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), phosphatic fertilizers, and by the toxic principle in bitterweed (Hymenoxon odorata).
T29435 275070-275365 Sentence denotes Blister beetle (Epicauta spp.) intoxication in horses, induced by the cantharidin contained in these insects, may cause necrosis and ulceration of the distal esophagus and pars esophagea, and intense hyperemia of the glandular mucosa of the stomach, and in some cases gastric ulcers and rupture.
T8701 275366-275537 Sentence denotes In addition, enterocolitis, nephrosis, hemorrhages of the urinary bladder, and myocardial hemorrhage and necrosis are reported with regularity in blister beetle toxicosis.
T89149 275538-275711 Sentence denotes Zinc may cause acute mortality, in which the mucosa of the abomasum and duodenum is a distinctive lime green and necrotic, with an underlying congested, edematous submucosa.
T17855 275712-275783 Sentence denotes Microscopically, radiating crystals are evident in the necrotic tissue.
T50902 275784-276043 Sentence denotes Subacute zinc intoxication may be reflected in abomasal damage characterized by exfoliation of glandular epithelium, ablation of glands in some areas, and reparative proliferation of mucous neck cells, in addition to fibrosing pancreatitis and mild nephrosis.
T86744 276044-276162 Sentence denotes In sheep, type-A trichothecene mycotoxin has been associated with rumenitis and abomasal ulceration in acute toxicity.
T21786 276163-276285 Sentence denotes Mechanical gastritis is most commonly seen in dogs after ingestion of coarse foreign materials and in cats with hairballs.
T60402 276286-276504 Sentence denotes The lesion is discovered as an incidental finding when careful clinicians biopsy the stomach via endoscopy when making the diagnosis of gastric foreign body, or at the time of surgical removal of that foreign material.
T7611 276505-276632 Sentence denotes Hairballs in the abomasum of ruminants are associated with lack of roughage in young animals, but virtually never with disease.
T45627 276633-276833 Sentence denotes Eosinophilic infiltrates occur in the squamous stomach of horses with an eosinophilic epitheliotropic syndrome, discussed in the later section on eosinophilic enteritis in horses, and with dermatitis.
T62069 276834-277134 Sentence denotes The majority of examples of genuine gastritis are seen in dogs and cats with more generalized gastrointestinal inflammatory disease, such as food allergy or idiopathic inflammatory bowel disease, and is discussed further with those topics (see later section on Idiopathic inflammatory bowel disease).
T37716 277135-277304 Sentence denotes Infectious agents in small animals appear to be minor causes of gastritis, when compared with chemical, mechanical, usually occurring in temperate climates of the world.
T54541 277305-277419 Sentence denotes The factors initiating bacterial invasion are unknown, although local tissue damage in the abomasum is implicated.
T52673 277420-277629 Sentence denotes Cold weather is usually associated with the disease, but it is difficult to imagine feed being cold enough, by the time it reaches the abomasum, to cause significant mucosal trauma or hypothermia and necrosis.
T24593 277630-277725 Sentence denotes Production of exotoxin by C. septicum causes the signs and death, which usually ensues quickly.
T53626 277726-277794 Sentence denotes A similar gastritis has been associated with C. sordellii infection.
T79782 277795-277914 Sentence denotes At autopsy, there may be blood-tinged abdominal fluid and the serosa of the abomasum may be congested or fibrincovered.
T21388 277915-278001 Sentence denotes Mucosal lesions may be diffuse, or involve demarcated foci of variable size and shape.
T83875 278002-278086 Sentence denotes Abomasal folds may be thickened, reddened, and occasionally hemorrhagic or necrotic.
T909 278087-278177 Sentence denotes Most notable is the presence of extensive gelatinous edema and emphysema in the submucosa.
T49374 278178-278350 Sentence denotes Diffuse edema, and extensive areas of suppurative infiltrate demarcating areas of coagulative necrosis, with prominent pockets of emphysema, are evident in tissue sections.
T2410 278351-278435 Sentence denotes These involve mainly submucosa, and extend into adjacent mucosa and external muscle.
T139 278436-278482 Sentence denotes There may be venous thrombosis and hemorrhage.
T19161 278483-278571 Sentence denotes Gram-positive bacilli are usually evident as individuals or colonies in affected tissue.
T81187 278572-278717 Sentence denotes C. perfringens type A has been associated with a syndrome of tympany, abomasitis, and abomasal ulceration in calves in the western United States.
T74037 278718-278837 Sentence denotes However, the role of this pathogen in development of abomasal inflammation and ulceration is not completely understood.
T2440 278838-278911 Sentence denotes Animals have abdominal tympany and pain, depression, or may die suddenly.
T56605 278912-279038 Sentence denotes Grossly, there is variable congestion, hemorrhage, erosion, and ulceration of the abomasal mucosa, usually in the fundic area.
T90986 279039-279089 Sentence denotes Circular or linear perforating ulcers may develop.
T17912 279090-279357 Sentence denotes In association with the expected microscopic changes in erosion or ulceration, there is exfoliation and necrosis of mucosal epithelium, edema of the submucosa, dilation and thrombosis of submucosal lymphatics, and mild acute inflammatory infiltrates in the submucosa.
T81665 279358-279436 Sentence denotes Gram-positive bacilli may be on the mucosal surface, or in inflamed submucosa.
T67089 279437-279632 Sentence denotes Proliferation of C. perfringens in the rumen of calves with overflow of milk from the reticular groove is believed to promote colonization of the abomasum, and production of necrotizing exotoxin.
T41238 279633-279849 Sentence denotes Disease has also been associated with overeating, contaminated colostrum, and Chlamydophila (Chlamydia) have been recognized in surface mucous cells of otherwise normal fundic mucosa in cats with no signs of disease.
T55437 279850-279946 Sentence denotes Experimental infection produced conjunctivitis and respiratory disease, but only mild gastritis.
T68534 279947-280043 Sentence denotes Gastric mucosal hypertrophy is a lesion within the stomach of dogs that may be focal or diffuse.
T12403 280044-280209 Sentence denotes The focal lesion is much more prevalent, occurring as an intraluminal papillary proliferation of pyloric antral mucosa causing clinical signs of pyloric obstruction.
T82176 280210-280443 Sentence denotes The proliferation is mostly by mucuscontaining cells of the mucosal surface and foveolae, forming papillary projections supported by a lamina propria that is either normal or that contains an increase in plasma cells and eosinophils.
T56011 280444-280613 Sentence denotes The significance of the eosinophilic inflammation in causing the regional mucosal hypertrophy is unknown, but many examples do not have any change in mucosal leukocytes.
T79706 280614-280644 Sentence denotes Surgical excision is curative.
T33722 280645-280717 Sentence denotes The diagnosis is usually obvious on the basis of endoscopic examination.
T97400 280718-280839 Sentence denotes Endoscopic biopsies may or may not permit the diagnosis, depending on the depth of mucosa captured by the biopsy forceps.
T21370 280840-281094 Sentence denotes The key to the diagnosis in an endoscopic biopsy is that the entire depth of the sample is taken up by surface epithelium and foveolae, whereas in a normal stomach a biopsy of similar size would capture at least some of the deeper gastric pyloric glands.
T67161 281095-281240 Sentence denotes Diffuse gastric mucosal hypertrophy (chronic hypertrophic gastritis) of dogs, similar in many respects to Ménétrier's disease in humans, is rare.
T95025 281241-281351 Sentence denotes Vomition and weight loss, in some cases associated with inappetence or diarrhea, are described in the history.
T64878 281352-281491 Sentence denotes The characteristic lesion is marked gastric rugal hypertrophy involving part or most of the fundic gland mucosa in the body of the stomach.
T26696 281492-281629 Sentence denotes Grossly thickened folds of mucosa over an area 4-10 cm in diameter are thrown up in a convoluted pattern that may resemble cerebral gyri.
T87397 281630-281789 Sentence denotes Microscopically, these areas are composed of hypertrophic/ hyperplastic mucosa that may or may not include secondary folds of muscularis mucosae and submucosa.
T94722 281790-281838 Sentence denotes Findings are variable in the few cases reported.
T66338 281839-282021 Sentence denotes There may be foveolar and glandular epithelial hyperplasia with progressive or total loss of parietal cells, which are replaced by mucous cells of various degrees of differentiation.
T56344 282022-282102 Sentence denotes Marked cystic dilation of mucous glands may occur, which may be evident grossly.
T4959 282103-282258 Sentence denotes Mononuclear cells infiltrate the lamina propria between glands and near the muscularis mucosae, and the propria may be edematous, especially superficially.
T93684 282259-282501 Sentence denotes If the gross appearance of the mucosa in animals with hypertrophic gastritis is not seen by endoscopy or at surgery, biopsies that do not sample the full thickness of the mucosa may be misdiagnosed as chronic superficial or diffuse gastritis.
T16700 282502-282620 Sentence denotes The cause of chronic hypertrophic gastritis is unknown, but in part it may be mediated by immune events in the mucosa.
T93045 282621-282690 Sentence denotes The condition in humans is associated with proteinlosing gastropathy.
T55493 282691-282956 Sentence denotes Significantly, chronic gastritis and chronic hypertrophic gastritis have been reported in the Basenji, a breed of dog in which a syndrome of protein-losing gastroenteritis and diarrhea is well recognized (see later section on Idiopathic inflammatory bowel disease).
T20831 282957-283177 Sentence denotes Hypertrophic antritis, producing a thickened, sometimes convoluted, mucosa in the antrum, is part of the syndrome of chronic hypertrophic pyloric gastropathy, associated with pyloric stenosis in dogs, considered earlier.
T5336 283178-283208 Sentence denotes Etiologic factors are unknown.
T12763 283209-283348 Sentence denotes Braxy, or bradsot, is an acute abomasitis of sheep and, less commonly, calves, caused by infection with Clostridium septicum ( Fig. 1-37 ).
T72908 283349-283544 Sentence denotes It is a sporadic disease of young animals, Gasterophilus are found attached to small erosions and ulcers in the esophageal and glandular mucosa, which very rarely become complicated or perforate.
T72626 283545-283678 Sentence denotes In swine, the spirurids Ascarops spp., Physocephalus spp., and Simondsia spp. are associated with mild gastritis in heavy infections.
T41485 283679-283746 Sentence denotes Gnathostoma may be embedded in inflammatory cysts in the submucosa.
T18347 283747-283786 Sentence denotes Ollulanus tricuspis may be encountered.
T37254 283787-283857 Sentence denotes Hyostrongylus rubidus can cause chronic gastritis and wasting in pigs.
T91348 283858-284042 Sentence denotes In cattle, sheep, and goats, members of the genera Haemonchus and Mecistocirrus are large abomasal blood-sucking trichostrongyles, capable of causing severe anemia and hypoproteinemia.
T4671 284043-284281 Sentence denotes Ostertagia spp. and related genera, including Camelostrongylus, Teladorsagia, Marshallagia, and Trichostrongylus axei, in various ruminants, cause chronic abomasitis with mucous metaplasia, achlorhydria, diarrhea, and plasma protein loss.
T47097 284282-284547 Sentence denotes Cryptosporidium andersoni occasionally causes subclinical abomasitis in cattle, associated with elongation of the gastric glands, hyperplasia of the epithelium in the gland isthmus, attenuation of epithelium lining the neck of fundic glands, and dilation of glands.
T5762 284548-284667 Sentence denotes The small basophilic organisms are present on the surface of epithelium from the base of glands to the mucosal surface.
T97566 284668-284726 Sentence denotes Large schizonts of an incompletely decreased gut motility.
T90093 284727-284926 Sentence denotes In both calves and lambs, clostridial gastritis may be preceded by the development of superficial peptic micro-ulcers, which subsequently become colonized and progress to typical clostridial lesions.
T4243 284927-285260 Sentence denotes Abomasitis associated with viral infection occurs in a number of the systemic viral diseases affecting the gastrointestinal tract, including infectious bovine rhinotracheitis in calves and, rarely, older animals, herpesviral infections of small ruminants, bovine viral diarrhea, rinderpest, malignant catarrhal fever, and bluetongue.
T65198 285261-285410 Sentence denotes Abomasal lesions are rarely the sole manifestation of these diseases, but form part of a picture at necropsy that may suggest an etiologic diagnosis.
T88929 285411-285587 Sentence denotes The appearance and pathogenesis of abomasitis in these diseases vary with the conditions (see Infectious and parasitic diseases of the alimentary tract, later in this chapter).
T69162 285588-285802 Sentence denotes Mycotic gastritis or abomasitis is a sporadic problem almost invariably secondary to insults that cause achlorhydria, focal atrophy, necrosis, or ulceration under conditions in which mycotic colonization can occur.
T26897 285803-286041 Sentence denotes Compromised resistance, perhaps associated with endotoxemia, septicemia, endogenous or exogenous steroids, neoplasia, lympholytic viral disease, and altered gastrointestinal flora caused by antibiotic therapy, may further promote mycosis.
T13165 286042-286167 Sentence denotes Fungal hyphae attaining the submucosa typically invade venules and arterioles, causing thrombosis and hemorrhagic infarction.
T21992 286168-286302 Sentence denotes The agents involved are usually zygomycetes (phycomycetes) such as Rhizopus, Absidia, or Mucor; rarely, Aspergillus may be implicated.
T61854 286303-286495 Sentence denotes The lesions are areas of necrosis, with an intensely congested or hemorrhagic periphery, ranging in diameter from 1 to 2 cm, to confluence over much of the body of the stomach ( Fig. 1-38A ).
T9374 286496-286593 Sentence denotes Affected mucosa is thickened, red or pale in the necrotic zone, and may be covered by hemorrhage.
T49851 286594-286644 Sentence denotes Edema and hemorrhage are evident in the submucosa.
T96602 286645-286790 Sentence denotes The lesion may penetrate to the serosa, where it is typically seen as a roughly circular area of hemorrhage in the external muscle and subserosa.
T43361 286791-287112 Sentence denotes Hyphae, usually broad and nonseptate zygomycotic in type, are present in sections of the necrotic mucosa, submucosa, and invading vessels, where they initiate thrombosis ( Fig. 1-38B ).Candidiasis of the pars esophagea may occur in swine, often in association with preulcerative epithelial hyperplasia and parakeratosis.
T34102 287113-287266 Sentence denotes For an overview of mycosis of the digestive system, and its sequelae, see the later section on Infectious and parasitic diseases of the alimentary tract.
T74537 287267-287414 Sentence denotes Parasitic gastritis is often subclinical in dogs and cats, but in a small number of animals can be associated with vomiting and mucosal ulceration.
T21566 287415-287628 Sentence denotes Members of the genera Physaloptera and Gnathostoma are found in dogs, where the former cause focal ulceration and the latter are the cause of submucosal inflammatory cysts containing suppurative exudate and worms.
T69652 287629-287779 Sentence denotes In cats, Physaloptera spp. may attach to mucosal ulcers, whereas Gnathostoma spp. and Cylicospirura felineus are found in nodules in the gastric wall.
T93754 287780-287908 Sentence denotes Ollulanus tricuspis is found on the mucosa of the stomach in cats, where it may cause mild to, rarely, severe chronic gastritis.
T43387 287909-288017 Sentence denotes Cryptosporidium infection of the gastric mucosa occurs rarely in cats and dogs, with uncertain significance.
T80727 288018-288155 Sentence denotes In horses, Draschia megastoma is found in inflammatory nodules in the submucosa of the cardiac zone, especially along the margo plicatus.
T97856 288156-288245 Sentence denotes The nodules can be several centimeters in diameter and contain necrotic debris and worms.
T50318 288246-288346 Sentence denotes Habronema muscae and H. majus are found on the mucosa and have been associated with mild ulceration.
T63347 288347-288410 Sentence denotes Trichostrongylus axei may cause chronic gastritis in the horse.
T50455 288411-288474 Sentence denotes Bots of the genus A B NSAID inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX).
T35149 288475-288547 Sentence denotes Additionally, NSAIDs (except aspirin) may promote gastric hypermotility.
T49745 288548-288655 Sentence denotes Hypermotility is associated with altered microvascular blood flow and decreased mucosal response to injury.
T69205 288656-288701 Sentence denotes This is especially true in the gastric folds.
T4365 288702-288857 Sentence denotes Phenylbutazone may also have a direct toxic effect on vascular endothelium in the mucosa, which also compromises circulation and predisposes to ulceration.
T77344 288858-289019 Sentence denotes In humans, gastritis associated with Helicobacter pylori infection, and duodenal colonization with this agent, are associated with development of duodenal ulcer.
T44402 289020-289121 Sentence denotes Helicobacterassociated gastritis extending cranially in the stomach is associated with gastric ulcer.
T42683 289122-289263 Sentence denotes Similar associations between Helicobacter infection, gastritis, and peptic ulcer have not been demonstrated convincingly in domestic animals.
T23871 289264-289382 Sentence denotes Reflux of duodenal contents containing bile salts has been implicated in the induction of gastritis and gastric ulcer.
T65182 289383-289538 Sentence denotes Under some experimental conditions, acid back-diffusion into the gastric mucosa, and morphologic damage, have been caused by the application of bile salts.
T39625 289539-289670 Sentence denotes The effects are dependent on the pK a of the bile salt, which must be soluble at acid pH, and on the concentration of hydrogen ion.
T46540 289671-289778 Sentence denotes Lipid solubility of bile salts, and associated damage to surface cell membranes, may mediate these effects.
T64016 289779-289890 Sentence denotes Alcohols, also lipid-soluble compounds, alter permeability of gastric mucosa and permit back-diffusion of acid.
T8839 289891-290007 Sentence denotes Lysolecithin, formed when pancreatic lipase hydrolyzes lecithin in bile, increases gastric mucosal permeability too.
T44356 290008-290128 Sentence denotes Glucocorticoids and stress have been implicated in the genesis of ulcer, although the role of steroids is controversial.
T29586 290129-290325 Sentence denotes Experimentally, gastroduodenal hemorrhage and ulceration occur in some species of animals stressed by restraint or social factors, and they are a feature of "trap death syndrome" in small mammals.
T69833 290326-290488 Sentence denotes Severe gastric hemorrhage or ulceration may occur following neurosurgery, trauma to the spinal cord, and burns, and it is considered by some to be stress related.
T91815 290489-290583 Sentence denotes Administration of methylprednisolone sodium succinate to dogs was clearly acutely ulcerogenic.
T73184 290584-290819 Sentence denotes However, some experimental studies have demonstrated that glucocorticoids released during stress are more gastroprotective than ulcerogenic, although the rate of healing in pre-existing ulcers was decreased in the presence of steroids.
T51467 290820-290993 Sentence denotes Reduced mucosal perfusion or ischemia may be a principal factor interacting in stress-associated ulceration, and in that initiated by other modalities, discussed previously.
T87375 290994-291115 Sentence denotes Reduced blood flow to the mucosa in local areas, under a number of circumstances, precedes mucosal hemorrhage or erosion.
T45690 291116-291185 Sentence denotes Ischemia will result in hypoxemic compromise of surface mucous cells.
T94155 291186-291302 Sentence denotes In combination with the effects of other insults, this may initiate mucosal permeability and back-diffusion of acid.
T63756 291303-291411 Sentence denotes Neutralization by blood-borne bicarbonate of acid diffusing into the mucosa also may be reduced in ischemia.
T49114 291412-291591 Sentence denotes Mucosal ischemia may result from reduction in local prostaglandin (as in NSAID administration) or nitric oxide concentration, thrombosis, as well as local or systemic hypotension.
T96067 291592-291680 Sentence denotes Ischemia may be more significant in the induction of fundic, rather than antral, ulcers.
T71702 291681-291832 Sentence denotes Whatever the cause, the results of a breach of the gastric glandular mucosa have the potential to follow a common pathway to ulceration in all species.
T70830 291833-292131 Sentence denotes Acute superficial lesions, such as those associated with stress or following administration of aspirin, are often seen as areas of reddening and hemorrhage, especially along the margins of rugae in the fundic characterized coccidia in sheep and goats form pinpoint pale foci in the abomasal mucosa.
T9201 292132-292187 Sentence denotes The name Eimeria (Globidium) gilruthi has been applied.
T44780 292188-292339 Sentence denotes Infection has been associated with elongation of the gastric glands with hyperplasia of the mucous neck cells, and decreased numbers of parietal cells.
T49242 292340-292466 Sentence denotes Gastric parasitism is considered more fully in the later section on Infectious and parasitic diseases of the alimentary tract.
T49799 292467-292545 Sentence denotes Gastroduodenal ulcer produces signs much less often in animals than in humans.
T13279 292546-292801 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis of peptic ulcer in both humans and animals in general seems to resolve into a relative imbalance between the necrotizing effects of gastric acid and pepsin on one hand, and the ability of the mucosa to maintain its integrity on the other.
T31523 292802-292986 Sentence denotes Impairment of mucosal integrity in the face of normal acid secretion is probably the predominant mechanism, although there are clear instances when hypersecretion of acid is causative.
T79167 292987-293193 Sentence denotes Factors implicated in hypersecretion of acid include abnormally high basal secretion, possibly associated with an expanded parietal cell mass, perhaps the result of increased trophic stimulation by gastrin.
T17128 293194-293326 Sentence denotes Gastrinomas cause Zollinger-Ellison syndrome, characterized by elevated gastric acid secretion and severe gastroduodenal ulceration.
T91305 293327-293444 Sentence denotes Increased histamine levels associated with mastocytosis or mastocytoma also cause acid hypersecretion and ulceration.
T35793 293445-293624 Sentence denotes Ulceration caused by compromise of mucosal protective mechanisms is attributed to nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as aspirin, phenylbutazone, and indomethacin.
T9793 293625-293746 Sentence denotes Orally administered NSAIDs that are weak organic acids, such as aspirin, have a direct deleterious effect on the stomach.
T47679 293747-293882 Sentence denotes Active bicarbonate secretion is responsible for a pH gradient from acid in the lumen to near neutrality at the epithelial cell surface.
T48715 293883-293974 Sentence denotes Stimulation of this bicarbonate secretion is induced by prostaglandin E 2 and nitric oxide.
T96901 293975-294065 Sentence denotes Inhibition of bicarbonate secretion occurs in the presence of atropine and various NSAIDs.
T98991 294066-294205 Sentence denotes Decreased prostaglandin is due to ulcers in their microscopic appearance (allowing for their intestinal location), evolution, and sequelae.
T19527 294206-294281 Sentence denotes Peptic ulcer in dogs is reported relatively infrequently in the literature.
T79512 294282-294389 Sentence denotes Signs associated with peptic ulcer include variable appetite, abdominal pain, vomition, melena, and anemia.
T39542 294390-294506 Sentence denotes Ulcers, a few millimeters to 3-4 cm in diameter, are found most commonly in the pyloric antrum or proximal duodenum.
T71497 294507-294625 Sentence denotes The gross and microscopic appearance of ulcers varies with their aggressiveness and duration, as previously described.
T70611 294626-294815 Sentence denotes Thrombosed arterioles and venules cut by the ulcerative process are often seen, and should be sought in the bed of gastric and duodenal lesions associated with anemia or obvious hemorrhage.
T75450 294816-294937 Sentence denotes Perforation of gastric or duodenal ulcers may lead to massive hemorrhage or release of gastric contents into the abdomen.
T41325 294938-294992 Sentence denotes Perforating duodenal ulcer may instigate pancreatitis.
T45226 294993-295116 Sentence denotes Some ulcers perforate silently, the serosal lesion healing by granulation, or adhesion by, and fibroplasia in, the omentum.
T99828 295117-295319 Sentence denotes The irritant nature of gastric contents released in these circumstances may lead to chronic inflammation, granulation, and thickening of the serosa, even when previous perforation cannot be appreciated.
T54336 295320-295482 Sentence denotes A search for microscopic particles of food such as plant material or muscle fibers in the serosal inflammatory response confirms perforation in this circumstance.
T52543 295483-295696 Sentence denotes Chronic peptic ulcers with thickened mucosal margins, scirrhous bases, and perhaps serosal thickening associated with perforation or near perforation, must be differentiated from gastric adenocarcinoma in the dog.
T89408 295697-295759 Sentence denotes Syndromes resulting from hypersecretion of acid occur in dogs.
T99427 295760-295892 Sentence denotes Mastocytoma is associated with peptic ulcer, presumably owing to histamine-stimulated acid hypersecretion and microvascular effects.
T64526 295893-296015 Sentence denotes The tumor and mastocytosis do not involve the stomach directly, and ulcers may occur in animals with solitary skin tumors.
T24597 296016-296164 Sentence denotes In one series of 24 dogs with recurrent or metastatic mastocytoma, gastric and duodenal erosions or ulcers, frequently multiple, were present in 20.
T54020 296165-296284 Sentence denotes In many cases such lesions are clinically silent, and they should be looked for at autopsy in animals with mastocytoma.
T63468 296285-296419 Sentence denotes Mast cell tumors have rarely been associated with gastric ulceration in the cow, and in the cat, where gastric ulcer is very uncommon.
T47364 296420-296580 Sentence denotes Zollinger-Ellison syndrome, peptic ulcer caused by gastrinsecreting pancreatic islet cell tumors or gastrinomas, has been reported in a few dogs and fewer cats.
T98284 296581-296678 Sentence denotes The history usually includes inappetence, vomition, weight loss, and possibly diarrhea or melena.
T84426 296679-296754 Sentence denotes Reflux esophagitis and gastric or duodenal ulcer are present in most cases.
T85281 296755-296941 Sentence denotes Small nodular masses histologically confirmed as islet cell tumors may be found in the pancreas, and in most animals, metastases to the liver, spleen, or hepatic lymph nodes are present.
T77847 296942-297193 Sentence denotes Firm diagnosis rests on demonstration of elevated serum gastrin levels by radioimmunoassay; by identification of gastrin-bearing cells in fixed or frozen tumor tissue by immunohistochemistry; or by demonstration of gastrin in extracts of frozen tumor.
T33096 297194-297376 Sentence denotes The microscopic appearance of these islet cell tumors is not diagnostic for gastrinoma, nor is the ultrastructural appearance of tumor cells necessarily characteristic of the G cell.
T48048 297377-297485 Sentence denotes Pancreatic islet cell neoplasms may be difficult to find, and should be sought assiduously in suspect cases.
T26210 297486-297614 Sentence denotes The cause in dogs of gastroduodenal ulcer possibly associated with decreased resistance to back-diffusion of acid is less clear.
T52146 297615-297726 Sentence denotes Hepatic disease is often present in dogs with gastric ulcer, but the basis for a causal association is obscure.
T51624 297727-297739 Sentence denotes Some mucosa.
T38479 297740-297847 Sentence denotes Acid treatment of hemoglobin gives blood on the surface or in the gastric lumen a red-brown or black color.
T81999 297848-298048 Sentence denotes In some instances, melena, presumably the result of a recent episode of gastric bleeding, may be present in the lower intestine, with minimal gross evidence of hemorrhage or ulceration in the stomach.
T96667 298049-298201 Sentence denotes The microscopic lesion associated with hemorrhage of this type is often subtle; bleeding seemingly results from diapedesis, with minimal mucosal damage.
T62824 298202-298364 Sentence denotes Usually there is superficial erosion of the mucosa, often difficult to differentiate from autolysis, with granules of brown acid hematin in debris on the surface.
T93413 298365-298396 Sentence denotes Inflammation is usually absent.
T8072 298397-298610 Sentence denotes Evidence for healing mild gastric erosion is the presence of basophilic, poorly differentiated, flattened, cuboidal or low columnar cells on the mucosal surface, with mitotic cells in the upper neck of the glands.
T25499 298611-298738 Sentence denotes Lesions of any genesis proceeding to gastric ulcer do so by progressive, often rapid, coagulative necrosis of the gastric wall.
T17890 298739-298873 Sentence denotes Ulcers vary in microscopic appearance depending on their aggression, and the point in their development at which they are intercepted.
T63635 298874-299100 Sentence denotes Acute gastric lesions appear as erosions with superficial eosinophilic necrotic debris and loss of mucosal architecture to the depths of the foveolae, or as a depression in the mucosal surface with necrotic debris at the base.
T63172 299101-299180 Sentence denotes Necrosis usually extends rapidly to the muscularis mucosae, causing ulceration.
T31871 299181-299414 Sentence denotes Once the superficial portion of the mucosa is destroyed, natural local buffering is lost, and the proliferative compartment of the gland, which is near the surface, is obliterated, preventing a local epithelial regenerative response.
T79688 299415-299547 Sentence denotes Ulcers attaining the submucosa impinge on arterioles of increasing diameter, multiplying the risk of significant gastric hemorrhage.
T82344 299548-299653 Sentence denotes The ulcer may progress through the muscularis and serosa, culminating in perforation of the gastric wall.
T50892 299654-299775 Sentence denotes Severe gastric hemorrhage or perforation are relatively common sequelae of gastroduodenal ulceration in domestic animals.
T27962 299776-299926 Sentence denotes Ulcers that come into equilibrium with reparative processes may do so at any level of the gastric wall below the mucosa, but usually at the submucosa.
T40068 299927-300152 Sentence denotes Subacute to chronic ulcers have a base and sides composed of granulation tissue of variable thickness and maturity, infiltrated by a mixed inflammatory cell population, and overlain by a usually thin layer of necrotic debris.
T42071 300153-300181 Sentence denotes Chronic ulcers wax and wane.
T25129 300182-300400 Sentence denotes Depending on the relative dominance of reparative processes and aggressive ulceration, the layer of granulation tissue may be thick and mature, or thinner, less mature, and with superficial evidence of recent necrosis.
T48554 300401-300609 Sentence denotes There is mucous metaplasia and hyperplasia in glands at the periphery of the ulcer, which, with time, overhang the edge of the lesion, whence epithelial cells may gradually migrate across, closing the defect.
T98631 300610-300903 Sentence denotes Restitution of mucosal integrity is a complex process that is promoted by local activity of cytokines and growth factors such as transforming growth factor-β, vascular endothelial growth factor, basic fibroblast growth factor, epidermal growth factor, interleukins-1β and -2, and interferon-γ.
T44248 300904-301002 Sentence denotes Secretion of growth factors is a coordinated response by gastric epithelium and mesenchymal cells.
T22405 301003-301168 Sentence denotes Angiogenesis, also driven by cytokines and growth factors within the healing ulcer and granulation bed, is important for restoration of the mucosal microvasculature.
T60028 301169-301253 Sentence denotes The mucosa of healed ulcers, even in the fundic zone, is comprised of mucous glands.
T30561 301254-301362 Sentence denotes Excessive scarring of healed ulcers located near the pylorus may lead to pyloric obstruction in any species.
T26342 301363-301599 Sentence denotes Duodenal ulcers, which usually occur proximal to the opening of the pancreatic and bile ducts, resemble gastric The causes of abomasal ulcer are usually unclear, but they are most common in young calves, dairy cows, and feedlot animals.
T43051 301600-301723 Sentence denotes Viral agents including bovine viral diarrhea virus and malignant catarrhal fever virus are associated with abomasal ulcers.
T51994 301724-301956 Sentence denotes Abomasal ulcer occurred in about 34% of feedlot cattle in one study, with about half the cases symptomatic, whereas there are reports of over 6% of European dairy cows slaughtered with evidence of active or previous abomasal ulcers.
T30174 301957-302058 Sentence denotes A very high proportion, often in excess of 50%, of veal calves may have abomasal ulcers at slaughter.
T85017 302059-302153 Sentence denotes Ulcers often appear to be subclinical, and apparently without effect on growth or performance.
T6449 302154-302276 Sentence denotes However, about one-third of suckling calves dying under 4 months of age in western Canada had perforating abomasal ulcers.
T80760 302277-302370 Sentence denotes They were often associated with hairballs, which, it was concluded, were probably not causal.
T4904 302371-302476 Sentence denotes Mineral deficiencies, including copper and selenium, have been associated with abomasal ulcers in calves.
T35038 302477-302694 Sentence denotes Ulcers often seem to occur under stressful circumstances, as in recently weaned and veal calves, postparturient cows, animals with concurrent disease such as abomasal displacement or mastitis, or after transportation.
T18936 302695-302852 Sentence denotes Lactic acid and histamine entering the abomasum from the forestomachs in animals poorly adapted to high-concentrate rations may contribute to mucosal damage.
T29629 302853-303079 Sentence denotes In veal calves, consumption of straw, shavings, or other roughage has been associated with an increased prevalence of ulcers, and there appears to be an increase in thickness and altered mucus production in the pyloric mucosa.
T96263 303080-303265 Sentence denotes Abomasal ulcers in range calves in western North America have been associated with Clostridium perfringens gastritis, consumption of roughage at pasture, and possibly copper deficiency.
T12478 303266-303347 Sentence denotes Perforating abomasal ulcers may develop in calves secondary to mycotic infection.
T95082 303348-303459 Sentence denotes Abomasal stasis may play a part in animals with physical or physiological abomasal obstruction or displacement.
T15899 303460-303603 Sentence denotes Ulceration of the abomasal mucosa infiltrated by lymphosarcoma will occur, and it may occur as a sequel to ingestion of toxins such as arsenic.
T27868 303604-303671 Sentence denotes The presenting sign in many cases of abomasal ulceration is melena.
T25591 303672-303805 Sentence denotes Hemorrhage causing exsanguination, or perforation and septic peritonitis, is the usual cause of death resulting from abomasal ulcers.
T19551 303806-304010 Sentence denotes Bleeding abomasal ulcer should be looked for in cattle with melena or anemia, and perforating abomasal ulcer in animals presented with septic peritonitis, especially if digesta is in the abdominal cavity.
T85172 304011-304209 Sentence denotes Perforation may occur into the omental bursa, localizing contamination, and occasionally, points of perforation will be adherent to the abdominal wall, or occluded by superficially adherent omentum.
T33375 304210-304365 Sentence denotes Gastric ulcers in swine are usually restricted to the pars esophagea; in a small proportion of affected pigs, lesions extend into the contiguous esophagus.
T37766 304366-304576 Sentence denotes Rarely are significant ulcers of the cardiac, fundic, or pyloric mucosa encountered in swine, sometimes in association with ulcer of the pars esophagea, occasionally with gastric parasitism or systemic disease.
T95045 304577-304671 Sentence denotes Venous infarcts in the body of the stomach in swine are not to be confused with gastric ulcer.
T75623 304672-304797 Sentence denotes Under conditions of modern pig husbandry, the prevalence of ulcer and associated abnormalities of the pars esophagea is high.
T69200 304798-304847 Sentence denotes Weaned growers and feeders are commonly affected.
T32103 304848-304904 Sentence denotes Most lesions are subclinical; however, some prove fatal.
T97952 304905-305028 Sentence denotes Pigs die without premonition, or with a short history that may include anemia, weakness, inappetence, vomition, and melena.
T62513 305029-305235 Sentence denotes Other animals are affected chronically, with signs of anorexia, ulcers are associated with administration of glucocorticoids in high doses as anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive, or antineoplastic therapy.
T51377 305236-305443 Sentence denotes Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as aspirin, naproxen, indomethacin, ibuprofen, flunixin meglumine, and piroxicam, sometimes given in excessive quantity, are also associated with spontaneous ulcers.
T18849 305444-305557 Sentence denotes Gastric hemorrhage and gastroduodenal ulceration are occasionally seen in dogs following trauma or major surgery.
T65804 305558-305691 Sentence denotes A syndrome of gastric hemorrhage, pancreatitis, and colonic ulceration and perforation is recognized in dogs following spinal trauma.
T83485 305692-305760 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis of this problem is obscure and undoubtedly complex.
T92667 305761-305866 Sentence denotes Abomasal ulcers in cattle are common ( Fig. 1-39) ; duodenal ulcer is rarely encountered in this species.
T63359 305867-306016 Sentence denotes Acute ulcers or erosions considered to be the result of stress are frequently seen incidentally in animals, of any age, dying of a variety of causes.
T26700 306017-306227 Sentence denotes They are usually present as linear areas of brown or black hemorrhage or erosion along the margins of abomasal rugae, or as punctate hemorrhages and erosions scattered over the mucosa, especially of the fundus.
T52360 306228-306275 Sentence denotes Ulcers may be present anywhere in the abomasum.
T39418 306276-306474 Sentence denotes They are common in the pyloric region in cattle, and especially at the torus pyloricus in veal calves, but they may scallop or perforate abomasal rugae and excavate the mucosa in the fundus as well.
T8094 306475-306512 Sentence denotes Often more than one ulcer is present.
T30778 306513-306543 Sentence denotes A B the entire pars esophagea.
T66152 306544-306661 Sentence denotes They usually spare only a microscopically visible margin of squamous epithelium adjacent to the cardiac gland mucosa.
T32293 306662-306793 Sentence denotes Ulcers of the pars esophagea, like peptic ulcer, have a floor of necrotic debris overlying exposed connective tissue ( Fig. 1-40) .
T35355 306794-306944 Sentence denotes Depending on the stage and aggression of the ulcer, there may be a well-developed inflammatory margin to the necrosis and a bed of granulation tissue.
T41613 306945-307160 Sentence denotes Grossly, fully developed ulceration of the pars esophagea is apparent as a punched-out lesion with elevated rolled edges, obliterating the entire pars esophagea and obscuring the esophageal opening (see Fig. 1-40 ).
T11318 307161-307237 Sentence denotes The floor of the ulcer may be so smooth that it is misinterpreted as normal.
T55474 307238-307330 Sentence denotes Pigs with gastric ulcer at any stage of evolution tend to have fluid content in the stomach.
T32420 307331-307556 Sentence denotes Those with hemorrhagic ulcer may have red-brown gastric content, or massive hemorrhage into the stomach with large blood clots in the lumen, and smaller clots adherent to the base of the ulcer and its exposed bleeding points.
T32883 307557-307665 Sentence denotes Melenic content will often be present in the intestine, and the colon may contain firm black pelleted feces.
T51773 307666-307742 Sentence denotes The carcasses of animals that exsanguinate with gastric ulcer are very pale.
T90124 307743-307951 Sentence denotes Blood in the intestine associated with gastric ulcer in pigs must be differentiated from mesenteric volvulus and intermittent melena, and weight loss that may culminate in death or slow recovery with runting.
T88573 307952-308091 Sentence denotes There is little disagreement over the morphology of ulceration of the pars esophagea, although its etiopathogenesis has been controversial.
T10109 308092-308142 Sentence denotes Many factors have been implicated in the etiology.
T69869 308143-308334 Sentence denotes Stressful husbandry practices have been considered to contribute to development of ulcer, although glucocorticoid administration results in lesions of the fundus, not pars esophagea, in pigs.
T27340 308335-308505 Sentence denotes Environment has been identified as a factor, for example, pigs held on slatted floors have a higher incidence of nonglandular ulcers than pigs on solid or straw flooring.
T25586 308506-308733 Sentence denotes High dietary copper levels, feeding of whey, starchy diets low in protein, high levels of dietary unsaturated fatty acids, and microbial production of short-chain fatty acids have been associated with the development of ulcers.
T50907 308734-308867 Sentence denotes Experimental infection with Ascaris suum has been associated with ulcer, but natural infection is not considered causally associated.
T75732 308868-309099 Sentence denotes Although an association between the presence of Helicobacter heilmannii and ulceration has been proposed in pigs, this has not been strongly substantiated, and gastric ulcers in pigs involve squamous, rather than glandular, mucosa.
T78529 309100-309263 Sentence denotes Experimentally in gnotobiotic pigs, H. heilmannii has been shown to induce ulcers in the squamous portion of the stomach of pigs fed a ration high in carbohydrate.
T9699 309264-309446 Sentence denotes Experimentally, factors stimulating acid secretion, especially histamine, consistently cause ulcers of the pars esophagea, suggesting that gastric acidity may play an etiologic role.
T77805 309447-309578 Sentence denotes Repeatedly, finely ground rations have been found to be ulcerogenic, and this may be the single most important predisposing factor.
T63885 309579-309748 Sentence denotes Squamous epithelium has no innate buffering capacity, and it is highly susceptible to attack by gastric acid, pepsin, and refluxed bile, as occurs in reflux esophagitis.
T98616 309749-309810 Sentence denotes Similar events may initiate ulceration of the pars esophagea.
T5219 309811-309884 Sentence denotes Swine with gastric ulcers usually have abnormally fluid stomach contents.
T1858 309885-310011 Sentence denotes Feeding of finely divided rations and prolonged fasting are associated experimentally with increased water in stomach content.
T1253 310012-310102 Sentence denotes Normally there is a declining gradient of pH from esophagus to pylorus in stomach ingesta.
T47165 310103-310230 Sentence denotes Abnormally fluid gastric content fails to partition properly, and the pH gradient from esophagus to pylorus is not established.
T88049 310231-310476 Sentence denotes Relatively low pH occurs at the esophageal end of the stomach, where hydrochloric acid, pepsin, and refluxed bile, along with short-chain fatty acids produced by microbial fermentation of carbohydrate, synergistically attack the squamous mucosa.
T24741 310477-310532 Sentence denotes Meanwhile, the pH at the pylorus is higher than normal.
T33903 310533-310687 Sentence denotes Under conditions of prolonged gastric distention and relatively high antral pH, gastrin-stimulated acid secretion may be excessive, promoting that insult.
T96546 310688-310797 Sentence denotes Lesions of the pars esophagea may involve only a small part, or virtually all of the gastric squamous mucosa.
T97887 310798-310907 Sentence denotes The lesion evolves through parakeratosis, to fissuring and erosion, with ultimate ulceration in severe cases.
T91211 310908-310978 Sentence denotes All stages in this progression will be encountered at autopsy in pigs.
T88297 310979-311111 Sentence denotes The epithelium of the pars esophagea often appears yellow and is thickened, irregular, roughened, and may flake or peel off readily.
T92648 311112-311271 Sentence denotes Candida may be present over the epithelial surface, with hyphae invading the parakeratotic epithelium, perhaps because of favorable cystine or glycogen levels.
T63080 311272-311317 Sentence denotes Rete pegs and proprial papillae are elongate.
T22965 311318-311457 Sentence denotes Erosion of the epithelium progresses to ulceration and exposure of papillae and deeper propria, which bleed as small vessels are disrupted.
T78047 311458-311648 Sentence denotes Such lesions begin as fissures in the hyperplastic parakeratotic epithelium, but advance to ulcerate B A ulceration, with evolution of the ulcer and ulcer bed, as described earlier in swine.
T83942 311649-311732 Sentence denotes In a low number of horses, glandular metaplasia has been observed in the ulcer bed.
T29930 311733-311781 Sentence denotes Ulcers in the secretory stomach are less common.
T8870 311782-311910 Sentence denotes These ulcers are also often large and multiple, although a full range from focal punctate to extensive deep lesions may be seen.
T73464 311911-312019 Sentence denotes Perforation may occur at any site of ulceration, and in one series represented 1% of 600 autopsies on foals.
T19950 312020-312145 Sentence denotes Some foals may exsanguinate because of bleeding ulcers, and occasionally clotted blood will fill the stomach, forming a cast.
T8234 312146-312227 Sentence denotes Pyloric and duodenal stenosis have been associated with healing ulcers in horses.
T81539 312228-312456 Sentence denotes Ulcerative lesions involving the circumference, or the antimesenteric mucosa, of the proximal duodenum have been associated with gastric ulcers in foals, and duodenal stricture may represent a more chronic phase of this process.
T27618 312457-312522 Sentence denotes Severe esophagitis occurs in foals with ulcer and gastric reflux.
T6226 312523-312727 Sentence denotes Many cases of gastric ulcers in horses are associated with enteric disease, colonic impaction, ileus, surgery, or other circumstances that can be considered stressful or could cause gastroduodenal reflux.
T8190 312728-312907 Sentence denotes Ulcers are common in horses held in stalls, and alternating periods of feeding and feed deprivation have been shown to induce ulceration of the gastric squamous epithelial mucosa.
T44017 312908-313004 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis of ulceration in the pars esophagea in horses probably resembles that in swine.
T72877 313005-313282 Sentence denotes Abnormally fluid content associated with feeding patterns and feedstuffs is permissive of acid, pepsin, and bile reflux to the cranial part of the stomach, where, at pH levels <4.0, volatile fatty acids generated locally may predispose further to damage to the squamous mucosa.
T22948 313283-313395 Sentence denotes A diet of bromegrass hay has been implicated in causing lower gastric pH, and thus facilitating ulcer formation.
T46312 313396-313600 Sentence denotes Exercise increases intra-abdominal pressure, resulting in gastric compression and reflux of acidic content into the cranial stomach, possibly contributing to ulceration associated with intensive training.
T20629 313601-313835 Sentence denotes It is unclear whether the ulcerative duodenitis seen in some cases is a product of peptic ulceration, or whether it represents a process such as "proximal enteritis," which in turn results in stricture, gastric reflux, and ulceration.
T7459 313836-314131 Sentence denotes Administration of NSAIDs is commonly associated with gastroduodenal ulcers, and lesions of the glandular stomach, squamous stomach, and pylorus, among other lesions, have been induced in horses intoxicated with phenylbutazone. from proliferative hemorrhagic enteropathy associated with Lawsonia.
T57453 314132-314262 Sentence denotes A few pigs with parakeratosis, erosion, and ulceration of the pars esophagea have esophageal lesions suggestive of gastric reflux.
T58878 314263-314353 Sentence denotes Gastric ulcers in some pigs resolve by granulation, and they may become re-epithelialized.
T95164 314354-314502 Sentence denotes Such lesions usually become scirrhous, puckered, and contracted as the ulcer closes from the periphery, and scarring may be visible from the serosa.
T44512 314503-314684 Sentence denotes In these circumstances, stenotic occlusion of the esophageal opening into the stomach may occur, and pigs with this problem can develop muscular hypertrophy of the distal esophagus.
T14727 314685-314806 Sentence denotes In horses, ulcers in the stomach of foals and adults are often found at autopsy incidental to some other disease process.
T63265 314807-315042 Sentence denotes Gastric ulcer as a clinical entity is less commonly recognized, although a syndrome of abdominal pain, sometimes associated with gastric reflux, has been described in foals, and gastric ulcers are associated with colic in older horses.
T79130 315043-315189 Sentence denotes Ulcers are common in foals under 4 months of age; about half of a group of foals without signs of gastric disease had ulcers visible by endoscopy.
T64103 315190-315305 Sentence denotes Ulcers have been detected endoscopically in >65% of performance horses, in training, racing, or on endurance rides.
T56588 315306-315531 Sentence denotes They are often multiple, and although most frequent in the esophageal region, they can simultaneously involve all 4 mucosal zones of the stomach, and the duodenum, with no relationship apparent in the pattern of distribution.
T81975 315532-315694 Sentence denotes COX expression is altered in ulcers of the squamous regions, with decrease in COX1 and increase in COX2 expression; COX2 may be important in the healing response.
T67093 315695-315736 Sentence denotes Ulcers of the esophageal zone are common.
T23329 315737-315850 Sentence denotes They are usually most severe at or adjacent to the margo plicatus, involving the edge of the squamous epithelium.
T74078 315851-315895 Sentence denotes They are often large and irregular in shape.
T95750 315896-316093 Sentence denotes There may be extensive fissuring, erosion, and ulceration of the squamous mucosa on the remainder of the pars esophagea, and in the esophagus, sometimes nearly to the pharynx, in foals with reflux.
T22505 316094-316223 Sentence denotes Often islands of thickened white proliferative mucosa are scattered as plaques on a predominantly ulcerated mucosa ( Fig. 1-41) .
T48937 316224-316413 Sentence denotes Microscopically, there is epithelial hypertrophy and hyperplasia in response to insult, marked in some islands of surviving mucosa, with prominent rete pegs and edematous proprial papillae.
T46988 316414-316467 Sentence denotes Parakeratotic hyperkeratosis is also an early lesion.
T8586 316468-316555 Sentence denotes Lesions then grade through increasing degrees of epithelial erosion to alpha-defensins.
T22614 316556-316775 Sentence denotes These molecules are now known to be key mediators of homeostasis, host-microbe interactions, innate immune defense, and regulation of epithelial stem cells and the regenerative response of injured intestinal epithelium.
T60109 316776-316873 Sentence denotes Oligomucous cells are relatively intermediate cells which differentiate into mature goblet cells.
T83619 316874-317033 Sentence denotes Both are present in epithelium of crypts and villi, with variable prevalence and distribution at various levels of the intestine, and in the different species.
T26734 317034-317111 Sentence denotes They have basal nuclei with distended apical theca-containing mucin granules.
T48423 317112-317227 Sentence denotes These cells synthesize and secrete by exocytosis bioactive molecules such as mucins, which are components of mucus.
T84500 317228-317358 Sentence denotes Intestinal mucus provides lubrication and frontline host defense against irritants and microbes while allowing nutrient transport.
T26436 317359-317685 Sentence denotes Mucus also contains trefoil factor, which is produced by goblet cells and promotes epithelial restitution after injury; lysozyme and defensins produced by Paneth cells; resistin-like molecule β (RELMβ) produced by goblet cells is involved in immunoregulation and homeostasis; and immunoglobulin A secreted by epithelial cells.
T33296 317686-317964 Sentence denotes Goblet cell hyperplasia and mucus secretion are promoted in the acute phase by a variety of noxious stimuli, inflammatory mediators, and by cell-mediated immune events in the gut, whereas chronic infections can result in depletion of goblet cells and alteration of mucus layers.
T2299 317965-318153 Sentence denotes Enteroendocrine cells comprise a heterogeneous population of approximately 16 amine-or peptide-secreting endocrine/paracrine cells, representing about 1% of the epithelial cell population.
T10376 318154-318365 Sentence denotes Formerly classified by the ultrastructural appearance of their secretory vesicles, subtypes of enteroendocrine cells are now classified based on the contents of their secretory vesicles and are named by letters.
T34807 318366-318673 Sentence denotes Serotonin, somatostatin, cholecystokinin, peptide YY, glucagon-like peptides, and secretin are produced by specialized EC, D, I, L, and S cells in the gastrointestinal tract and these molecules are involved in regulation of intestinal motility and peristalsis, secretions, visceral sensations, and appetite.
T27401 318674-318784 Sentence denotes Immunohistochemistry studies have demonstrated that enteroendocrine cells stain positively for chromogranin A.
T88172 318785-319008 Sentence denotes With the exception of carcinoid tumors of serotonin-secreting cell origin, and rare functional neoplasms of other enteroendocrine cells in humans, the pathologic implications of this class of cells are still poorly defined.
T44847 319009-319163 Sentence denotes Poorly differentiated enterocytes undergo rapid amplification division and these cells are cuboidal or low columnar with relatively few, short microvilli.
T50052 319164-319278 Sentence denotes Daughter cells differentiate and move into the functional compartment of absorptive enterocytes lining the villus.
T34789 319279-319355 Sentence denotes Undifferentiated crypt epithelial cells also secrete electrolytes and water.
T98930 319356-319538 Sentence denotes Mature enterocytes are responsible for the final digestion and absorption of nutrients, electrolytes, and water, and are by far the predominant epithelial cell type in the intestine.
T84476 319539-319642 Sentence denotes They are normally tall columnar cells, polygonal in cross-section, with regular basal nuclear polarity.
T98378 319643-319763 Sentence denotes A tight junction, which is permissive to small molecule and water transport, joins the apical margins of adjacent cells.
T59085 319764-319915 Sentence denotes The barrier to transepithelial macromolecular movement is essentially maintained even at sites of extrusion of effete enterocytes at the tips of villi.
T66448 319916-320057 Sentence denotes Basal to the tight junction, the lateral cell membranes interdigitate loosely, and a long, narrow potential space exists between enterocytes.
T68851 320058-320246 Sentence denotes The basolateral cell membrane is the site of sodium-potassiumdependent adenosine triphosphatase that drives the sodium pump, and of carrier systems exporting monosaccharides from the cell.
T60591 320247-320301 Sentence denotes Absorptive epithelial cells lie on a basal lamina with
T20577 320302-320474 Sentence denotes The microtopography of the small bowel is extensively modified to increase its surface area by spiral mucosal folds in some species, and by villi projecting into the lumen.
T37195 320475-320624 Sentence denotes The villi, projections of lamina propria covered by a layer of epithelium one cell thick, expand the absorptive surface of the small bowel 7-14 fold.
T81587 320625-320725 Sentence denotes In most species, villi are tallest in the duodenum, and decline somewhat in height toward the ileum.
T84389 320726-320843 Sentence denotes The length and shape of villi in normal animals vary with the species, age, intestinal microflora, and immune status.
T84978 320844-321194 Sentence denotes In general, villi in dogs, cats, neonatal piglets, and ruminants tend to be tall and cylindrical; those in horses and in young ruminants tend to be moderately tall and cylindrical; villi in weaned ruminants and swine may be cylindrical, leaf-or tongueshaped, or rarely ridge-like, with their broad surface at right angles to the long axis of the gut.
T72495 321195-321251 Sentence denotes Villus length typically declines somewhat after weaning.
T37149 321252-321347 Sentence denotes Opening to the mucosal surface around the base of each villus are several crypts of Lieberkühn.
T28500 321348-321486 Sentence denotes Depending on the species and their proliferative status, crypts are straight or somewhat coiled and lined by a single layer of epithelium.
T54634 321487-321728 Sentence denotes The progenitor compartment of the enteric epithelium resides here, producing cells that differentiate and move up on to the surface of villi, mainly as absorptive enterocytes, ultimately to be extruded as effete cells from the tips of villi.
T1745 321729-321826 Sentence denotes Sloughed cells contribute to the enzyme content and complexity of the intestinal luminal content.
T97812 321827-322124 Sentence denotes Stem cells are found near or at the base of the crypts, depending on species and the position in the gastrointestinal tract, and they give rise to rapid-cycling transit-amplifying cells, which eventually differentiate into 1 of 4 main lineages of cells, which undergo continuous cycles of renewal:
T60959 322125-322191 Sentence denotes Paneth cells, goblet cells, neuroendocrine cells, and enterocytes.
T37160 322192-322369 Sentence denotes Paneth cells, a population of enigmatic cells turning over slowly (~20 days) in the base of the crypts in small intestine, are most obvious in horses among the domestic animals.
T43229 322370-322458 Sentence denotes They are not found in dogs, cats, or swine, nor prominent in the intestine of ruminants.
T66870 322459-322774 Sentence denotes Conspicuous eosinophilic secretory granules are present in their apical cytoplasm, and these contain a number of antimicrobial proteins and peptides including lysozyme, phospholipase, DNAse, ribonuclease, and Lymphocytes, neutrophils, and eosinophils are scattered in the lamina propria of villi and between crypts.
T19062 322775-322951 Sentence denotes Eosinophils are especially common in the intestine of ruminants and horses, with no specific pathologic connotation; they are highly variable in the intestine of small animals.
T58189 322952-323047 Sentence denotes Intraepithelial lymphocytes are frequently observed along villi and less commonly along crypts.
T11175 323048-323176 Sentence denotes Globule leukocytes may be found in the epithelium of crypts and low on villi, or sometimes in the lamina propria between crypts.
T9470 323177-323306 Sentence denotes Plasma cells are normally not numerous in villi, but are concentrated in the lamina propria between the upper portions of crypts.
T44406 323307-323508 Sentence denotes The vascular supply to the small intestinal mucosa arises in submucosal arteries that give off arterioles at right angles, some of which send branches to a capillary plexus around crypts of Lieberkühn.
T31323 323509-323651 Sentence denotes Most arterioles arborize near the villus tip into a dense capillary plexus, which lies immediately beneath the basal lamina of the epithelium.
T59278 323652-323782 Sentence denotes Mucosal capillaries have fenestrations facing the basal lamina, which may be more permeable than the remainder of the endothelium.
T40799 323783-323979 Sentence denotes One or more venules drain blood from the capillaries in villi and between crypts, and flow into larger veins in the submucosa, which drain into mesenteric veins and the hepatic portal circulation.
T83136 323980-324175 Sentence denotes The lacteal, or central lymphatic vessel of the villus, is sufficiently permeable to permit the entry of macromolecules and chylomicrons, and is the main route of lipid transport from the villus.
T68085 324176-324339 Sentence denotes The cecum and colon vary widely in anatomy and size among domestic animals, depending largely upon the significance of hindgut microbial carbohydrate fermentation.
T92102 324340-324432 Sentence denotes Production of volatile fatty acids from carbohydrate by colonic flora occurs in all species.
T44384 324433-324531 Sentence denotes This is a primary source of energy in the horse; it is significant in swine and ruminants as well.
T62847 324532-324608 Sentence denotes Extensive movement of electrolytes and water occurs across the colonic wall.
T59482 324609-324863 Sentence denotes In the horse, a volume of fluid approaching that of the extracellular fluid space may be in the large bowel, which must maintain a fluid medium for microbial fermentation; daily fluid absorption from the hindgut may exceed the extracellular fluid volume.
T75257 324864-325039 Sentence denotes Absorption of electrolytes and water, an electrolyte-conserving mechanism, is probably the major function of the colon in dogs and cats, and of the distal colon of herbivores.
T91312 325040-325179 Sentence denotes The mucosa of the cecum and colon in all domestic mammalian species lacks villi, although there are ridges or folds on the mucosal surface.
T13826 325180-325239 Sentence denotes Colonic glands, or crypts, are straight tubular structures.
T88686 325240-325343 Sentence denotes The architecture of colonic glands and their cell population resembles that of small intestinal crypts.
T32687 325344-325530 Sentence denotes Epithelial cells differentiate progressively from stem cells deep in the glands to a single layer of columnar absorptive epithelial cells with basal nuclei that line the mucosal surface.
T73336 325531-325647 Sentence denotes Hindgut epithelial cells generally have sparse and irregular microvilli in comparison with those of the small bowel.
T19179 325648-325758 Sentence denotes Numerous glycoprotein-laden vesicles are observed in the apical cytoplasm of epithelial cells in most species.
T53192 325759-325892 Sentence denotes Oligomucous cells, also derived from basal stem cells, form a second proliferative population in the lower half of the colonic gland.
T94090 325893-326001 Sentence denotes Well-differentiated goblet cells are usually present in the upper half of colonic glands and on the surface.
T25055 326002-326104 Sentence denotes Goblet cells are present in variable numbers, depending on the species and a variety of other factors.
T82134 326105-326247 Sentence denotes Enteroendocrine cells of about a half-dozen types have been recognized, and are scattered in the cell column lining glands in the large bowel.
T18393 326248-326466 Sentence denotes Paneth cells are not found in normal colon; however, Paneth cell metaplasia has been proposed as a preneoplastic which they interact via integrins; they may be involved in communications with the underlying mesenchyme.
T62510 326467-326774 Sentence denotes Immediately beneath the basal lamina lies the sheath of syncytial myofibroblasts, alpha-smooth muscle actin-positive cells that mediate information flow between the epithelium and lamina propria through production of growth factors, cytokines, chemokines, prostaglandins, and extracellular matrix molecules.
T10652 326775-326879 Sentence denotes Myofibroblasts are thus involved in growth and tissue repair, tumorigenesis, inflammation, and fibrosis.
T88997 326880-327076 Sentence denotes Myofibroblasts are probably largely responsible for the remarkable plasticity of the villus during adaptive changes including villus atrophy and reconstitution of mucosal 3-dimensional morphology.
T42174 327077-327293 Sentence denotes The apical surface of normal enterocytes is highly modified into microvilli, ∼0.5-1.5 µm long and 0.1 µm wide, which are regularly arrayed in close apposition to each other at right angles to the surface of the cell.
T18532 327294-327360 Sentence denotes They are visible as the "brush border" by conventional microscopy.
T68874 327361-327451 Sentence denotes Microvilli increase the surface area of absorptive epithelium by a factor of ∼15-40 times.
T4385 327452-327642 Sentence denotes The plasmalemma of microvilli is studded with massive numbers of enzyme molecules, including aminopeptidases and disaccharidases involved in terminal digestion of peptides and carbohydrates.
T50732 327643-327746 Sentence denotes These protrude as minute knob-like structures into the glycocalyx that coats the surface of microvilli.
T16329 327747-327895 Sentence denotes In neonatal swine and ruminants, vacuolation of absorptive enterocytes is normal, and the nucleus is often also displaced into the apical cytoplasm.
T95540 327896-328005 Sentence denotes In piglets vacuolation is usual in the ileum but not in the duodenum, and seems to be a function of cell age.
T9736 328006-328160 Sentence denotes Such vacuolation should be differentiated from the presence of eosinophilic colostrum present in cytoplasmic vacuoles in the epithelial cells of neonates.
T88342 328161-328273 Sentence denotes The cytoplasm of absorptive enterocytes is stabilized at the apical border by the filaments of the terminal web.
T51523 328274-328438 Sentence denotes Smooth endoplasmic reticulum is most prominent in the upper half of cells, whereas cisternal elements of rough endoplasmic reticulum are more uniformly distributed.
T32430 328439-328477 Sentence denotes The Golgi zone lies above the nucleus.
T32740 328478-328644 Sentence denotes Free ribosomes and polyribosomes are numerous in differentiating cells of the upper crypt and lower villus, and are relatively fewer in mature absorptive enterocytes.
T56000 328645-328886 Sentence denotes The complex of endoplasmic membranes and Golgi apparatus is particularly active in handling absorbed lipid, which diffuses from micelles at the cell surface through the apical membrane, in the form of long-chain fatty acids or monoglyceride.
T14485 328887-329147 Sentence denotes These are re-esterified to triglyceride, appearing in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, and are complexed with apoproteins produced in the rough endoplasmic reticulum to be excreted via the Golgi apparatus through the basolateral cell membrane as chylomicrons.
T51712 329148-329228 Sentence denotes Chylomicrons enter the extracellular space and leave the villus via the lacteal.
T47227 329229-329303 Sentence denotes The lamina propria supports the epithelium of the small intestinal mucosa.
T47382 329304-329434 Sentence denotes It is composed of loose fibrous tissue within which blood vessels, smooth-muscle, inflammatory, and immune cells are interspersed.
T78892 329435-329589 Sentence denotes In addition to functioning in defense against microorganisms, macrophages phagocytose inert particulate matter reaching the lamina propria from the lumen.
T19861 329590-329695 Sentence denotes Bile pigment, perhaps derived from meconium, can be seen in macrophages in the tips of villi in neonates.
T24243 329696-329770 Sentence denotes Macrophages also phagocytose iron and may play a role in iron homeostasis.
T66208 329771-329865 Sentence denotes Apoptotic bodies, ceroid, and hemosiderin also may be observed in lamina proprial macrophages.
T75644 329866-330050 Sentence denotes This can be prominent in horses and is thought to represent detritus from apoptosis of upwardly migrating subepithelial myofibroblasts, and should not be mistaken for foci of necrosis.
T59125 330051-330168 Sentence denotes intestinal disease is not indicated clinically, and to view critically their reliability in diagnosing such entities.
T48467 330169-330365 Sentence denotes Biopsy interpretation is enhanced by increasing size and number of specimens, full-thickness sampling, careful tissue handling including minimizing trauma, rapid fixation, and optimal orientation.
T2573 330366-330576 Sentence denotes Sacrificing any of these attributes increases the subjectivity with which a biopsy is interpreted; hence exquisite care must be taken in tissue handling to reduce traumatic artefact and to optimize orientation.
T98972 330577-330849 Sentence denotes Clinicians and pathologists dealing with endoscopic, capsule, and forceps biopsies must remember the limitations in interpretation imposed by small sample size, fragmentation, unfavorable sample orientation, and failure to sample the deep mucosa, submucosa and muscularis.
T37521 330850-331086 Sentence denotes These costs are offset to some degree by the opportunity to obtain a greater number of samples than may be possible by other means, at arguably lower risk and cost, and possibly more focused on a lesion by direct endoscopic examination.
T52222 331088-331296 Sentence denotes The gastrointestinal tract is presented continually with antigens in food, allergens, toxins, viruses, commensal and pathogenic bacteria and their products, and parasites with their excretions and secretions.
T23694 331297-331452 Sentence denotes The epithelial barrier of the gut is only one-cell thick and has enormous surface area; the enteric mucosal surface of the average human is about 400 m 2 .
T70121 331453-331726 Sentence denotes Therefore, it is not surprising that the epithelium and associated lymphoid and inflammatory cells in the mucosa and submucosa are components of a complex system for excluding, blocking, sampling, tolerating, or neutralizing and eliminating antigens or potential pathogens.
T45608 331727-331932 Sentence denotes Intestinal immune elements are sparse and quiescent at birth; immune activity in the gut is probably stimulated in response to colonization by normal bacterial flora beginning in the early neonatal period.
T5434 331933-332067 Sentence denotes In the mature animal, lymphoid tissue is estimated to comprise 25% of lesion in development of colonic epithelial neoplasia in humans.
T74245 332068-332207 Sentence denotes The lamina propria of the colon is minimal between closely packed glands and contains a cell population similar to that in the small bowel.
T3891 332208-332412 Sentence denotes Normally, relatively few inflammatory and immune cells are present in the superficial mucosa in small animals and young herbivores; most plasma cells and lymphocytes are between deeper portions of glands.
T78531 332413-332605 Sentence denotes Older herbivores, especially horses, may have heavier superficial proprial inflammatory infiltrates, and macrophages containing phagocytosed debris may be present below the surface epithelium.
T36838 332606-332717 Sentence denotes In the equine colon, terminal arterioles entering the mucosa branch at right angles from the submucosal plexus.
T6804 332718-332898 Sentence denotes Capillaries ramify to surround colonic glands, and form an anastomosing network at the luminal surface, whereas sparsely distributed venules drain the superficial capillary plexus.
T29717 332899-333107 Sentence denotes The connective tissue of the submucosa lies between the mucosa and the external muscle of the gut, which is formed by fascicles of smooth muscle cells arranged as inner circular and outer longitudinal layers.
T28978 333108-333331 Sentence denotes An extensive enteric nervous system with submucosal (Meissner's), and myenteric (Auerbach's) plexuses marked by ganglia, modulates external autonomic neural regulation and coordinates gastrointestinal motility and function.
T93472 333332-333577 Sentence denotes The neurons of the enteric system equal in number those in the spinal cord, and their ramifications sense and influence epithelial absorption and secretion, local endocrine/paracrine secretion, blood flow, immune events, and motility in the gut.
T1041 333578-333714 Sentence denotes Secretomotor neuron branches extend to individual crypts of Lieberkühn, where they stimulate secretion of electrolyte, water, and mucus.
T90739 333715-333983 Sentence denotes Excitatory and inhibitory effects are mediated by acetylcholine and by amine and peptide neurotransmitters such as substance P, adenosine triphosphate, and vasoactive intestinal peptide, which in some cases are also produced by endocrine cells of the gut and pancreas.
T86072 333984-334185 Sentence denotes Myofibroblastic pacemaker cells of the intestine, known as interstitial cells of Cajal, are distributed throughout the intestinal musculature, integrated with the extrinsic and enteric nervous systems.
T93407 334186-334355 Sentence denotes Abnormalities of these cells are thought to lead to disorders of motility, and to gastrointestinal stromal tumors, a specific entity described in dogs, horses, and cats.
T68300 334356-334525 Sentence denotes Disorders of motility associated with enteric neural lesions, such as the dysautonomias and grass sickness, are discussed in the later section on intestinal obstruction.
T62937 334526-334869 Sentence denotes Interpretation of intestinal and colonic biopsies is often subjective, unless objective diagnostic criteria can be met, including recognition of an etiologic agent, a specific cell type, a characteristic pattern of inflammation or anatomic abnormality such as lymphangiectasia, or cytologic and morphologic abnormalities indicating malignancy.
T36914 334870-335192 Sentence denotes There are significant variations in the microscopic morphology of the gut with age; between species and among individuals of a species; at different levels of the small and large intestine within species and within the same individual; and as a result of factors influencing mucosal cell trafficking in health and disease.
T40662 335193-335392 Sentence denotes Limited morphometric data are available in domestic animals, and interpretation is limited by the lack of standardized quantitative criteria defining morphological features during health and disease.
T69263 335393-335720 Sentence denotes Until more such information is available, and its application is validated, particularly in the diagnosis of inflammatory bowel disease, pathologists do well to expand their experience of intestinal morphology by close examination of tissues from animals in which gastro-products such as amylamines, and to damaged enterocytes.
T54936 335721-335853 Sentence denotes They also presumably participate in the adaptive response, responding to antigens entering from the lumen and in tumor surveillance.
T34126 335854-335897 Sentence denotes Some may kill compromised epithelial cells.
T64506 335898-335984 Sentence denotes Most, but not all, intraepithelial lymphocytes appear to originate in Peyer's patches.
T8702 335985-336216 Sentence denotes Globule leukocytes are visible in hematoxylin and eosinstained tissue sections as mononuclear cells with large eosinophilic cytoplasmic granules, in the epithelium of the crypt and lower villus, and sometimes in the lamina propria.
T87768 336217-336423 Sentence denotes They have been associated with parasitism, but their function remains poorly understood and their origin uncertain with some evidence suggesting they originate from mast cells or large granular lymphocytes.
T48990 336424-336652 Sentence denotes The aggregated lymphoid follicles, or Peyer's patches, are scattered in the mucosa of the small intestine, and lymphoglandular complexes or solitary proprial lymphoid nodules may be grossly visible throughout the colonic mucosa.
T92821 336653-336783 Sentence denotes Peyer's patches are present throughout the length of the small intestine in all species, although they tend to be larger distally.
T19635 336784-336933 Sentence denotes They are grossly visible, usually as oval or elongate structures up to several centimeters wide, thickening the antimesenteric wall of the intestine.
T40632 336934-337076 Sentence denotes They may project slightly above the mucosal surface, or appear as cupped depressions that must not be mistaken for ulcers, especially in dogs.
T85758 337077-337176 Sentence denotes In neonates of some species, including swine, they may be poorly developed and not visible grossly.
T67606 337177-337425 Sentence denotes Continuous Peyer's patches are found in the distal ileum of calves, lambs, and piglets and develop during late gestation, as opposed to upper intestinal lymphoid tissue, which is dependent on colonization of the gut for postgestational development.
T98365 337426-337537 Sentence denotes They are similar morphologically but apparently functionally distinct from other gutassociated lymphoid tissue.
T59176 337538-337732 Sentence denotes Their role as a primary site of B-cell generation remains controversial and, given that they involute as the animal matures, they likely play an important role in host defense during early life.
T26146 337733-337911 Sentence denotes Peyer's patches are comprised of follicular aggregates of B lymphocytes surrounded by aggregates of T lymphocytes in the submucosa, underlying a discontinuous muscularis mucosae.
T12774 337912-338129 Sentence denotes Overlying the lymphoid follicles is a mixed population of T and B lymphocytes and dendritic cells extending into the lamina propria in rounded mucosal projections known as subepithelial domes, which lie between villi.
T40262 338130-338350 Sentence denotes Cell populations of Peyer's patches in newborns and gnotobiotes of most species tend to be sparser than those in older or bacterially colonized animals, although those in neonatal calves appear relatively well developed.
T65122 338351-338635 Sentence denotes Membranous or microfold cells, M cells, are flattened cells lacking a brush border found interspersed among the follicleassociated epithelium overlying the subepithelial dome region, which separates the epithelium from the submucosal Peyer's patches and intestinal lymphoid follicles.
T82156 338636-338769 Sentence denotes Within the dome region are populations of dendritic cell subsets, which probably play a major role in initiation of mucosal immunity.
T83536 338770-339008 Sentence denotes M cells actively sample and transport particulate matter and macromolecules from the lumen to their basolateral membrane pocket where they interact with cells of the underlying mucosal immune system to facilitate mucosal immune responses.
T3694 339009-339267 Sentence denotes Despite, or perhaps because of, its role in adaptive immunity, the M cell is exploited as a likely portal of entry to the mucosa by certain pathogenic bacteria, including Mycobacteria, Salmonella, Yersinia, and Listeria in some species, and for some viruses.
T83600 339268-339380 Sentence denotes Neutrophils are seen transmigrating the the intestinal mucosal mass, and to exceed that of the spleen in volume.
T25645 339381-339637 Sentence denotes Elements of gastrointestinal mucosal defense are diverse, and include the volume of fluid secretion and peristalsis for dilution and flushing of contents, respectively, and gastric and bile acids and pancreatic secretions that break down ingested antigens.
T27045 339638-339725 Sentence denotes The indigenous microflora competitively inhibit or actively exclude intruding bacteria.
T28702 339726-339904 Sentence denotes Mucins on the luminal surface form a secretory barrier, and retain trefoil factor, antibody and soluble components of innate resistance, including those produced by Paneth cells.
T78829 339905-340157 Sentence denotes The epithelium provides a physical barrier, participates in innate resistance by production of proinflammatory cytokines, enables passive immunity by antibody uptake in the neonate, and contributes to active immunity by antigen uptake and presentation.
T52417 340158-340323 Sentence denotes Intraepithelial lymphocytes are an important first line of defense against pathogens and are recognized to play a significant role in epithelial barrier homeostasis.
T21725 340324-340549 Sentence denotes Soluble antibody in plasma and interstitial fluid neutralizes antigens penetrating the mucosal barrier and contributes to opsonization/phagocytosis, as do endogenous components of the innate immune system, such as complement.
T77091 340550-340873 Sentence denotes The organized elements of the mucosal immune system, Peyer's patches, and other mucosal lymphoid follicles, are sites for induction of intestinal immune responses, generating antigen-activated B and T cells that ultimately home back to the mucosa where they reside along with populations of macrophages and dendritic cells.
T66331 340874-341042 Sentence denotes Regional lymph nodes receive and trap free and phagocytosed antigens, and antigen-presenting cells activate more B and T cells, promoting mucosal and systemic immunity.
T44782 341043-341198 Sentence denotes The epithelial cell of the neonate is uniquely capable of uptake and transport of macromolecules from the intestinal lumen to the basolateral cell surface.
T14040 341199-341372 Sentence denotes In all species of domestic animals, colostral transfer of immunoglobulins by this route provides the neonate with passive humoral immunity during the early postnatal period.
T12780 341373-341533 Sentence denotes The period of active uptake of macromolecules is short, usually only 24-48 hours in ungulates, and "closure" precludes further bulk transport of macromolecules.
T92633 341534-341690 Sentence denotes Although bulk transport does not occur in mature animals, nutritionally inconsequential amounts of macromolecules continue to be transferred by enterocytes.
T9974 341691-341824 Sentence denotes Such molecules must escape both intraluminal hydrolysis and intracellular lysosomal degradation to permit their export from the cell.
T89431 341825-342041 Sentence denotes Fully differentiated small intestinal absorptive epithelial cells express major histocompatibility complex class II molecules on their basolateral membranes, and are capable of presenting antigen directly to T cells.
T14722 342042-342370 Sentence denotes Additionally, enterocytes detect pathogen-associated molecular patterns of bacteria and viruses via pattern recognition molecules, including surface toll-like receptors and cytosolic nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (Nod) molecules for activation of cellular production of proinflammatory or immunomodulatory cytokines.
T96286 342371-342582 Sentence denotes Intestinal intraepithelial T lymphocytes form a large population strategically located between the basolateral surfaces of epithelial cells and may comprise up to 10-20% of the cells within the epithelial layer.
T44874 342583-342654 Sentence denotes They are more numerous in the small intestine than the large intestine.
T96803 342655-342879 Sentence denotes In domestic animals they are comprised mainly of T cells uniquely expressing the homodimeric form of CD8α; most of these express the γδ T-cell receptor as opposed to the αβ T-cell receptor, especially in the small intestine.
T13150 342880-343114 Sentence denotes They function as a front line of defense, as part of the innate immune response to bacterial and plant German Shepherd, and Shar-Pei dogs, where it may be associated with increased susceptibility to intestinal and respiratory disease.
T21118 343115-343231 Sentence denotes IgG-producing plasma cells are relatively uncommon in the intestinal lamina propria in species other than ruminants.
T46589 343232-343481 Sentence denotes However, locally produced and systemically circulating IgG may assume significance when vascular permeability and inflammation occur because of its ability to fix complement, facilitate antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity, and to opsonize.
T4734 343482-343576 Sentence denotes IgE-producing plasma cells are present in the lamina propria in small numbers in most species.
T7392 343577-343644 Sentence denotes IgE is implicated in immune responses during intestinal parasitism.
T54043 343645-343826 Sentence denotes Its significance may be in IgE-dependent cytotoxicity by eosinophils, mast cells, and basophils, as well as in mediating immediate (type I) hypersensitivity reactions in the mucosa.
T82629 343827-343938 Sentence denotes Intestinal mucosal mast cells differ histochemically and physiologically from mast cells in most other tissues.
T7511 343939-344140 Sentence denotes They are less demonstrable using standard stains after formalin fixation as are connective tissue mast cells from other tissues; they stain well in tissue fixed in basic lead acetate or Carnoy's fluid.
T57202 344141-344303 Sentence denotes In contrast to connective tissue mast cells they contain tryptase but not chymase, and their granules are few, and variably electron-dense by electron microscopy.
T62201 344304-344421 Sentence denotes Proliferation of intestinal mast cells is T-cell-dependent and occurs during some parasitic and bacterial infections.
T52068 344422-344668 Sentence denotes Histamine, serotonin, and other mediators released by mast cells have many and complex effects on vascular tone and permeability; on motility, chemotaxis, and effector function of leukocytes; on immune-active cells; and possibly on mucus release.
T93100 344669-344894 Sentence denotes Mast cells interact with the enteric nervous system, sensing antigen with their IgE immune probe, and communicating with the sensory arm of the enteric nervous system by degranulation, releasing stimulatory soluble mediators.
T93388 344895-345008 Sentence denotes They undoubtedly play a central role in regulation of physiologic, immune, and inflammatory processes in the gut.
T98270 345009-345256 Sentence denotes Intestinal eosinophils probably do not differ functionally from eosinophils in other sites as cytotoxic effector cells and modulators of local inflammation, particularly during intestinal parasitism, immune-mediated, or hypersensitivity reactions.
T6706 345257-345400 Sentence denotes Immunoinflammatory events in the large bowel are less well understood than those in the small intestine; presumably similar principles prevail.
T90657 345401-345635 Sentence denotes Lymphoglandular complexes consist of submucosal follicular lymphoid aggregates penetrated by glands extending from the mucosa, and presumably facilitate contact of surface epithelium of the large bowel with underlying lymphoid tissue.
T58542 345636-345798 Sentence denotes These occur in the cecum and proximal colon of the dog; in the colon of swine; at the cecocolic junction, proximal spiral colon, and terminal rectum of ruminants.
T59573 345799-346133 Sentence denotes Solitary mucosal lymphoid nodules, normally without penetrating glands, and generally restricted to the lamina propria and superficial submucosa, are also scattered throughout the cecum and colon in all species. epithelium of the dome, and are found in the lumen over the dome, in enteric bacterial infections of calves in particular.
T91943 346134-346244 Sentence denotes B and T lymphoblasts gain access to Peyer's patches via specific receptors in permeable postcapillary venules.
T29518 346245-346429 Sentence denotes The major cell population in Peyer's patches appear to be B lymphocytes committed mainly to IgA production, whereas among the T cells is a large proportion of T helper cell precursors.
T56796 346430-346568 Sentence denotes Lamina proprial T cells are mixed CD4+ and CD8+, are most numerous between upper crypts and villi, and are likely antigen-activated cells.
T52069 346569-346796 Sentence denotes Cytokine production by activated T lymphocytes is complex and multifactorial, and this plays a significant role in promotion of inflammation and tolerance, particularly toward commensal organisms (covered in more detail later).
T99443 346797-346985 Sentence denotes Antigen is processed and presented to lymphocytes in Peyer's patches and mesenteric lymph nodes largely by dendritic cells trafficking from the mucosa where they initially acquire antigen.
T63906 346986-347130 Sentence denotes Dendritic cells compose 10-15% of leukocytes in the lamina propria and in neonatal calves, are more numerous in the ileum compared with jejunum.
T67594 347131-347319 Sentence denotes Dendritic cells acquire antigen by interactions with intestinal epithelial cells or M cells, and can also directly sample luminal contents by extending their dendrites between enterocytes.
T58624 347320-347516 Sentence denotes The cytokine context within which dendritic cells function is also important and contributes greatly to the differential capacity of dendritic cells to initiate and regulate host immune responses.
T69369 347517-347591 Sentence denotes Macrophages are more common in the lamina propria than in Peyer's patches.
T21472 347592-347864 Sentence denotes Macrophages are involved in mucosal protection by phagocytosis and/or killing of invading pathogens such as Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis and Histoplasma capsulatum, regulation of inflammatory responses, and as scavengers of dead cells or foreign debris.
T25894 347865-347930 Sentence denotes Macrophages also sequester iron, inhibiting bacterial metabolism.
T41707 347931-348080 Sentence denotes Macrophages in colonic lamina propria are highly phagocytic, but have a low ability to activate T cells and promote T-cell-mediated immune responses.
T61483 348081-348294 Sentence denotes IgA-producing lymphocytes leave the Peyer's patches or other mucosal-associated lymphoid tissues and home to mucosal surfaces, including the intestinal tract, respiratory tract, mammary gland, and salivary glands.
T52635 348295-348434 Sentence denotes In the lamina propria of the intestine, they differentiate into IgA-secretory plasma cells and localize adjacent to upper crypt epithelium.
T61176 348435-348599 Sentence denotes Dimeric IgA is transported via the polymeric Ig receptor from the basolateral border of columnar crypt epithelial cells onto the apical surface of epithelial cells.
T26481 348600-348699 Sentence denotes IgA-secreting cells are the predominant class of plasma cell in the lamina propria in most species.
T57897 348700-348861 Sentence denotes However, IgM-secreting plasma cells are prevalent in young calves, swine, and dogs; locally induced IgA class switching may actually occur in the lamina propria.
T97068 348862-348979 Sentence denotes IgM secretion is also facilitated by polymeric Ig receptor, and this may be significant in the young piglet and calf.
T27539 348980-349167 Sentence denotes Although IgA and IgM are secreted, IgG1 is the major antibody class in intestinal secretion of cattle and it appears to be selectively secreted by the gut and in the bile of that species.
T58605 349168-349507 Sentence denotes The functions of IgA in the gut lumen are many and include blocking attachment of bacteria and viruses to epithelial cells, promoting pathogen clearance, neutralizing intraluminal toxins, maintenance of homeostasis, facilitation of antigen sampling, limiting absorption of food or microorganismderived antigens, and promotion of tolerance.
T55660 349508-349665 Sentence denotes Secretion of IgA complexed with antigen into the bile by hepatocytes may be a significant means of clearing the circulation of antigen absorbed from the gut.
T72983 349666-349924 Sentence denotes IgA deficiency is reported in Beagle, Normal flora are known to be important for development of the mucus layer properties, mucosal lymphoid structures, modulation of immune cell differentiation and regulation of cytokine and chemokine production in the gut.
T13208 349925-350273 Sentence denotes Host factors influencing gut flora include composition of the diet; peristalsis, which continually flushes the small intestine of a large proportion of its bacterial population; lysozyme; lactoferrin; gastric acidity if unbuffered or undiluted; and, in the abomasum of suckling calves, perhaps a lactoperoxidase-thiocyanidehydrogen peroxide system.
T69384 350274-350517 Sentence denotes Mucosal epithelial maturation is influenced by the microbiota: germfree animals have longer and thinner villi, less-developed proprial vascular network and shallow crypts with fewer proliferating stem cells, compared with conventional animals.
T57206 350518-350647 Sentence denotes The quantity and quality of IgA secretion plays an important role in shaping both composition and function of the gut microbiome.
T23432 350648-350964 Sentence denotes The use of probiotics, deliberate oral administration of specific microbial cultures, has been shown to improve body weight gain and decrease diarrhea in newborn calves and pigs, as well as to protect adult animals from colonization with certain pathogens, including Escherichia coli O157:H7 and some Salmonella spp.
T86168 350966-351078 Sentence denotes Water movement in the bowel is passive, following osmotically the transport of electrolyte and nutrient solutes.
T81441 351079-351301 Sentence denotes The small intestinal mucosa is highly permeable to the passive movement of small ions and water and is therefore considered leaky, despite the presence of tight junctions along the apical margins of absorptive enterocytes.
T9092 351302-351412 Sentence denotes This ensures that the content of the small bowel is approximately isosmolal with the interstitial fluid space.
T67689 351413-351678 Sentence denotes The permeability of junctional complexes appears to be sensitive to Starling forces, influenced by intravascular hydrostatic and oncotic pressure, so that fluid and solute actively absorbed may leak back into the lumen, thus modulating net absorption by the mucosa.
T44447 351679-351914 Sentence denotes Water is secreted into the gut with digestive juices and is almost entirely resorbed in the small and large intestine; aquaporins, transmembrane water channel proteins, are important in the rapid passage of water across cell membranes.
T82399 351915-352088 Sentence denotes Sodium absorption takes place by a number of active transcellular mechanisms, which vary in importance at different levels of the gut, and with the physiologic circumstance.
T41621 352089-352278 Sentence denotes Fundamentally, Na + absorption depends on electrochemical forces established by the adenosine triphosphate-dependent Na + pump on the basolateral cell membrane of the absorptive enterocyte.
T18731 352279-352327 Sentence denotes This pump moves Na + up a concentration gradient
T57547 352328-352390 Sentence denotes After birth, no part of the gastrointestinal tract is sterile.
T10210 352391-352614 Sentence denotes Hundreds of species of microorganisms including mostly anaerobic bacteria but also archaea, eukaryotes, and viruses, many of them unidentified, inhabit the stomach and intestine, forming an ecosystem of enormous complexity.
T16322 352615-353031 Sentence denotes Known to be important during inflammatory intestinal disease, the microbiota also provide an array of biochemical and metabolic activities important for normal host physiology and homeostasis, including: facilitation of metabolism of indigestible compounds; synthesis of essential vitamins; required for development of intestinal epithelium and immune system; and protection from invasion of opportunistic pathogens.
T2128 353032-353185 Sentence denotes The microbiota thus contribute prominently to homeostasis, regulated inflammation during host defense, and dysregulated inflammation during autoimmunity.
T58216 353186-353364 Sentence denotes Generally, bacterial populations are least in the stomach and upper small intestine of ruminants and carnivores, being limited by the acid gastric environment and by peristalsis.
T74235 353365-353576 Sentence denotes The anaerobes and facultative anaerobes increase to ∼10 7 per gram of content in the lower small intestine, and total bacterial populations >10 10 or 10 11 per gram of content are present in the cecum and colon.
T28321 353577-353766 Sentence denotes Prominent among colonic bacteria are coliforms, Lactobacillus, and strict anaerobes, including Bacteroides, Fusobacterium, Clostridium, Eubacterium, Bifidobacterium, and Peptostreptococcus.
T34180 353767-353807 Sentence denotes Spirochetes are found in swine and dogs.
T93034 353808-353897 Sentence denotes Anaerobic bacteria outnumber facultative anaerobes by a thousand-fold in the large bowel.
T50568 353898-353974 Sentence denotes The complex ecology of the gut flora imparts upon it considerable stability.
T53741 353975-354135 Sentence denotes It is relatively resistant to the intrusion of new inhabitants and this is one of the major factors protecting against the establishment of pathogenic bacteria.
T50473 354136-354354 Sentence denotes It is no coincidence that bacterial diarrhea occurs most commonly in the neonate with a poorly established flora, or after changes in husbandry or antibiotic therapy, which may disturb the enteric bacterial population.
T77806 354355-354521 Sentence denotes The normal flora acts as a barrier to colonization by pathogens through several means, including secretion of host defense peptides such as colicins and bacteriocins.
T66076 354522-354822 Sentence denotes Short-chain fatty acids, particularly butyrate, generated by these microbes during carbohydrate metabolism are significant energy sources and trophic factors for colonocytes and are highly detrimental to members of the Enterobacteriaceae and therefore contribute to colonic barrier health in general.
T83514 354823-355004 Sentence denotes Competition for energy, and the effect of metabolites other than short-chain fatty acids produced by the native flora, also militate establishment of invasion by exogenous bacteria.
T8706 355006-355293 Sentence denotes The intestinal surface is lined by a population of cells ultimately derived from stem cells that are present at or near the base of crypts or glands, but with its proximate source in amplifier populations of undifferentiated columnar or oligomucous cells in the lower half of the crypts.
T51321 355294-355450 Sentence denotes These cells lose their ability to undergo mitosis, and differentiate into goblet cells and absorptive enterocytes as they move from the crypt to the villus.
T97256 355451-355584 Sentence denotes In most species, they are shed from the tips of villi in 2-8 days; apoptosis is a minor contributor to physiological enterocyte loss.
T49783 355585-355755 Sentence denotes Generally cells are shed more quickly in the ileum than in the duodenum; this is perhaps related to reduced height of villi in the distal small intestine of most species.
T161 355756-355961 Sentence denotes The mass and topography of the mucosa are quite stable, the result of a dynamic equilibrium between the rate of movement of cells from crypts to villi, and the rate at which they are lost from villar tips.
T9079 355962-356206 Sentence denotes This steady state is influenced by interaction of the microflora with the epithelium, cell cycle regulators, and other mediators including transforming growth factor-β, glucagon-like peptide 2, and urokinase, which may facilitate cell shedding.
T71442 356207-356309 Sentence denotes In young animals, the intestine grows by generation of new crypts followed by generation of new villi.
T2868 356310-356473 Sentence denotes As the bowel attains mature size, the number of villi and crypts apparently stabilizes; however, some adaptive variation in the ratio of crypts to villi may occur.
T77483 356474-356657 Sentence denotes Adaptive responses to a variety of factors alter the size and rate of turnover of the proliferative and functional epithelial cell populations and thus the microtopography of the gut.
T41434 356658-356802 Sentence denotes The appearance of the small intestinal mucosa is essentially a compromise achieved by equilibrium between the rates of cell production and loss.
T82182 356803-357018 Sentence denotes At one extreme is the intestine of germ-free animals characterized by short crypts containing a small proliferative compartment, and tall villi with a low rate of cell loss supporting a large functional compartment.
T51191 357019-357273 Sentence denotes At the other end of the spectrum is the intestine of an animal with severe intestinal helminthosis characterized by long crypts, shortened villi, few functional enterocytes, and a high rate of cell loss, reflecting an increased proliferative compartment.
T8232 357274-357537 Sentence denotes Although quantitative description of epithelial kinetics is possible experimentally, in the diagnostic situation it is necessary to make a subjective or semiquantitative assessment of the status of the proliferative and functional compartments in tissue sections.
T20677 357538-357685 Sentence denotes The size of the proliferative compartment is reflected in the length and diameter of the crypts, and in the location of the uppermost mitotic cell.
T25141 357686-357879 Sentence denotes The prevalence of mitotic figures can be assessed subjectively; however, beyond calculating a mitotic index, no inferences can be drawn about from the cell into the lateral intercellular space.
T79943 357880-358012 Sentence denotes The concentration of solute, especially Na + , in the lateral intercellular space, causes water to follow from the intestinal lumen.
T87095 358013-358250 Sentence denotes Because cell membranes and junctional complexes are highly permeable to water, movement is rapid via both transcellular and paracellular routes, and differences in osmotic pressure between lumen and lateral intercellular space are small.
T9820 358251-358428 Sentence denotes Absorbed solute and water in isotonic proportions move into the interstitium of the villus, where, within a few micrometers, they encounter a subepithelial capillary or lacteal.
T67085 358429-358648 Sentence denotes The tight junctions also appear to become permeable during sodium ion and nutrient cotransport across the apical cell membrane, resulting in solvent drag of large nutrient molecules into the lateral intercellular space.
T44463 358649-358837 Sentence denotes The colon of carnivores, the spiral colon of ruminants and swine, and the small colon of the horse play an important role in reducing the volume of electrolyte and water lost in the feces.
T28843 358838-358994 Sentence denotes In contrast to the small intestine, the colonic epithelium is relatively restrictive to the free movement of sodium and chloride, although not to potassium.
T62669 358995-359241 Sentence denotes Therefore it is capable of maintaining differences in osmotic pressure, ionic composition, and electrical potential between luminal and proprial surfaces, which make it more efficient than the small bowel in absorbing some electrolytes and water.
T5244 359242-359306 Sentence denotes Ultimately, fecal water may be hypotonic with respect to plasma.
T16258 359307-359405 Sentence denotes Absorption of volatile fatty acids also accounts for considerable water absorption from the colon.
T20731 359406-359607 Sentence denotes Potassium increases in concentration in colonic content as sodium concentration declines; this is due to an active secretory process and a passive response to transepithelial electrochemical gradients.
T13742 359608-359733 Sentence denotes Under some conditions, the mucosa of the small and large intestine also secretes chloride, potassium, bicarbonate, and water.
T69877 359734-359963 Sentence denotes This process can be a function of both surface and crypt cells, and is important in some pathologic states; however, it is also physiologic and segmental, maintaining the fluidity and buffering capacity of the intestinal content.
T97417 359964-360123 Sentence denotes Solute movement across the intestinal epithelium is regulated by a number of hormones and neurotransmitters, which act through intracellular second messengers.
T3630 360124-360324 Sentence denotes Activation of adenylate cyclase and guanylate cyclase as well as increased intracellular Ca 2+ all result in reduction of Na + absorption by enterocytes and promotion of Cl − secretion in crypt cells.
T42233 360325-360550 Sentence denotes Some products of intrinsic and extrinsic neurons, such as vasoactive intestinal polypeptide and acetylcholine, may stimulate secretion, whereas others, such as somatostatin and norepinephrine, are absorptive or antisecretory.
T50363 360551-360679 Sentence denotes Local paracrine effects are mediated by the products of enteroendocrine cells, such as somatostatin, neurotensin, and serotonin.
T61797 360680-360771 Sentence denotes Guanylin is a peptide secreted from epithelial cells that stimulates local fluid secretion.
T8874 360772-361027 Sentence denotes Mesenchymal elements in the lamina propria, including myofibroblasts, lymphocytes, mast cells, macrophages, and other inflammatory and connective tissue cells, also produce locally active substances with a direct or indirect effect on epithelial function.
T78301 361028-361211 Sentence denotes Circulating hormones also influence mucosal function: aldosterone and glucocorticoids enhance Na + absorption by the colon, and the latter may inhibit local production of eicosanoids.
T28573 361212-361356 Sentence denotes Immunoinflammatory events are thus integrated with the systemic and local neural and hormonal regulation of intestinal absorption and secretion.
T79488 361357-361534 Sentence denotes Dysfunctions of absorption and secretion will be considered in the later section on the pathogenesis of diarrhea. time, although sparing the proliferative compartment in crypts.
T88481 361535-361627 Sentence denotes Villi contract and become shortened as the size of the functional compartment is diminished.
T44790 361628-361830 Sentence denotes If the animal survives the metabolic sequelae of malabsorption that results from the damage to surface cells, compensatory expansion of the proliferative compartment in crypts permits complete recovery.
T39991 361831-361983 Sentence denotes Epithelial cells emerging and differentiating from crypt stem cells result in recovery of normal mucosal topography and full function within a few days.
T47217 361984-362219 Sentence denotes The microscopic appearance of the mucosa depends partly on the number of functional cells lost, which determines the initial degree of villus atrophy, and partly on the amount of regeneration that has occurred when the gut is examined.
T97255 362220-362426 Sentence denotes During early phases of injury, damaged epithelial cells exfoliate into the gut lumen and villi are shortened and blunted; alternatively, villi are more or less of normal length, but appear somewhat pointed.
T82311 362427-362613 Sentence denotes Atrophic villi are subsequently covered by poorly differentiated low columnar, cuboidal, or squamous cells and there may be fusion of the lateral surfaces or tips of villi in some areas.
T73346 362614-362730 Sentence denotes In severe atrophy there may be mild erosion if inadequate epithelium is available to cover the mucosal surface area.
T56982 362731-362919 Sentence denotes In the acute phase, crypts appear normal, but within 12-24 hours proliferative activity is noticeably increased and crypts enlarge in diameter and length to accommodate more mitotic cells.
T90644 362920-363072 Sentence denotes Mitotic cells are poorly differentiated and crowded, have increased basophilia, and sometimes mitotic figures are observed close to the mucosal surface.
T6850 363073-363211 Sentence denotes The lamina propria may appear hypercellular; perhaps this is due to contraction of the lamina propria or mild mononuclear cell infiltrate.
T53097 363212-363355 Sentence denotes As regeneration progresses, the length of villi and differentiation of lining epithelial cells increases, and proliferation gradually subsides.
T1720 363356-363790 Sentence denotes Atrophy of villi and hypertrophy of crypts is also associated with chronic or persistent processes such as nematode parasitism; chronic coccidial infection; giardiasis in some species; response to some dietary components such as soybean protein in calves, kidney bean protein in pigs, and wheat in dogs; idiopathic or specific granulomatous enteritis such as Johne's disease and histoplasmosis; and chronic inflammatory bowel disease.
T38614 363791-364085 Sentence denotes Epithelial kinetics have not been thoroughly investigated in most of these situations in domestic animals; however, these have in common chronic antigenic exposure, parasitism, or a persistent infectious process, which are usually associated with significant infiltration of inflammatory cells.
T55676 364086-364241 Sentence denotes Where the cause can be eliminated, the lesion usually remits, implying that active host-pathogen interaction is required for its induction and maintenance.
T32607 364242-364443 Sentence denotes The situation is analogous to celiac disease in humans, which is a dietary gluten-specific T helper-1 lymphocyte immune-mediated response resulting in production of interferon-γ, among other cytokines.
T68035 364444-364664 Sentence denotes Some experimental evidence has implicated nitric oxide, interleukin-12, interferon-γ, and tumor necrosis factor-α in the pathogenesis of villus atrophy; however, the source and effect of these molecules remain uncertain.
T39940 364665-364900 Sentence denotes Immune reactions in the gut are associated with increased epithelial cell proliferation; however, hypertrophy of the proliferative compartment in these conditions precedes the development of villus atrophy, and is not a response to it.
T61518 364901-365098 Sentence denotes Local stimulation of the proliferative compartment and perhaps the associated myofibroblast sheath is likely mediated by nitric oxide or cytokines produced by activated T lymphocytes in the mucosa.
T28407 365099-365314 Sentence denotes Epithelial cells leaving these crypts usually do not differentiate fully and often exfoliate prematurely, low on the the proportion of the crypt cell population that is replicating or the duration of the cell cycle.
T18904 365315-365437 Sentence denotes The degree of differentiation, and hence functional status of enterocytes on villi, can be inferred from their appearance.
T17800 365438-365690 Sentence denotes Cytoplasmic basophilia; loss of regular basal nuclear polarity; low columnar, cuboidal, or squamous shape; and an ill-defined brush border all indicate a poorly differentiated population of surface enterocytes and suggest an increased rate of turnover.
T28204 365691-365826 Sentence denotes Fasting causes atrophy and reduction of mucosal epithelial mass caused by prolongation of the postmitotic phase of proliferative cells.
T96311 365827-365943 Sentence denotes Villi do not directly atrophy; however, surface enterocytes persist longer and are lost from the villus more slowly.
T85477 365944-366005 Sentence denotes Fasting-induced atrophy is immediately reversed by refeeding.
T55788 366006-366148 Sentence denotes Weaning has similar effects on the microtopography of the intestine, which is observed as marked reduction in height of villi in most species.
T3721 366149-366441 Sentence denotes Restoration of epithelial integrity is dependent on a finely regulated balance of migration, proliferation, and differentiation of adjacent epithelial cells, which are ultimately mediated by local growth factors, cytokines, dietary factors, and especially by trefoil factors present in mucus.
T98101 366442-366578 Sentence denotes Following minor loss of mucosal enterocytes, restitution occurs by lateral migration of adjacent intact epithelial cells within minutes.
T89372 366579-366823 Sentence denotes If epithelium on villi is obliterated, for instance by transient ischemia or by viral cytolysis, the villus core contracts because of myofibroblast activity mediated by the enteric nervous system, and stromal elements rapidly undergo apoptosis.
T63532 366824-366907 Sentence denotes Surviving epithelial cells become flattened and migrate across the denuded surface.
T44703 366908-367023 Sentence denotes Proliferation of epithelial cells then occurs and regeneration of the mucosa follows in hours to days after injury.
T56728 367024-367141 Sentence denotes Last, maturation and differentiation of cells occurs as the 3-dimensional architecture is restored within a few days.
T7036 367142-367386 Sentence denotes A bed of granulation tissue forms at the base of extensive mucosal ulcers, and with time (weeks to months) this may become covered by a neomucosa, with crypts and villi following immigration of epithelial cells from the periphery of the lesion.
T77619 367387-367463 Sentence denotes A similar process repairs the mucosal gap in healing intestinal anastomoses.
T89517 367464-367548 Sentence denotes Atrophy of villi is a common pathologic change in the intestine of domestic animals.
T58879 367549-367654 Sentence denotes It results in malabsorption of nutrients, and can be associated with loss of plasma protein into the gut.
T20695 367655-367849 Sentence denotes Villus atrophy can be categorized histomorphologically into 2 broad types based on the appearance of the crypts, recognition of which has implications with respect to pathogenesis and prognosis.
T97749 367850-368036 Sentence denotes The first category includes intestine with apparently normal or hypertrophic crypts, and the second category is characterized by some evidence of damage to the proliferative compartment.
T64509 368037-368118 Sentence denotes Recognition, evolution, and interpretation of each category are considered later.
T38275 368119-368225 Sentence denotes Villus atrophy with an intact or hypertrophic proliferative compartment takes 2 forms in domestic animals.
T16031 368226-368343 Sentence denotes A primary increase in rate of loss of epithelium from the surface of villi is one mechanism initiating such a lesion.
T74510 368344-368750 Sentence denotes This is the major mechanism involved in a number of important viral infections including coronavirus and rotavirus; of coccidial infections, which damage surface enterocytes predominantly; of some enteroinvasive bacteria; of transient ischemia, in which the effect is limited to the functional compartment; and, in some circumstances, of necrotizing toxins released by clostridia in the lumen of the bowel.
T19836 368751-368908 Sentence denotes The effect of these agents is increased loss of surface epithelium over a relatively short period of squamous epithelial cells derived from surviving crypts.
T94612 368909-368990 Sentence denotes The mucosa may eventually ulcerate, to be eventually lined by granulation tissue.
T59965 368991-369176 Sentence denotes Crypts that have not been severely damaged will undergo hypertrophy within several days of the original insult, as compensatory hyperplasia of the remnant crypt epithelial cells occurs.
T78332 369177-369349 Sentence denotes In viral diseases, the severity and histologic appearance of the lesion often vary considerably at different sites in the gut, and even within an individual tissue section.
T3614 369350-369539 Sentence denotes Lesions caused by ischemia tend to be uniform in severity but may be localized; acute or subacute lesions are often hemorrhagic, especially if there has been re-establishment of blood flow.
T9547 369540-369667 Sentence denotes Extensive crypt cell necrosis, erosion, or ulceration lead to severe malabsorption and effusion of tissue fluid and hemorrhage.
T92686 369668-369754 Sentence denotes The mucosa is susceptible to invasion by the enteric flora, sometimes including fungi.
T59505 369755-369901 Sentence denotes Local ulceration may contribute further to persistent fluid and plasma loss, and if circumferential, to eventual stricture formation and stenosis.
T85636 369902-370134 Sentence denotes Small ulcers in areas where a few crypts have dropped out will heal as epithelial cells from adjacent crypts migrate to repair the denuded surface; however, crypts may take longer to regenerate, so local villus atrophy will persist.
T92934 370135-370279 Sentence denotes Epithelial turnover in the cecum and colon is fundamentally similar to that in the small intestine, though villi are not present on the surface.
T27597 370280-370399 Sentence denotes Epithelial cells lose the ability to divide after leaving the proliferative compartment in the lower part of the gland.
T17241 370400-370542 Sentence denotes In the upper portion of the gland, they differentiate into goblet cells or columnar absorptive cells that emerge and migrate over the surface.
T428 370543-370723 Sentence denotes Cells are subsequently lost into the lumen, probably within about 4-8 days of being produced, although no studies of colonic epithelial turnover have been made in domestic animals.
T97459 370724-370825 Sentence denotes Colonic epithelial cell proliferation is experimentally reduced by fasting and restored by refeeding.
T40804 370826-370949 Sentence denotes Physical colonic distention and certain types of dietary fiber also appear to induce colonic epithelial cell proliferation.
T80695 370950-371100 Sentence denotes Compared with conventional animals, the colon of gnotobiotic animals has fewer proliferative cells, mostly limited to the lower portion of the glands.
T21659 371101-371256 Sentence denotes Following insult and exfoliation of surface epithelial cells, restitution of the epithelial integrity in the large bowel resembles that in the small bowel.
T56917 371257-371454 Sentence denotes Within a few minutes of injury, surviving surface epithelial cells and cells emerging from crypts become attenuated and migrate at a rate of several micrometers per minute to cover mucosal defects.
T27567 371455-371699 Sentence denotes Ulcers, surgical incisions, or anastomotic sites in the colon heal by immigration of a single layer of epithelium from the periphery of the defect, with gradual differentiation of crypts, and eventual restitution of normal mucosal architecture.
T4423 371700-371906 Sentence denotes Depending on the type of anastomosis in the horse, epithelial cells may take >2 weeks to bridge the granulation tissue in the mucosal gap, and full restoration of mucosal architecture may require ∼2 months.
T40952 371907-372087 Sentence denotes Microscopic lesions in the large bowel associated with increased epithelial turnover can be induced by alterations in the replication rate of both surface and glandular epithelium.
T10808 372088-372185 Sentence denotes The number of goblet cells on the surface and in the upper portion of glands is often diminished.
T47732 372186-372357 Sentence denotes Epithelial cells in these areas appear poorly differentiated, have increased cytoplasmic basophilia and morphologically may be of low columnar, cuboidal, or squamous type.
T19646 372358-372412 Sentence denotes In severe diseases, erosion of the surface is present.
T7066 372413-372493 Sentence denotes The proliferative compartment in the gland may villus or near the crypt opening.
T48337 372494-372627 Sentence denotes Coupled with normal shedding of pre-existing enterocytes, this contributes further to atrophy of villi over a period of several days.
T61181 372628-372767 Sentence denotes Epithelial cells that reach the surface also do not differentiate fully, are rapidly lost into the gut lumen, or undergo mucous metaplasia.
T79106 372768-372887 Sentence denotes Microscopically, hypertrophy of crypts is the early and outstanding change in this lesion, and is consistently present.
T8854 372888-373000 Sentence denotes In its milder forms, the lesion may be better characterized by elongate crypts than by obvious atrophy of villi.
T47105 373001-373128 Sentence denotes The proliferative compartment is expanded and active, mitotic figures are numerous, and goblet cell hyperplasia may also occur.
T57380 373129-373274 Sentence denotes Elongation of crypts may be so extensive that even with severe atrophy of villi the total mucosal thickness will not be much reduced from normal.
T82393 373275-373469 Sentence denotes Close observation may reveal poorly differentiated enterocytes exfoliating prematurely from intercrypt ridges on the mucosal surface, or from buttress-like folds around the base of stubby villi.
T46835 373470-373620 Sentence denotes The lamina propria has a prominent population of lymphocytes, plasma cells, and associated inflammatory cells; intraepithelial lymphocytes are common.
T16721 373621-373752 Sentence denotes The etiologic agent may be evident, removal of which, where possible, usually results in a return to "normal" within days or weeks.
T56193 373753-373874 Sentence denotes However it is induced, atrophy of villi with hypertrophy of crypts results in local malabsorption of nutrients and water.
T43012 373875-374045 Sentence denotes Poorly differentiated surface epithelial cells may secrete electrolytes and water, and increased epithelial turnover may contribute to enteric loss of endogenous protein.
T362 374046-374147 Sentence denotes Proprial inflammation and microerosion of the mucosa may also contribute to effusion of tissue fluid.
T98229 374148-374261 Sentence denotes Villus atrophy associated with damage to the proliferative compartment is also commonly seen in domestic animals.
T8658 374262-374370 Sentence denotes This form is the sequel to insults that cause necrosis of cells in crypts, or impair their mitotic capacity.
T18914 374371-374485 Sentence denotes Agents that cause these lesions usually have a propensity for damaging actively proliferating cells in any tissue.
T97550 374486-374607 Sentence denotes Because ionizing radiation was recognized early as a cause of such lesions, they are generally often termed radiomimetic.
T20882 374608-374891 Sentence denotes Other agents inducing similar lesions include cytotoxic chemicals and mitotic poisons, such as chemotherapeutic agents, T-2 mycotoxin, and pyrrolizidine alkaloids in large doses; viruses that infect proliferating cells, particularly the parvoviruses, and bovine viral diarrhea virus.
T77308 374892-375005 Sentence denotes Ischemia of sufficient duration to cause necrosis of some or all cells lining the crypts also causes this lesion.
T45603 375006-375137 Sentence denotes The microscopic appearance of affected mucosa depends on the severity and extent of the insult, and the interval since it occurred.
T48046 375138-375307 Sentence denotes The primary event is damage to the proliferative compartment, and, except in ischemia, lesions will be evident in crypts well before significant atrophy of villi occurs.
T38137 375308-375415 Sentence denotes Individual necrotic epithelial cells and neutrophils may be present in the dilated lumen of damaged crypts.
T89693 375416-375560 Sentence denotes With severe damage to crypts, remaining epithelial cells become extremely flattened in an attempt to maintain the integrity of the crypt lining.
T86245 375561-375718 Sentence denotes Following the radiomimetic injury, irregular epithelial cells with large nuclei and nucleoli may be observed within crypts and will migrate onto the surface.
T27410 375719-375864 Sentence denotes Pre-existing surface epithelial cells are shed from villar tips at an apparently normal rate, even though few or no new cells emerge from crypts.
T38485 375865-375949 Sentence denotes Villi eventually become atrophic or collapse as the surface cell population shrinks.
T92929 375950-376163 Sentence denotes If the majority of crypt cells are damaged, crypts stripped of epithelium collapse or "drop out," perhaps leaving a few scattered cystic remnants, lined by attenuated epithelial cells in the deeper lamina propria.
T37097 376164-376291 Sentence denotes The overlying surface may be eroded, or covered by neuroendocrine, and systemic cytokine inputs impacting centrally on satiety.
T83971 376292-376403 Sentence denotes The potential for physical impairment of gastrointestinal function to affect appetite seems relatively obvious.
T44416 376404-376561 Sentence denotes Less apparent but highly significant are effects on appetite of chronic inflammatory or neoplastic diseases affecting the alimentary system or distant sites.
T44513 376562-376773 Sentence denotes Proinflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-1 associated with chronic inflammation and neoplasia, are probably strategic mediators in the complex metabolic puzzle that is cachexia.
T71829 376774-377067 Sentence denotes Ghrelin is a stomach-derived hormone known to be an important mediator of cachexia, and although the mechanisms remain unclear, ghrelin may function directly by stimulating appetite centrally and indirectly by attenuating inflammation or altering lipid and muscle metabolism to limit cachexia.
T23184 377068-377342 Sentence denotes Protein-energy malnutrition must be differentiated from the effects of endogenous conditions, resulting in malassimilation or protein-losing enteropathy, from cachexia induced by chronic inflammatory and neoplastic disease, and from other conditions resulting in recumbency.
T35973 377343-377441 Sentence denotes In neonates, several factors predispose to death by starvation within the first few weeks of life.
T3117 377442-377589 Sentence denotes These include fetal malnutrition with poor fat depots at birth; increased energy demands caused by cold and exposure; and postpartum hyponutrition.
T98784 377590-377690 Sentence denotes Piglets are born with negligible fat reserves and die quickly of hypoglycemia if not fed adequately.
T29540 377691-377916 Sentence denotes Neonatal ruminants usually have fat depots sufficient to compensate for longer periods of inanition (2-4 days for lambs; 6-10 days for calves), if the quality and quantity of milk is sufficient, and cold stress is not severe.
T44580 377917-378033 Sentence denotes In animals that die of inanition, muscle mass is reduced because of mobilization of amino acids for gluconeogenesis.
T75097 378034-378209 Sentence denotes Fat in the bone marrow, coronary groove, on the pericardial sac, and around the kidneys is completely depleted, and has the gelatinous clear pink appearance of serous atrophy.
T67433 378210-378304 Sentence denotes The liver may appear small, with sharp margins, presumably because of reduced trophic stimuli.
T33044 378305-378480 Sentence denotes A diagnosis of starvation is supported by a history of conditions compatible with reduced quantity or quality of feed, and by ruling out other conditions causing protein loss.
T12985 378481-378711 Sentence denotes Digestion and assimilation of nutrients have an intraluminal phase mediated by biliary and pancreatic secretions, and an epithelial phase carried out by enzyme systems on the surface and in the cytoplasm of absorptive enterocytes.
T56424 378712-378839 Sentence denotes The final step is delivery of the nutrient by the enterocyte to the interstitial fluid, and its uptake into the blood or lymph.
T60152 378840-379087 Sentence denotes Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency is the major cause of intraluminal maldigestion, and is usually the result of juvenile pancreatic atrophy in dogs, or of pancreatic fibrosis and atrophy following repeated episodes of pancreatic necrosis (see Vol.
T31777 379088-379101 Sentence denotes 2, Pancreas).
T90114 379102-379134 Sentence denotes It is occasionally seen in cats.
T12109 379135-379216 Sentence denotes This condition may be complicated by bacterial overgrowth of the small intestine.
T58016 379217-379313 Sentence denotes Bile salt deficiency is rarely seen as a cause of intraluminal maldigestion in domestic animals.
T81484 379314-379409 Sentence denotes The epithelial phase of assimilation is impaired by loss of functional epithelial surface area.
T17234 379410-379568 Sentence denotes This occurs with villus atrophy, or less commonly in short-bowel syndrome following intestinal resection in which >75-85% of the small bowel has been removed.
T84408 379569-379659 Sentence denotes This phase of assimilation is dependent on enzyme systems, which vary in domestic animals.
T32726 379660-379734 Sentence denotes Neonates and ruminants have low levels of maltase; ruminants lack sucrase.
T93823 379735-379789 Sentence denotes In hypertrophy, causing glands to elongate and dilate.
T58039 379790-379903 Sentence denotes Mitotically active cells are increased in number and distributed over a greater proportion of the glands' length.
T86892 379904-380009 Sentence denotes In some acute or chronic inflammatory conditions of the lamina propria, gobletcell hyperplasia may occur.
T8467 380010-380226 Sentence denotes It is uncertain whether this is caused by primary damage to surface epithelium, or by local cell-mediated immune effects on the proliferative compartment, as occurs in the small intestine in celiac disease of humans.
T50976 380227-380441 Sentence denotes The proliferative compartment in the cecal and colonic glands is damaged by the same insults that attack cells in crypts of the small bowel, although the lesions in large bowel tend to be comparatively less severe.
T4409 380442-380598 Sentence denotes This is perhaps because a lower proportion of the proliferative compartment in the colon is in mitosis at the time of maximum availability of drug or virus.
T69014 380599-380819 Sentence denotes Additional agents that damage the proliferative compartment in the colon include bovine and canine coronaviruses, and several species of coccidia in ruminants, which develop in the epithelial cells lining colonic glands.
T21845 380820-381075 Sentence denotes The evolution and sequelae of lesions resulting from damage to proliferative epithelial cells in the colon are similar to those in small bowel: dilation of crypts, accumulation of necrotic debris within crypts, and/or attenuation of the lining epithelium.
T16969 381076-381204 Sentence denotes Severe lesions will lead to loss of glands, erosion, and ulceration of the mucosa; hemorrhage; stricture and stenosis may ensue.
T6772 381205-381359 Sentence denotes Following milder damage that spares some stem cells in each gland, the mucosa has the potential to recover fully after a period of reparative hyperplasia.
T43283 381360-381569 Sentence denotes Pathophysiology of enteric disease Protein-energy malnutrition caused by inadequate intake of feed or deficiencies in quantity or quality of nutrients is a well-recognized co-morbidity factor in many diseases.
T7543 381570-381693 Sentence denotes In its most severe forms, this results in depletion of fat and muscle mass, emaciation, and ultimately death by starvation.
T45296 381694-381851 Sentence denotes Importantly, protein-energy malnutrition is a common cause of secondary immune deficiency and is thus associated with increased susceptibility to infections.
T33657 381852-381931 Sentence denotes Inappetence or anorexia are commonly associated with gastrointestinal diseases.
T61111 381932-382163 Sentence denotes Appetite is modulated by a complex and incompletely understood meshwork of neurologic, Protein maldigestion occurs if pancreatic protease activity is decreased to ~10% of normal, as may occur with exocrine pancreatic insufficiency.
T21315 382164-382239 Sentence denotes Loss of gastric proteolytic activity is of little nutritional significance.
T45554 382240-382488 Sentence denotes In conditions with villus atrophy, reduced mucosal surface area and poor differentiation of enterocytes result in malabsorption of small peptides and particularly of amino acids by mechanisms similar to those involved in carbohydrate malabsorption.
T6794 382489-382507 Sentence denotes Argiles JM, et al.
T5686 382508-382517 Sentence denotes Cytokines
T72315 382519-382615 Sentence denotes Diarrhea is the presence of water in feces in relative excess in proportion to fecal dry matter.
T81851 382616-382753 Sentence denotes Diarrhea usually reflects increased absolute fecal loss of water, but may not, if absolute fecal drymatter excretion is markedly reduced.
T6985 382754-382914 Sentence denotes Loss of solute and water in diarrhea may lead to severe electrolyte depletion, acidbase imbalance, and dehydration, which are life-threatening if not corrected.
T91059 382915-383184 Sentence denotes Large volumes of fluid derived from ingesta, and from gastric, pancreatic, biliary, and enteric secretions, enter the small bowel; in addition, considerable passive movement of water occurs into the upper small bowel from the circulation in response to osmotic effects.
T60787 383185-383409 Sentence denotes Overall, the bulk of the fluid entering the small intestine is absorbed by the enterocytes, so that the volume leaving the ileum and entering the colon is but a small fraction of the total fluid flux through the small bowel.
T94694 383410-383615 Sentence denotes The large size of this flux implies that relatively small perturbations in unidirectional movement of electrolyte and water in the small intestine may have significant effects on the net movement of fluid.
T71200 383616-383797 Sentence denotes The colon, in addition to its fermentative function, has the ultimate responsibility to minimize fecal water loss by conserving electrolyte and water by absorption from the digesta.
T55819 383798-383937 Sentence denotes It has a finite capacity for absorption, and if this is exceeded by the rate at which content enters from the small bowel, diarrhea occurs.
T4743 383938-384033 Sentence denotes This is important in so-called smallbowel diarrhea, where the lesion is in the small intestine.
T33064 384034-384170 Sentence denotes Because the colon has reserve absorptive capacity, the excess volume entering from the ileum must be considerable for diarrhea to occur.
T2298 384171-384320 Sentence denotes The large capacity and fermentative function of the equine colon may mitigate to some extent the expression of small-bowel diarrhea in mature horses.
T19344 384321-384631 Sentence denotes Large-bowel diarrhea, on the other hand, reflects an intrinsically reduced capacity of the colon to handle even normal volumes of fluid and electrolyte presented to it by the small intestine. most species, lactase levels decline with age, and malabsorption in dogs has been attributed to low levels of lactase.
T71994 384632-384834 Sentence denotes The poorly differentiated surface epithelium present on atrophic villi may lack the full complement of enzymes on the brush border and in the cytoplasm necessary for nutrient digestion and assimilation.
T12783 384835-385080 Sentence denotes Lectins present in uncooked beans attach to and damage microvilli on enterocytes, which may explain the malabsorption and diarrhea associated with their use in feeds; lectins also promote bacterial adhesion and overgrowth in the small intestine.
T46801 385081-385301 Sentence denotes A heritable syndrome of gluten-sensitive enteropathy is reported in Irish Setter dogs, and is characterized by villus atrophy, increased intraepithelial lymphocytes, and abnormal levels of mucosal microvillar hydrolases.
T16952 385302-385505 Sentence denotes Cobalamin malabsorption has been described as a hereditary defect in Beagles, Australian Shepherd Dogs, Chinese Shar-Peis, Giant Schnauzers, and Border Collies, resulting in anemia and failure to thrive.
T16648 385506-385603 Sentence denotes Delivery of nutrients, especially lipid, to the circulation, may be impaired in lymphangiectasia.
T59392 385604-385699 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis of malabsorption of the major classes of nutrients will be considered briefly.
T10267 385700-385795 Sentence denotes Assimilation of fat is susceptible to interference at all 3 phases of digestion and absorption.
T94018 385796-385854 Sentence denotes Lipolysis is impaired if insufficient lipase is available.
T34604 385855-386059 Sentence denotes Mostly this is a result of pancreatic atrophy or fibrosis; however, it also may be due to failure by atrophic intestinal mucosa to release the cholecystokinin necessary to stimulate pancreatic secretions.
T19118 386060-386142 Sentence denotes Reduced surface area for lipid uptake also may contribute to malabsorption of fat.
T16981 386143-386322 Sentence denotes The availability of bile salts is reduced in intrahepatic cholestasis, biliary obstruction, or by depletion resulting from reduced ileal absorption following resection or atrophy.
T88420 386323-386438 Sentence denotes Thus fatty acid and monoglyceride are not emulsified and are therefore not as accessible to absorptive enterocytes.
T64808 386439-386620 Sentence denotes Poorly differentiated enterocytes may be less able than normal epithelium to re-esterify long-chain fatty acids to triglyceride and to produce chylomicrons for export from the cell.
T89313 386621-386798 Sentence denotes Obstructed lymphatic drainage in lymphangiectasia, granulomatous enteritis, and intestinal lymphosarcoma contributes to reduced flow of chylomicrons to the systemic circulation.
T46844 386799-386929 Sentence denotes Malabsorption of lipids may cause steatorrhea (excess fat in the feces), and this is seen in monogastric animals, especially dogs.
T32963 386930-387006 Sentence denotes Severe fat malabsorption may result in deficiencies of fat-soluble vitamins.
T54053 387007-387164 Sentence denotes Malabsorption of calcium, magnesium, and zinc occurs when these minerals are sequestered in soaps formed by combination with malabsorbed luminal fatty acids.
T56420 387165-387321 Sentence denotes Increased absorption of oxalate predisposing to nephrolithiasis may be a sequel to reduced concentrations of calcium in the lumen because of soap formation.
T50280 387322-387418 Sentence denotes Malabsorbed lipid may cause colonic diarrhea, by mechanisms that will be discussed subsequently.
T33609 387419-387603 Sentence denotes Maldigestion of polysaccharides occurs if levels of pancreatic amylase are reduced; this is most commonly encountered in dogs with severe loss of functional exocrine pancreatic tissue.
T25713 387604-387718 Sentence denotes Ruminants normally lack significant amounts of pancreatic amylase and digest starch poorly in the small intestine.
T72154 387719-387872 Sentence denotes Mucosal oligosaccharidase deficiency occurs in villus atrophy, because poorly differentiated enterocytes have a reduced complement of oligosaccharidases.
T52724 387873-387967 Sentence denotes This results in impaired membrane digestion of disaccharide and malabsorption of carbohydrate.
T39287 387968-388373 Sentence denotes The osmotic effect of malabsorbed disaccharide in the small intestine is an important component of neonatal diarrhea caused by rotavirus and coronavirus, or other conditions in which there is extensive villus atrophy in the small intestine. movement via the paracellular route across the mucosa into the intestinal lumen, which is driven by alterations in the interstitial and vascular pressure gradients.
T74354 388374-388550 Sentence denotes Elevated hydrostatic pressure, or decreased plasma oncotic pressure in the villus, alters Starling forces, permitting leakage of interstitial fluid and large protein molecules.
T3656 388551-388672 Sentence denotes Portal hypertension, rightsided heart failure, hypoalbuminemia, and expansion of plasma volume establish such conditions.
T14308 388673-388838 Sentence denotes Effusion also may be associated with lymphangiectasia, inflammation or edema of the lamina propria, increased vascular permeability, and enteric plasma protein loss.
T98904 388839-388972 Sentence denotes Increased rate of epithelial loss and transient microerosions may provide further potential sites for effusion of interstitial fluid.
T63586 388973-389170 Sentence denotes Extensive necrosis of the epithelium and vascular damage in the mucosa cause more severe malabsorption and effusion of tissue fluid and blood, evident grossly as fibrin and hemorrhage in the lumen.
T25365 389171-389320 Sentence denotes Large-bowel diarrhea is due to a reduction in the innate capability of the colon to absorb the solute and fluid presented by the more proximal bowel.
T93612 389321-389443 Sentence denotes A reduction in net absorption by the colon that is relatively small in absolute terms may be sufficient to cause diarrhea.
T89213 389444-389564 Sentence denotes Large-bowel diarrhea is characterized by frequent passage of small amounts of fluid feces, perhaps with mucus and blood.
T10836 389565-389701 Sentence denotes The colonic mucosa is not as leaky as the small intestinal mucosa because of the nature of the tight junctions between epithelial cells.
T31858 389702-389867 Sentence denotes As a result it is relatively resistant to alterations in permeability owing to increased hydrostatic pressure in the propria, in comparison with the small intestine.
T39516 389868-390158 Sentence denotes When normal enterohepatic circulation of bile acids is interrupted by ileal damage or resection, excess dihydroxy bile acids enter the colon where they stimulate colonic epithelial cells to secrete fluid and electrolytes through calcium and cAMP-dependent mechanisms, resulting in diarrhea.
T24937 390159-390377 Sentence denotes Fatty acids enter the colon in increased quantities in steatorrhea resulting from bile salt depletion, where they cause diarrhea by altering mucosal permeability and stimulating fluid secretion from colonic epithelium.
T49581 390378-390499 Sentence denotes This is also the mode of action some laxatives such as castor oil, which contains the hydroxy fatty acid ricinoleic acid.
T85239 390500-390684 Sentence denotes Although colonic secretion stimulated by bacterial enterotoxin is not clearly implicated in diarrhea, alterations in the flora of the large bowel may be detrimental to normal function.
T83222 390685-390907 Sentence denotes Short-chain fatty acids, especially butyric acid produced by bacterial fermentation in the lumen, regulate colonic epithelial cell growth and differentiation and are linked to electrolyte and fluid absorption in the colon.
T61275 390908-391161 Sentence denotes Reduced production or absorption of short chain fatty acids secondary to imbalance of the bacterial flora in the cecum and colon may explain some instances of wasting and diarrhea in horses in which no morphologic abnormality of the mucosa can be found.
T55907 391162-391286 Sentence denotes Osmotic overload of the large bowel results from the delivery by the small bowel of a large volume of fermentable substrate.
T30036 391287-391388 Sentence denotes This is usually caused by malabsorption in the small intestine, but may result from excessive intake.
T52043 391389-391580 Sentence denotes Carbohydrate is the only nutrient of significance in initiating colonic osmotic overload, as bacterial fermentation of carbohydrate results in the generation of excess short-chain fatty acid.
T4203 391581-391762 Sentence denotes This is rapidly absorbed and buffered in the colon under normal circumstances; however, a heavy carbohydrate load may overwhelm the colonic buffering capacity, and cause reduced pH.
T9997 391763-391936 Sentence denotes The result is an altered gut flora in which there is overgrowth of organisms producing lactic acid, further contributing to acidification and increased mucosal permeability.
T57749 391937-392129 Sentence denotes Loss of water and Small-bowel diarrhea is classified as secretory, malabsorptive, or effusive; however, these mechanisms are not mutually exclusive and are often seen as overlapping syndromes.
T41736 392130-392221 Sentence denotes Smallbowel diarrhea is characterized by infrequent passage of large amounts of fluid feces.
T78800 392222-392373 Sentence denotes Secretory diarrhea is due to an excess of secretion over absorption of fluid, resulting from derangement of normal secretory and absorptive mechanisms.
T87304 392374-392452 Sentence denotes It is best exemplified by the effects of diarrheagenic bacterial enterotoxins.
T39127 392453-392678 Sentence denotes Vibrio cholerae and Escherichia coli are the most important sources of such toxins, though only the latter occurs in domestic animals; some Salmonella serotypes, Yersinia enterocolitica, and Shigella also produce enterotoxin.
T95125 392679-392790 Sentence denotes Cholera and heat-labile E. coli enterotoxin act through the mediation of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP).
T26837 392791-392931 Sentence denotes Toxin-stimulated cAMP shuts down sodium chloride cotransport at the luminal cell membrane of enterocytes, reducing passive water absorption.
T56217 392932-393009 Sentence denotes Meanwhile, cAMP-stimulated chloride secretion is promoted, and water follows.
T41469 393010-393150 Sentence denotes The resultant increase in secretion and decrease in absorption increase the solute and water load passing from the small bowel to the colon.
T49662 393151-393279 Sentence denotes Heat-stable E. coli and Y. enterocolitica enterotoxins stimulate cyclic guanosine monophosphatemediated secretion by the mucosa.
T84296 393280-393379 Sentence denotes In addition to bacterial enterotoxins, other factors may cause or contribute to secretory diarrhea.
T85792 393380-393628 Sentence denotes Prostaglandins, other eicosanoids, histamine, kinins, and various other cytokines directly or indirectly stimulate secretion, often by local stimulation of enteric nervous reflexes, and they may contribute to diarrhea in inflammatory bowel disease.
T65771 393629-393916 Sentence denotes Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide secreted by pancreatic islet cell tumors causes severe diarrhea in humans with such tumors; this neurotransmitter causes active chloride and bicarbonate secretion, and is probably the final mediator in secretion stimulated by the enteric nervous system.
T8911 393917-394163 Sentence denotes Other circulating agents are directly or indirectly diarrheagenic: calcitonin secreted by thyroid C-cell tumors; serotonin, bradykinin or substance P secreted by carcinoids; histamine secreted by mast cell tumors; gastrin secreted by gastrinomas.
T37507 394164-394424 Sentence denotes Peptide YY is secreted by enteroendocrine cells of the gut and is known to inhibit intestinal secretion and promote absorption; altered peptide YY secretion has been observed in a variety of gastrointestinal diseases in humans and some domestic animal species.
T33058 394425-394650 Sentence denotes Malabsorptive diarrhea commonly results from villus atrophy no matter what the cause, and is exemplified by osmotic retention of water in the gut lumen by poorly absorbed magnesium sulfate, used therapeutically as a laxative.
T91709 394651-394875 Sentence denotes Electrolyte and nutrient solute are malabsorbed as the result of reduced villus and microvillus surface area, and along with osmotically associated water are retained in the lumen of the bowel and then passed into the colon.
T20199 394876-395007 Sentence denotes A secretory component probably contributes to diarrhea caused by villus atrophy, at least in transmissible gastroenteritis in pigs.
T38976 395008-395286 Sentence denotes In this scenario the villus limb of the postulated crypt-villus fluid circuit is diminished or missing, so fluid secreted by the crypts may not be absorbed and poorly differentiated cells emerging on to the intestinal surface from crypts may also retain some secretory capacity.
T91525 395287-395383 Sentence denotes Malabsorptive diarrhea also occurs in short-bowel syndrome caused by reduced absorptive surface.
T88274 395384-395611 Sentence denotes Increased permeability of the mucosa may contribute to diarrhea by permitting increased retrograde movement of solute and fluid from the lateral intercellular space to the lumen, or by facilitating transudation of tissue fluid.
T71155 395612-395858 Sentence denotes Filtration secretion is characterized by increased protein-rich fluid entering the intestine is derived mainly from effusion of plasma protein into the lumen of the bowel but can also be associated with increased turnover of cells lining the gut.
T71927 395859-396199 Sentence denotes Protein-losing enteropathies can be divided into 3 categories according to the mucosal alteration causing protein loss: mucosal ulcerations or erosions leading to secondary protein exudation; nonulcerated mucosa with abnormal permeability; and lymphatic disruption with leakage of protein-rich lymph (see later section on lymphangiectasia).
T6726 396200-396465 Sentence denotes Plasma protein loss may result from the blood-sucking activity of nematodes such as Haemonchus, Ancylostoma, and Bunostomum, or hemorrhage from sites of trauma in the mucosa caused by the feeding activity of worms such as Oesophagostomum, Chabertia, and Strongylus.
T57972 396466-396724 Sentence denotes Considerable loss of erythrocytes and plasma protein leading to fibrinohemorrhagic enteritis can occur secondary to mucosal erosions or ulcerations caused by ischemia, epithelial cell necrosis, or inflammation associated with bacteria, viruses, and coccidia.
T76435 396725-396876 Sentence denotes Plasma protein can also be lost through transient gaps, or leaks in the mucosa that develop during increased exfoliation of enterocytes into the lumen.
T7502 396877-397067 Sentence denotes With an increased rate of enterocyte turnover seen in villus atrophy, temporary microerosions may develop when flattened enterocytes fail to maintain the integrity of the surface epithelium.
T27863 397068-397203 Sentence denotes The permeability of tight junctions between epithelial cells may be sufficiently altered to permit transit of plasma protein molecules.
T79776 397204-397512 Sentence denotes Filtration secretion occurs when the hydrostatic pressure in the proprial interstitium is elevated in congestive heart failure and portal hypertension; by decreased plasma oncotic pressure; by increased vascular permeability in acute or chronic inflammation; and in lymphatic obstruction or lymphangiectasia.
T62538 397513-397728 Sentence denotes Proinflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-α are often prevalent during acute or chronic inflammation and may cause increased paracellular epithelial permeability to large molecules entering the mucosa.
T90239 397729-397967 Sentence denotes Plasma protein loss into the gut is generally considered nonselective, as albumin, immunoglobulins, clotting factors, and a variety of transport or carrier proteins, including transferrin, ceruloplasmin, and transcortin, are lost equally.
T64554 397968-398142 Sentence denotes The physiologic consequences of protein-losing enteropathy may be observed with increased loss of any of these molecules, but are most frequently related to albumin turnover.
T65439 398143-398369 Sentence denotes Loss of plasma protein into the gut expressed as a proportion of the total body pool will vary in absolute terms; this concept of fractional catabolic rate is essential to understanding the kinetics of plasma protein turnover.
T4999 398370-398444 Sentence denotes In protein-losing enteropathy, albumin turnover may pass through 3 phases.
T8791 398445-398571 Sentence denotes During the first phase, the fractional catabolic rate increases along with the absolute amount of protein lost into the bowel.
T76302 398572-398723 Sentence denotes As the size of the circulating pool of albumin shrinks, so does the absolute rate of loss of protein, even though the fractional rate remains the same.
T52484 398724-398912 Sentence denotes During the second phase, the size of the circulating pool stabilizes as the rate of albumin synthesis by the liver increases to match in absolute terms the rate of loss into the gut lumen.
T8439 398913-399136 Sentence denotes The plasma albumin pool is then in a state of hyperkinetic equilibrium in which the total pool is smaller, but a higher than normal fractional catabolic rate is compensated by an increased rate of hepatic albumin synthesis.
T15503 399137-399286 Sentence denotes Provided that the amount of albumin lost does not exceed the synthetic capacity of the liver, this equilibrium may persist for a considerable period.
T59190 399287-399519 Sentence denotes In the third phase, hypoalbuminemia develops as the fractional catabolic rate exceeds in absolute terms the synthetic capacity solute into the lumen along the osmotic gradient generated by lactic acid in the lumen leads to diarrhea.
T9716 399520-399640 Sentence denotes Increased intestinal motility probably does not have a primary role in the pathogenesis of diarrhea in domestic animals.
T92829 399641-399745 Sentence denotes Often the small intestine of animals with diarrhea is flaccid and fluid-filled, rather than hypermotile.
T15416 399746-399863 Sentence denotes Increased colonic motor activity is often segmental and antiperistaltic, and probably unrelated to increased transit.
T1246 399864-399982 Sentence denotes Hypermotility, if it does occur, may be in response to, rather than a cause of, increased volumes of fluid in the gut.
T58274 399983-399991 Sentence denotes Argenzio
T95641 399993-400172 Sentence denotes Disorders of protein metabolism attributable to enteric disease are responsible for significant economic loss in the form of reduced weight gain, wool growth, and milk production.
T12968 400173-400295 Sentence denotes Severe derangement resulting in negative nitrogen balance in any species may lead to cachexia, hypoproteinemia, and death.
T33206 400296-400453 Sentence denotes Decreased protein intake is the most obvious threat to the nitrogen economy, and it is probably the most important in many chronic gastrointestinal diseases.
T4547 400454-400664 Sentence denotes Subclinical inefficiency in production, reduced growth, and emaciation may be the product of various degrees of inappetence, or difficulty in prehension, mastication, and swallowing, or recurrent regurgitation.
T80377 400665-400726 Sentence denotes Low feed quality compounds the effect of reduced feed intake.
T35088 400727-400835 Sentence denotes Anorexia is a sharp decline in appetite, and a common sign of indigestion, obstruction, or systemic disease.
T99934 400836-401098 Sentence denotes In ruminants, loss of appetite to various degrees is an especially important component of the pathogenicity of gastrointestinal parasites, including those infecting the abomasum (Ostertagia), small intestine (Trichostrongylus), and large bowel (Oesophagostomum).
T11648 401099-401305 Sentence denotes Interactions among cholecystokinin, parasympathetic efferent and afferent reflexes, and systemic or gastric leptins appear to mediate satiety; however, their mechanisms in health and disease remain unclear.
T45140 401306-401431 Sentence denotes Malabsorption of peptides and amino acids may occur locally in the small intestine as a result of significant villus atrophy.
T55527 401432-401652 Sentence denotes However, unless the lesion is widespread or low in the small bowel, net absorption of nitrogen over the length of the small intestine will not be reduced because of the compensatory capacity of more distal normal mucosa.
T56609 401653-401769 Sentence denotes Overall, the contribution of malabsorption to disordered nitrogen metabolism appears to be minor in most situations.
T37724 401770-401919 Sentence denotes Protein-losing gastroenteropathy, increased catabolism and loss of endogenous nitrogen via the gastrointestinal tract, is important in many diseases.
T59545 401920-401965 Sentence denotes Excess endogenous protein less common source.
T69165 401966-402064 Sentence denotes Anemia and hypoproteinemia may be due to hemorrhage externally or into the gastrointestinal tract.
T84821 402065-402198 Sentence denotes Advanced liver disease may cause hypoalbuminemia, in which case concurrent signs of hepatic failure will likely be observed (see Vol.
T89695 402199-402228 Sentence denotes 2, Liver and biliary system).
T15139 402229-402361 Sentence denotes Inability or reluctance to eat, inadequate nutrition, or starvation also cause emaciation, usually without profound hypoalbuminemia.
T35952 402362-402417 Sentence denotes The cachexia of malignancy also must be differentiated.
T43181 402418-402580 Sentence denotes When adequately hydrated, the hypoalbuminemic animal shows evidence of subcutaneous, mesenteric, or gastric submucosal edema, perhaps with hydrothorax or ascites.
T32710 402581-402666 Sentence denotes Wasting of muscle mass may be marked if the protein loss has been severe and chronic.
T61057 402667-402871 Sentence denotes Unlike starvation, protein-losing gastroenteropathy may be associated with the presence of internal fat depots because assimilation of energy is not necessarily severely impaired, especially in ruminants.
T70833 402872-403031 Sentence denotes The development of anemia and the kinetics of the erythron following blood loss into the gastrointestinal tract are similar to those of albumin in plasma loss.
T53738 403032-403125 Sentence denotes Blood loss of any origin, including that caused by hematophagous parasites, may cause anemia.
T18446 403126-403243 Sentence denotes Erythroid hyperplasia in the marrow or in extramedullary sites may not compensate for the continued erythrocyte loss.
T73868 403244-403382 Sentence denotes Resolution of the hemorrhage results in eventual restoration of normal red cell numbers and an ultimate decline in erythrocyte production.
T57212 403383-403509 Sentence denotes Chronic blood loss may culminate in depletion of iron stores and development of a nonresponsive hypochromic microcytic anemia.
T66956 403510-403514 Sentence denotes Coop
T90564 403516-403578 Sentence denotes Segmental anomalies of the intestine are commonly encountered.
T29971 403579-403806 Sentence denotes In early embryonal life the intestine consists of a simple tube, the lumen of which is lined by epithelial cells of endodermal origin surrounded and supported by an outer layer of connective tissue from the splanchnic ectoderm.
T86729 403807-404016 Sentence denotes As the intestines grow with the developing fetus, they form coiled loops that herniate temporarily through the umbilicus into a peritoneal-lined sac before they are later retracted back into the fetal abdomen.
T54455 404017-404188 Sentence denotes The most plausible cause of segmental defects in intestinal continuity is ischemia of a segment of gut during early fetal life, resulting in necrosis of the affected area.
T13685 404189-404249 Sentence denotes The segmental anomalies of the intestine may vary in degree.
T99155 404250-404360 Sentence denotes Stenosis implies incomplete occlusion or narrowing of the lumen; complete occlusion is referred to as atresia.
T56854 404361-404687 Sentence denotes Atresia is further subdivided into membrane atresia, when the obstruction is formed by a simple membrane; cord atresia, in which the blind ends of the gut are joined by a cord of connective tissue; and blind-end atresia, in which a segment of gut and possibly the corresponding mesentery are missing, leaving two of the liver.
T7675 404688-404877 Sentence denotes Alternatively, hypoalbuminemia occurs in the third phase if the rate of synthesis declines because of deficiency in amino acids derived from the diet or by catabolism of other body protein.
T77307 404878-405143 Sentence denotes The hypoalbuminemia in enteric plasma loss may be accompanied by hyperglobulinemia, the mechanism of which is not completely clear, but has been associated with underlying or concurrent inflammatory disease stimulating hepatic globulin production in these patients.
T38506 405144-405294 Sentence denotes The progression and clinical manifestations of proteinlosing enteropathy vary with the rate of onset of plasma loss and the fractional catabolic rate.
T83968 405295-405428 Sentence denotes A sudden onset of severe plasma protein loss may cause death during the first phase, before there is time for compensatory synthesis.
T75964 405429-405679 Sentence denotes If the fractional catabolic rate is gradually and only slightly increased, so that compensation occurs with the albumin pool in equilibrium at only a marginally reduced state (perhaps near or within the normal range), subclinical protein loss occurs.
T31374 405680-405944 Sentence denotes Although the fractional catabolic rate is only slightly elevated, the relatively large size of the albumin pool may mean that the absolute loss of protein exceeds that in a hypoalbuminemic animal with a higher fractional catabolic rate, but a smaller albumin pool.
T48158 405945-406114 Sentence denotes Endogenous protein derived from exfoliated cells of the stomach or upper small intestine during villus atrophy may be digested and absorbed in the lower small intestine.
T66957 406115-406282 Sentence denotes This is dependent on luminal proteolysis by pancreatic enzymes, digestion and absorption that may compensate for any malabsorption caused by the more proximal lesions.
T16694 406283-406494 Sentence denotes The efficiency of protein digestion and absorption is not 100%, so a proportion of this increased endogenous protein is added to the protein escaping digestion in the small bowel, and enters the large intestine.
T48922 406495-406584 Sentence denotes Here, most of this protein may be converted to ammonia by the colonic flora and absorbed.
T1382 406585-406814 Sentence denotes The loss of significant protein from stomach or small intestine may be accompanied by little or no increase in fecal nitrogen excretion, although much of the protein lost from lesions in the colon is ultimately lost in the feces.
T327 406815-407083 Sentence denotes Ammonia nitrogen absorbed from the colon is converted in the liver mainly to urea, so animals with increased endogenous protein loss into the stomach or small intestine tend to have slightly raised levels of plasma urea, and an elevated rate of urinary urea excretion.
T28656 407084-407361 Sentence denotes Elevated hepatic synthesis of albumin, resulting from increased turnover of the plasma albumin pool, and increased enteric protein synthesis in support of elevated epithelial turnover in conditions with chronic villus atrophy, is at the expense of anabolic processes elsewhere.
T81547 407362-407451 Sentence denotes Dietary amino acid is diverted preferentially to synthesis of plasma and enteric protein.
T86931 407452-407610 Sentence denotes If protein intake is poor due to inappetence or a low-quality ration, or if the rate of protein loss is high, the animal moves into negative nitrogen balance.
T5306 407611-407781 Sentence denotes Catabolism of peripheral protein then assumes an increasingly important role in maintaining the pool of amino acids available for plasma and intestinal protein synthesis.
T14424 407782-407988 Sentence denotes This explains in part the reduced growth rate, decreased muscle mass, and reduced bone matrix in sheep with subclinical or mild parasitism, and the cachexia and osteopenia associated with severe parasitism.
T8205 407989-408096 Sentence denotes These principles probably hold for all syndromes causing enteric loss of endogenous protein in any species.
T27338 408097-408250 Sentence denotes Loss of enteric protein, and especially plasma, should be suspected in cachectic or hypoproteinemic animals, although diarrhea is not invariably present.
T63192 408251-408606 Sentence denotes The 2 major routes of occult plasma protein loss are glomerular disease, particularly amyloidosis, and gastrointestinal disease; exudative skin lesions are a Although several gene mutations can cause intestinal aganglionosis, loss of function mutation of the endothelin receptor type B gene are observed in horses, rodents, and humans with this condition.
T33653 408607-408774 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis is thought to involve improper migration of cells of the neural crest, from which cutaneous melanoblasts and the myenteric plexus neurons are derived.
T51726 408775-408881 Sentence denotes A similar condition of megacolon resulting from segmental colonic aganglionosis has been reported in pigs.
T97874 408882-409063 Sentence denotes Megacolon associated with few myenteric ganglion cells in Clydesdale foals is not clearly congenital, and is discussed with intestinal obstruction, as is megacolon in other species.
T80268 409064-409126 Sentence denotes Intestinal diverticula occur rarely in dogs, cats, and horses.
T57291 409127-409366 Sentence denotes True diverticula, congenital lesions involving all layers of the intestinal wall, are distinguished from pseudodiverticula resulting from disruption or weakening of the tunica muscularis and not involving all layers of the intestinal wall.
T86848 409367-409520 Sentence denotes They may be incidental, but in horses have been associated with idiopathic muscular hypertrophy or other lesions of the small bowel, including neoplasia.
T23331 409521-409652 Sentence denotes Diverticula can cause impaction, obstruction, intussusception or fistula, and potentially diverticulitis, rupture, and peritonitis.
T53745 409653-409835 Sentence denotes Persistent Meckel's diverticulum is an uncommon embryonic developmental anomaly occurring mostly along the antimesenteric border of the lower small bowel, mainly in swine and horses.
T12524 409836-409930 Sentence denotes It is derived from the omphalomesenteric (vitelline) duct, which is the stalk of the yolk sac.
T60452 409931-410090 Sentence denotes The vitelline membrane can also persist forming a fibrous ligament or mesodiverticular band between the distal small jejunum and the diverticulum or umbilicus.
T59918 410091-410219 Sentence denotes Multiple persistent vitelline duct cysts, distinct from Meckel's diverticulum, have been described on the ileal serosa in a dog.
T82970 410220-410376 Sentence denotes Hypoplasia of the small intestinal mucosa has been reported in foals with failure of passive transfer, and this may represent defective fetal organogenesis.
T98138 410378-410519 Sentence denotes Acute obstruction typically involves the upper or middle small intestine whereas chronic blockage usually involves the ileum and large bowel.
T67955 410520-410778 Sentence denotes Intestinal obstruction may be the sequel to a physical blockage of the lumen resulting from stenosis (narrowing, stricture) caused by an intrinsic lesion involving the intestinal wall, obturation (occlusion) by an intraluminal mass, or extrinsic compression.
T24375 410779-410914 Sentence denotes Failure of the intestinal circular smooth muscle to contract blocks the peristaltic wave, causing functional obstruction, a blind ends.
T8343 410915-411025 Sentence denotes All types of segmental anomaly can be produced experimentally by ischemia to a portion of the fetal intestine.
T58628 411026-411113 Sentence denotes Atresia coli is the most common segmental anomaly of the intestine in domestic animals.
T70863 411114-411246 Sentence denotes It is seen particularly in the spiral colon of Holstein calves, and in the large and small colon of foals; it occurs rarely in cats.
T19173 411247-411309 Sentence denotes Atresia coli may be an autosomal recessive trait in Holsteins.
T12912 411310-411404 Sentence denotes A predisposition for male calves has been described, but this is not consistent among studies.
T32616 411405-411663 Sentence denotes An association has been postulated between pressure on the amniotic vesicle during palpation of the embryo for pregnancy diagnosis before 42 days of gestation, and the development of atresia coli in calves; however, the mechanism of this effect is uncertain.
T55010 411664-411700 Sentence denotes Atresia intestinalis is less common.
T26111 411701-411787 Sentence denotes Atresia ilei is most prevalent in calves, and rare in foals, lambs, piglets, and pups.
T14384 411788-412016 Sentence denotes These lesions prevent normal movement of gut content and meconium and therefore lead to dilation of the proximal segment and progressive abdominal distention, which may become so extensive in an affected fetus to cause dystocia.
T40333 412017-412135 Sentence denotes The bowel distal to the obstruction is small in diameter, and devoid of content other than mucus and exfoliated cells.
T13170 412136-412175 Sentence denotes Animals fail to pass feces after birth.
T11406 412176-412288 Sentence denotes Atresia ani (imperforate anus) is the overall most common congenital defect of the lower gastrointestinal tract.
T72118 412289-412413 Sentence denotes It may be seen in all species, but is most often encountered in calves and pigs, in which it is considered to be hereditary.
T95132 412414-412592 Sentence denotes The defect may consist only of failure of perforation of the membrane separating the endodermal hindgut from the ectodermal anal membrane, or both anus and rectum may be atretic.
T10172 412593-413008 Sentence denotes Atresia ani may be an isolated abnormality, but is more commonly associated with other malformations, especially of the distal spinal column (spinal dysraphism, sacral or coccygeal vertebral agenesis), genitourinary tract (rectovaginal fistula, renal agenesis, horseshoe kidney, polycystic kidneys, cryptorchidism, duplication of scrotum or penis), and occasionally with intestinal atresia or agenesis of the colon.
T26228 413009-413230 Sentence denotes Vitamin A deficiency during pregnancy has been associated with increased risk of congenital ano-rectal malformations in several species; this is thought to be related to improper development of the enteric nervous system.
T78016 413231-413383 Sentence denotes Short colon has been reported in dogs and cats, and is probably the result of abnormal rotation of the midgut and failure to lengthen during fetal life.
T8430 413384-413456 Sentence denotes Clinical signs were subtle and possibly unrelated to the colonic lesion.
T98994 413457-413551 Sentence denotes Affected animals had a shortened colon with the cecum located on the left side of the abdomen.
T80850 413552-413629 Sentence denotes Concurrent anorectal or urogenital abnormalities were observed in some cases.
T97207 413630-413805 Sentence denotes Anomaly of the colonic mesenteric attachments has been described and associated with development of colic in a horse, because of distortion and convolution of the large colon.
T15197 413806-413974 Sentence denotes Congenital colonic aganglionosis, somewhat analogous to Hirschsprung's disease in humans, occurs in white foals that are the offspring of "frame overo" spotted parents.
T91669 413975-414063 Sentence denotes The disease has not been convincingly demonstrated in other species of domestic animals.
T36823 414064-414179 Sentence denotes Clinically affected foals, which are predominantly white, develop colic and die generally within 48 hours of birth.
T36602 414180-414354 Sentence denotes Grossly, there is stenosis mainly of the small colon, but the entire colon and rectum may be patent but contracted; the proximal intestine is distended with gas and meconium.
T79298 414355-414514 Sentence denotes Microscopically, ganglia of the myenteric plexus are absent in the walls of the terminal ileum, cecum, and colon, although occasional nerve fibers are evident.
T31061 414515-414639 Sentence denotes Except for the few pigmented spots, melanocytes are absent in the skin. by ileus and accumulation of fluid contents and gas.
T54099 414640-414884 Sentence denotes The volume of distention and length of bowel involved is dependent on the location, degree, and duration of obstruction; this may be remarkable with distal lesions such as rectal stricture in pigs, which can cause profound abdominal distention.
T71066 414885-415000 Sentence denotes As distention increases, interference with venous return may develop and the mucosa and submucosa become congested.
T373 415001-415191 Sentence denotes Devitalization of severely dilated gut or pressure necrosis of the mucosa at the site of lodgment of intraluminal foreign bodies may occur, leading to necrosis, perforation, and peritonitis.
T84835 415192-415261 Sentence denotes Distal to the point of obstruction, the bowel is collapsed and empty.
T91831 415262-415424 Sentence denotes Congenital intrinsic obstruction caused by segmental atresia and imperforations is considered under the previous section on congenital anomalies of the intestine.
T22981 415425-415592 Sentence denotes The primary lesions involving the intestinal wall causing acquired stenosis include intramural abscesses or hematomas, neoplasms, and fibrosis secondary to ulceration.
T308 415593-415731 Sentence denotes These lesions can result in partial or complete stenosis and may develop slowly with a course as described for simple chronic obstruction.
T26800 415732-415779 Sentence denotes Foreign bodies of all kinds are commonly found.
T98874 415780-415961 Sentence denotes Small rounded foreign bodies and even some sharp-edged objects may pass through the intestines uneventfully, but for these and many large foreign bodies the course is unpredictable.
T30263 415962-416102 Sentence denotes Some may reside in the intestine for long periods and produce no disturbance until they act as a nidus for the development of an enterolith.
T18522 416103-416290 Sentence denotes Foreign bodies may cause partial or complete intestinal obstruction and compromise the blood supply by luminal distention, which may progress to edema, necrosis, and possibly perforation.
T64609 416291-416377 Sentence denotes Most obstructions occur in the jejunum, although any segment of bowel can be affected.
T88220 416378-416540 Sentence denotes Linear foreign bodies such as strips of cloth or string probably occur more commonly in cats compared with dogs, and once ingested may pass through the intestine.
T3040 416541-416614 Sentence denotes However, if they become immobilized they produce a characteristic lesion.
T79111 416615-416717 Sentence denotes One portion becomes fixed, most commonly around the base of the tongue or by impaction at the pylorus.
T29874 416718-416862 Sentence denotes The free end is then stretched taut distally because of peristalsis, which results in pleating of the distal gut onto the string ( Fig. 1-43A ).
T70835 416863-417031 Sentence denotes Peristalsis results in progressive mucosal damage ( Fig. 1-43B ) along the lesser curvature of intestinal loops that may lead eventually to perforation and peritonitis.
T39290 417032-417194 Sentence denotes Enteroliths (mineral concretions) were historically common in the colon of horses, and are observed more frequently in some areas, such as California and Florida.
T67718 417195-417280 Sentence denotes Aged Arabians, Morgans, American Saddlebreds, and donkeys seem to be overrepresented.
T48582 417281-417416 Sentence denotes The concretions are comprised of magnesium ammonium phosphate, the source of which is probably grain, bran, alfalfa, or alkaline water.
T22748 417417-417477 Sentence denotes Colonic pH >6.6 seems to contribute to enterolith formation.
T92972 417478-417664 Sentence denotes The mechanism is not completely clear; however, mineral salts are deposited in concentric lamellae around a central nidus-a foreign body such as a nail, wire, stone, or particle of feed.
T11008 417665-417727 Sentence denotes They can vary greatly in size, some weighing as much as 10 kg.
T61753 417728-417909 Sentence denotes Enteroliths are usually smooth and spherical but can be flattened; irregular mineralized masses may also occur, usually centered on a fibrous nidus, such as twine, rope, or netting.
T61494 417910-418078 Sentence denotes Fiber balls (phytobezoars or phytotrichobezoars), which consist largely of plant fibers intermixed with phosphate salts, may be found especially in the colon of horses.
T64944 418079-418271 Sentence denotes They are not as heavy as enteroliths, and are usually round, smooth, and clinical syndrome of pseudo-obstruction in which there is no physical occlusion of the lumen of the impacted intestine.
T42745 418272-418399 Sentence denotes Adynamic ileus, intestinal obstruction resulting from inhibition of bowel motility, is a common sequel to peritonitis and pain.
T34318 418400-418545 Sentence denotes Circulatory embarrassment of a segment of bowel via embolism or venous infarction also causes functional obstruction without a physical blockage.
T57902 418546-418672 Sentence denotes Many intestinal displacements that produce obstruction such as volvulus, strangulation, or intussusception may cause ischemia.
T65960 418673-418799 Sentence denotes The term strangulation obstruction refers to an event that simultaneously causes ischemia and physically blocks the intestine.
T29955 418800-419001 Sentence denotes Mucosal hypoxia may be a sequel to venous occlusion caused by physical distention of gut proximal to an obstruction; to local pressure caused by an adjacent mass; or to generalized circulatory failure.
T26199 419002-419096 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis and consequences of intestinal ischemia are dealt with later in this chapter.
T85151 419097-419325 Sentence denotes Proximal to an obstruction there is accumulation of fluid derived from ingesta, gastric, biliary, pancreatic, and intrinsic intestinal secretion, and gas swallowed or originating from bacterial activity in the gut ( Fig. 1-42 ).
T59717 419326-419566 Sentence denotes Intestinal distention results in luminal sequestration of water and electrolytes and mucosal edema; further fluid secretion into the lumen may be associated with contractile stimuli, and potentially transudation from the peritoneal surface.
T27294 419567-419791 Sentence denotes Upper small-bowel obstruction progresses rapidly to vomiting in most species, with dehydration, hypochloremia, hypokalemia, and metabolic alkalosis caused by loss of acid in vomitus and of fluid sequestration in the stomach.
T15375 419792-419974 Sentence denotes If acute complications of ischemia including rupture do not occur, an animal with obstruction succumbs to the systemic effects of hypovolemia, electrolyte, and acid-base disturbance.
T41959 419975-420254 Sentence denotes With obstruction of the lower small intestine or colon, there is usually less pronounced electrolyte and acid-base imbalance because vomition is less severe and absorption of fluid proximal to the obstruction may prevent or delay severe distension and additional fluid secretion.
T39207 420255-420398 Sentence denotes Metabolic acidosis eventually follows however, with dehydration and catabolism of fat and muscle once food consumption and assimilation ceases.
T92072 420399-420516 Sentence denotes In the horse, obstruction or impaction of the cecum or colon in particular often leads to local ischemia and rupture.
T6551 420517-420751 Sentence denotes In obstruction, the outstanding gross alteration in the bowel is distention proximal to the point of blockage, caused the colon lumen narrows or changes direction, for example, at the pelvic flexure, and the transverse or small colon.
T83743 420752-420860 Sentence denotes Small intestinal obstruction may be caused by parasites that can form rope-like tangled masses in the lumen.
T49146 420861-420940 Sentence denotes This occurs in pigs and foals infested with large numbers of ascarid nematodes.
T13549 420941-421003 Sentence denotes It also occurs rarely in sheep heavily infested with cestodes.
T4937 421004-421111 Sentence denotes Impaction of the ileum is the most common cause of small intestinal nonstrangulating obstruction in horses.
T24952 421112-421207 Sentence denotes Feeding of a high-fiber diet, such as coastal Bermuda grass hay, predisposes to this condition.
T20792 421208-421318 Sentence denotes Gravel and sand have been reported as causes of small intestinal obstruction in cattle and dogs, respectively.
T91593 421319-421393 Sentence denotes Impaction of the colon is a common cause of simple intestinal obstruction.
T78551 421394-421446 Sentence denotes The impaction cause is often feces in dogs and cats.
T99761 421447-421614 Sentence denotes In horses the cause is digesta, fibrous foreign material, sand, or feces and can be complicated by intestinal tympany from fermentation if the obstruction is complete.
T45318 421615-421786 Sentence denotes Obstipation of the colon in dogs may result from voluntarily suppressed defecation caused by pain from inflammation or neoplasia involving the prostate gland or anal sacs.
T22390 421787-421942 Sentence denotes Impaction with foreign bodies, such as hair or fine bones in the colon or rectum, or the result of stenosis caused by tumors or strictures, is less common.
T19951 421943-422102 Sentence denotes Colonic obstipation also may be associated with trauma to the pelvic area or spinal cord; it is described in Manx cats because of sacral spinal cord anomalies.
T68928 422103-422210 Sentence denotes Megacolon ensues if the obstruction persists; however, in small animals megacolon is frequently idiopathic.
T21995 422211-422396 Sentence denotes Examination of the syndrome in cats reveals no histologic abnormalities and it is suggested that the underlying problem is a disturbance in the activation of smooth-muscle myofilaments.
T18649 422397-422528 Sentence denotes Impaction of the cecum or colon in horses occur mostly where the lumen narrows at the pelvic flexure and transverse or small colon.
T46004 422529-422700 Sentence denotes Impaction may be precipitated by water deprivation, a dietary change to rough hay or chaff, or poor dentition; recurrent impaction is seen in animals with dental problems.
T21450 422701-422895 Sentence denotes Abnormal motility resulting from altered colonic or cecal peristalsis may explain impaction in the absence of other predisposing causes and is discussed later with pseudoobstructions of the gut.
T76336 422896-422982 Sentence denotes Ingestion of indigestible synthetic fibers has been associated with colonic impaction.
T53568 422983-423166 Sentence denotes In horses grazing poorly covered sandy soils, sand may cause chronic colitis and diarrhea or it may sediment, accumulate, and cause impaction at any level of the large or small colon.
T49071 423167-423252 Sentence denotes Sand impaction in horses is often associated with concurrent displacement or torsion.
T67847 423253-423363 Sentence denotes Ingestion of large numbers of acorns and leaves may also cause impaction of the intestinal tract in ruminants.
T37098 423364-423478 Sentence denotes Rupture of the bowel may occur if impactions are not treated, and the bowel wall becomes ischemic and devitalized.
T12933 423479-423569 Sentence denotes Cecal rupture in horses occurs as a complication of impaction, or of parturition in mares.
T71013 423570-423620 Sentence denotes Two distinct forms of cecal rupture are described.
T79482 423621-423784 Sentence denotes In type 1, the cecum is filled with firm dehydrated food, whereas in type 2, the cecum is distended with more normal digesta, often with increased amount of fluid.
T55997 423785-423928 Sentence denotes Type 2 is considered a rare complication of general anesthesia or administration of NSAIDs, and is thought to be due to dysfunctional motility.
T52239 423929-424062 Sentence denotes Compression of intestine causing obstruction is rather common and is caused by tumors, abscesses, peritonitis, and fibrous adhesions.
T78615 424063-424157 Sentence denotes Neoplasms involve the intestine by extension from adjacent viscera, particularly the pancreas.
T80945 424158-424291 Sentence denotes Many abdominal tumors involve the craniodorsal part of the abdominal cavity moist with a velvety and occasionally convoluted surface.
T91730 424292-424380 Sentence denotes Response to medical therapy and dissolution of phytobezoars has been reported in horses.
T67845 424381-424579 Sentence denotes Hairballs (trichobezoars) sometimes occur in dogs, cats, and ruminants; in ruminants they occur mostly in the forestomachs ( Fig. 1-44 ) and abomasum but can also cause small intestinal obstruction.
T78491 424580-424714 Sentence denotes Enteroliths and bezoars in horses are often insignificant; apparently they are moved about by peristalsis and are passed in the feces.
T44600 424715-424835 Sentence denotes They may obstruct the gut if they become impacted, usually where season and the gastrointestinal tract is most affected.
T34519 424836-424974 Sentence denotes Grass sickness can occur acutely as colic, tympany, and drooling with rapid progression and is nearly always fatal, usually within 7 days.
T53908 424975-425092 Sentence denotes The condition can also occur as chronic colic of >7 days duration, usually characterized by weight loss or dysphagia.
T18704 425093-425155 Sentence denotes Horses with this form may survive with appropriate management.
T47712 425156-425295 Sentence denotes In acute cases, postmortem findings include gastric and small intestinal distention; often there is esophageal ulceration caused by reflux.
T59350 425296-425378 Sentence denotes In chronic cases gross lesions are often not present except for marked emaciation.
T3583 425379-425480 Sentence denotes There also may be impaction of the colon and cecum by dehydrated ingesta in cases of longer duration.
T94537 425481-425709 Sentence denotes Characteristic histologic lesions are present in the intestinal and extraintestinal autonomic ganglia and include chromatolysis, nuclear eccentricity, and karyorrhexis of nerve cell bodies of both peripheral and central neurons.
T67593 425710-425842 Sentence denotes Neuronophagia and the presence of smooth round eosinophilic bodies or spheroids within or adjacent to perikarya are also recognized.
T94671 425843-425883 Sentence denotes Significant inflammation is not evident.
T38824 425884-425963 Sentence denotes Lesions in several brainstem nuclei have been described, albeit inconsistently.
T54524 425964-426064 Sentence denotes The severity of lesions has been shown to correlate with decreased functional cholinergic responses.
T70751 426065-426230 Sentence denotes Diagnosis can be confirmed in live horses by histological evaluation of nerve cell bodies of the myenteric or submucosal plexus in surgically obtained ileal samples.
T39596 426231-426409 Sentence denotes Examination of the cranial celiaco-mesenteric ganglia, sympathetic thoracic chain, stellate and/or superior cervical ganglia provide confirmation of the diagnosis in dead horses.
T7237 426410-426679 Sentence denotes Clostridium botulinum has been suggested to play a role in equine dysautonomia, although this remains unconfirmed and it is not known if the presence of C botulinum type C and/or type C neurotoxin represents secondary bacterial overgrowth or the cause of this syndrome.
T73508 426680-426872 Sentence denotes Feline dysautonomia, or Key-Gaskell syndrome, is an autonomic dysfunction of unknown etiology, most common in the United Kingdom and continental Europe, with sporadic cases reported elsewhere.
T12097 426873-426941 Sentence denotes A similar syndrome has also been reported in a few dogs and a llama.
T53898 426942-426998 Sentence denotes Cats <3 years of age seem to be preferentially affected.
T60420 426999-427175 Sentence denotes Signs include depression, anorexia, reduced lacrimation and salivation, bradycardia, mydriasis, delayed pupillary light reflex, megaesophagus, constipation, or ileal impaction.
T65222 427176-427228 Sentence denotes Diarrhea is reported in some dogs with dysautonomia.
T42894 427229-427401 Sentence denotes The gastrointestinal signs suggest disordered motility, and animals often succumb to the effects of regurgitation, inanition, or aspiration pneumonia, among other problems.
T15543 427402-427489 Sentence denotes Cases tend to occur in clusters, suggesting an environmental toxin or infectious agent.
T31332 427490-427645 Sentence denotes As for horses, exposure to Clostridium botulinum and type C neurotoxin has been hypothesized, although no conclusive etiologic associations have been made.
T43054 427646-427875 Sentence denotes Involvement of functions of both sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system, and of some functions under voluntary control, is reflected in the distribution of neuronal lesions in autonomic ganglia.
T15955 427876-428000 Sentence denotes Cranial nerve nuclei III, V, VII, and XII, ventral horns of the spinal gray matter, and dorsal root ganglia may be involved.
T39816 428001-428270 Sentence denotes Chromatolysis-like lesions of affected neurons seen by light microscopy have a distinctive ultrastructural appearance in dysautonomia: autophagocytic vacuoles, dilated cisternae, and complex stacks of smooth endoplasmic membranes are in the cytoplasm of affected cells.
T60105 428271-428369 Sentence denotes Neuronal lesions including neuronal loss may be transient and difficult to confirm histologically.
T66247 428370-428530 Sentence denotes Intrinsic disease of intestinal smooth muscle may produce a syndrome of intestinal sclerosis, resembling progressive and thus cause compression of the duodenum.
T91392 428531-428701 Sentence denotes Peritoneal adhesions are common, and fibrous bands may stretch from the wall of the bowel to some fixed point, or between two or more points along the bowel or mesentery.
T72913 428702-428852 Sentence denotes In these cases, obstruction develops gradually as fibrous tissue contracts and restricts or adheres the bowel to itself or other abdominal structures.
T88691 428853-429000 Sentence denotes Large firm masses of abdominal fat necrosis cause extrinsic obstruction of small intestine, spiral colon, or descending colon and rectum of cattle.
T88736 429001-429150 Sentence denotes Pedicles of some tumors, especially mesenteric lipomas in older horses, occasionally entrap loops of intestine causing obstruction and strangulation.
T59865 429151-429285 Sentence denotes Similarly, the ovarian suspensory ligaments may entrap the equine colon if the ovary is enlarged because of neoplasia or inflammation.
T77546 429286-429420 Sentence denotes Incarceration in hernias, discussed with other displacements of the bowel, is also a common cause of extrinsic obstruction of the gut.
T78637 429421-429535 Sentence denotes Adynamic (paralytic) ileus is itself not of specific interest to the pathologist but is a rather common condition.
T83899 429536-429643 Sentence denotes It frequently follows abdominal surgery, especially when the intestines are handled roughly or traumatized.
T73343 429644-429730 Sentence denotes It also is associated with peritoneal irritation of any cause, especially peritonitis.
T60849 429731-429849 Sentence denotes It is the result of neurogenic reflexes that interfere with control of the inhibitory neurons of the myenteric plexus.
T5814 429850-429965 Sentence denotes Continual tonic discharge by these neurons inhibits contraction of circular smooth muscle and prevents peristalsis.
T11608 429966-430061 Sentence denotes Grossly, the intestines are distended with a mixture of gas and fluid, and the wall is flaccid.
T69595 430062-430214 Sentence denotes The defect may be segmental, involving short lengths of the intestinal tract, but many such segments may be involved, especially in diffuse peritonitis.
T71301 430215-430397 Sentence denotes Idiopathic gastric or intestinal ileus may be more common in horses during the postparturient period, and acute colic and gastric rupture may occur in this species as a complication.
T60638 430398-430617 Sentence denotes Pseudo-obstruction, a clinical syndrome described mostly in dogs, in which there is no physical occlusion of the lumen of an impacted intestine, may result from segmental or diffuse neuromuscular dysfunction in the gut.
T38747 430618-430723 Sentence denotes In humans, pseudoobstruction is classified as failure of nervous or muscular components of the intestine.
T10982 430724-430863 Sentence denotes In dogs, fibrosis and cellular infiltration of the tunica muscularis are the most commonly described lesions leading to pseudo-obstruction.
T72681 430864-431170 Sentence denotes In addition to equine congenital aganglionosis discussed previously, pseudoobstruction associated with neuronal loss or ganglioneuritis involving autonomic ganglia in the gastrointestinal tract, systemic dysautonomia, and intrinsic disease of intestinal smooth muscle are recognized among domestic animals.
T11189 431171-431350 Sentence denotes A segment of contracted or thickened bowel may be noted as a cause of obstruction; in neurogenic disease, the affected bowel is often dilated, flaccid and unable to maintain tone.
T71170 431351-431512 Sentence denotes Megacolon in Clydesdale foals associated with hypoganglionosis of the myenteric plexus has been reported in 4-9 month foals from the United States and Australia.
T45196 431513-431657 Sentence denotes The timing of clinical onset of these cases suggests an acquired condition; however, the common breed suggests a genetic basis for the syndrome.
T10570 431658-431708 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis of the condition remains unknown.
T19847 431709-431799 Sentence denotes Some variation in neuron density of the dorsal colonic myenteric plexus has been reported.
T34493 431800-431995 Sentence denotes Grass sickness in horses, the prototypic dysautonomia in domestic animals, occurs chiefly in parts of the United Kingdom, western Europe, and southern South America where it is known as mal seco.
T64465 431996-432224 Sentence denotes The disease more commonly affects young horses with pasture access during the spring An increase in the concentration of dissociated volatile fatty acids, especially butyric acid, causes atony of the cecum, and dilation follows.
T79557 432225-432385 Sentence denotes Cecal dilation occurs more often in cattle that are not receiving mineral supplements and in one study hypocalcemia was found in 85% of cases of cecal dilation.
T71516 432386-432576 Sentence denotes Although it has been suggested that calcium deficiency may cause cecal dilation, this has not been proved and it is not clear whether hypocalcemia is the cause or a result of cecal dilation.
T51468 432577-432771 Sentence denotes Once the cecum is dilated and distended with watery digesta, various degrees of clockwise or counterclockwise rotation can occur, which may incorporate adjacent terminal ileum or proximal colon.
T14671 432772-432836 Sentence denotes In horses, cecal and colonic tympany has a similar pathogenesis.
T58656 432837-433029 Sentence denotes Readily fermentable carbohydrate, following a sudden change in feed, results in an increase in volatile fatty acid production, which exceeds the buffering and absorptive capacity of the organ.
T34290 433030-433189 Sentence denotes As the pH drops, and fermentation shifts to production of the less well-absorbed butyric and lactic acids, water is drawn into the lumen by the osmotic effect.
T81017 433190-433309 Sentence denotes The large bowel dilates with fluid digesta and gas, and motility is reduced by the effects of the volatile fatty acids.
T25407 433310-433550 Sentence denotes Severe abdominal distention, compression of intra-abdominal organs, reduced cardiac return caused by postcaval compression, and reduced respiratory capacity resulting from compression of the diaphragm may follow, with attendant severe pain.
T33701 433551-433634 Sentence denotes Death caused by hypovolemia and acidosis may occur before the large bowel ruptures.
T31349 433635-433802 Sentence denotes In recovered horses, laminitis may occur because of absorption of endotoxin through the cecal mucosa, which becomes eroded and permeable as a result of local acidosis.
T7643 433803-433996 Sentence denotes The large colon of the horse is comprised of a loop of capacious bowel joined along its length by the short mesocolon, and folded upon itself at the sternal, pelvic, and diaphragmatic flexures.
T24327 433997-434089 Sentence denotes The loop is only fixed at its base, by the cecum, the transverse colon, and mesenteric root.
T75270 434090-434178 Sentence denotes Its volume and lack of attachment make the large colon prone to displacement or torsion.
T37183 434179-434306 Sentence denotes Right dorsal displacement of the colon involves displacement of the left segments of the large colon to the right of the cecum.
T31779 434307-434506 Sentence denotes This occurs when the large colon pelvic flexure moves under or around the cecum (clockwise in the standing animal viewed from above), ending up located between the cecum and the right abdominal wall.
T40282 434507-434615 Sentence denotes Consequently, when the carcass is opened from the right side of the body, the left colons are visible first.
T41153 434616-434706 Sentence denotes It presumably results from displacement and wedging of the large colon because of tympany.
T28164 434707-434886 Sentence denotes This displacement is usually preceded by impaction of the pelvic flexure, which then is bent to the left and migrates cranially in the abdomen coming to rest close to the sternum.
T77264 434887-434941 Sentence denotes This is termed right dorsal displacement with flexion.
T33345 434942-435109 Sentence denotes Alternatively, the left colon may move in the opposite direction, caudal and to the right of the base of the cecum, with the pelvic flexure again lying at the sternum.
T10240 435110-435171 Sentence denotes This is termed right dorsal displacement with medial flexion.
T65944 435172-435262 Sentence denotes Some degree of torsion may also occur, and obstruction, with mild to severe colic, ensues.
T23728 435263-435311 Sentence denotes Surgery is required to correct the displacement.
T77567 435312-435583 Sentence denotes Left dorsal displacement of the colon, variously known as entrapment of the colon by the nephrosplenic, renosplenic, or phrenicosplenic ligament, or by the suspensory ligament of the spleen, is also encountered as a cause of obstruction and colic in horses ( Fig. 1-45) .
T61529 435584-435662 Sentence denotes The left dorsal and ventral large systemic sclerosis or scleroderma of humans.
T5673 435663-435784 Sentence denotes In dogs the lesions are restricted to the intestinal tract, where there is diffuse dilation of the small and large bowel.
T4062 435785-435928 Sentence denotes Histologically, mononuclear inflammatory cells infiltrate the smooth muscle of the bowel wall; also there is atrophy of myofibers and fibrosis.
T49226 435929-436052 Sentence denotes Fibrosis of the small intestinal submucosa has also been reported in horses, and in some cases there is arteriolosclerosis.
T5401 436053-436130 Sentence denotes The cause is unknown, although geographical clustering of cases is described.
T20814 436131-436301 Sentence denotes Eventration is displacement of a portion of the gut, usually the small intestine, outside the abdominal cavity, and it has been described in most domestic animal species.
T48952 436302-436453 Sentence denotes This is commonly congenital or predisposed by a congenital anomaly, as in schistosomus reflexus, patent umbilicus, and congenital diaphragmatic hernia.
T67014 436454-436521 Sentence denotes Acquired eventrations result from trauma, and therefore are varied.
T50558 436522-436632 Sentence denotes The displaced intestine herniates into the abdominal muscle or subcutis, or it may be completely exteriorized.
T60913 436633-436704 Sentence denotes Vaginal eventration may occasionally occur in females following trauma.
T79156 436705-436799 Sentence denotes Diaphragmatic eventration may occur as a consequence of diaphragmatic rupture or malformation.
T51282 436800-436866 Sentence denotes In ruminants, cecal dilation and torsion is an uncommon condition.
T30243 436867-437000 Sentence denotes It mainly occurs in animals fed high-concentrate rations, but it has been associated with late gestation and ileus from other causes.
T9049 437001-437056 Sentence denotes It usually occurs within 2 months postpartum in cattle.
T62066 437057-437087 Sentence denotes It is rare in other ruminants.
T9331 437088-437172 Sentence denotes About 30% of the carbohydrates in the ration are digested in the cecum of ruminants.
T25776 437173-437352 Sentence denotes Sudden change from a roughage to a grain-based ration results in an increase in the concentration of volatile fatty acids, with only a slight decrease in pH of the cecal contents.
T26658 437353-437414 Sentence denotes Herniation through a natural foramen occurs mainly in horses.
T87928 437415-437673 Sentence denotes In incarceration in the epiploic foramen, a portion of small intestine, usually distal jejunum and ileum, may pass down into the omental bursa and become incarcerated, if the normally short and slit-like epiploic foramen of Winslow is dilated for any reason.
T25548 437674-437743 Sentence denotes In these circumstances, the wall of the omental bursa often ruptures.
T41606 437744-437846 Sentence denotes Omental hernia occurs when a loop of intestine passes through a tear in the greater or lesser omentum.
T34914 437847-437935 Sentence denotes Mesenteric hernia is the result of passage of intestine through a tear in the mesentery.
T68248 437936-438067 Sentence denotes These are probably traumatic defects and usually involve the mesentery of the small intestine, but occasionally, that of the colon.
T2263 438068-438159 Sentence denotes Pelvic hernia occurs in young ruminants, and rarely in other species, following castration.
T43697 438160-438316 Sentence denotes During the operation, excessive traction on the spermatic cord may tear the peritoneal fold of the ductus deferens, which fixes the duct to the pelvic wall.
T9340 438317-438463 Sentence denotes A hiatus is formed between the ductus deferens and the lateral abdominal or pelvic walls through which loops of intestine may become incarcerated.
T37453 438464-438724 Sentence denotes Gut may also become incarcerated by passing through lacerations in the lateral ligament of the bladder, or through entrapment by the remnant of a persistent urachus, by the gastrosplenic ligament, and by mesodiverticular or vitelloumbilical bands in the horse.
T20776 438725-438938 Sentence denotes External hernia typically consists of a hernial sac formed as a pouch of parietal peritoneum; a covering of skin and soft tissues; depending on the location of the hernia, a hernial ring; and the hernial contents.
T12130 438939-439096 Sentence denotes The hernial ring is an opening in the abdominal wall, and this may be acquired, or it may be natural as, for example, the vaginal ring at the inguinal canal.
T72817 439097-439408 Sentence denotes The hernia usually contains a portion of omentum, a colon move laterally and dorsally between the spleen and the left body wall, and become entrapped, with the spleen to the left and below, the suspensory ligament of the spleen below, the left kidney on the medial aspect, and the abdominal wall dorsolaterally.
T76085 439409-439555 Sentence denotes As the colon becomes entrapped it rotates along its axis with the result that the ventral colon lies dorsally and the dorsal colon lies ventrally.
T33845 439556-439700 Sentence denotes The colon caudal to the entrapment may become curved cranially, with the pelvic flexure rotated through 180 o because of tension on the taeniae.
T40406 439701-439831 Sentence denotes If the weight of the displaced colon is supported by the nephrosplenic ligament, the spleen may move away from the left body wall.
T56240 439832-439918 Sentence denotes The weight of the colon may also compress the splenic vein causing splenic congestion.
T31925 439919-440130 Sentence denotes Compression of the colon at the point of entrapment can cause impairment of the flow of ingesta, local bruising or edema and partial ischemia of the displaced organ, and results in partial or complete impaction.
T90025 440131-440190 Sentence denotes If the gut remains patent, clinical signs are intermittent.
T35065 440191-440277 Sentence denotes The cecum and small intestine may be distended as a result of the colonic obstruction.
T30497 440278-440445 Sentence denotes The cause of left dorsal displacement is unknown, but may be related to an anatomic predisposition resulting from a large cleft between the spleen and the left kidney.
T59680 440446-440522 Sentence denotes Colonic volvulus is one of the most common and grave colic causes in horses.
T63277 440523-440668 Sentence denotes The loop of large colon, with or without the cecum, may rotate around itself at some point along its length, or around the root of the mesentery.
T9670 440669-440822 Sentence denotes The condition is lifethreatening because of severe vascular embarrassment, and is discussed further under the section Intestinal ischemia and infarction.
T25489 440823-440966 Sentence denotes This is a displacement of intestine through normal or pathological foramina within the abdominal cavity without the formation of a hernial sac.
T61309 440967-440982 Sentence denotes It is uncommon.
T2310 440984-441059 Sentence denotes inguinal ring and canal, through which the omentum and the uterus may pass.
T25242 441060-441144 Sentence denotes The herniated uterus may become incarcerated when pregnant, or if pyometra develops.
T76141 441145-441264 Sentence denotes In horses, indirect inguinal hernias may rupture through the inguinal canal, coming to rest in a subcutaneous location.
T70557 441265-441374 Sentence denotes These ruptured indirect hernias have a similar prognosis as the direct inguinal hernias described previously.
T63730 441375-441499 Sentence denotes Femoral hernias develop as an outpouching of peritoneum through the femoral triangle along the course of the femoral artery.
T29030 441500-441541 Sentence denotes They contain omentum and small intestine.
T24201 441542-441652 Sentence denotes Perineal hernias occur principally in old male dogs in association with prostatic enlargement and obstipation.
T69435 441653-441817 Sentence denotes They are precipitated by abdominal straining and are probably predisposed to by weakening of perineal fascia and muscles from some unknown cause, possibly hormonal.
T3722 441818-441851 Sentence denotes They are very unusual in females.
T686 441852-441986 Sentence denotes Retroperitoneal pelvic fat bulges through a defect between the coccygeus medialis muscle and the cranial border of the anal sphincter.
T15434 441987-442120 Sentence denotes Usually this is the only tissue to prolapse, and the lesion consists, essentially, of a loss of support on one side of the anal ring.
T25429 442121-442244 Sentence denotes Concomitant with the loss of pelvic support the rectum deviates, and the prostate and the bladder may move into the pelvis.
T33804 442245-442400 Sentence denotes Further displacement may occur occasionally and then the latter organs are forced through the ruptured perineal fascia, causing acute urethral obstruction.
T20743 442401-442480 Sentence denotes Perineal hernias are most commonly unilateral, but bilateral hernias may occur.
T48489 442481-442514 Sentence denotes Diaphragmatic hernias are common.
T58850 442515-442649 Sentence denotes The defect in the diaphragm may be congenital, but most often it is acquired, generally as the result of increased abdominal pressure.
T8969 442650-442747 Sentence denotes Although abdominal viscera pass into the thoracic cavity, strangulation of displaced gut is rare.
T53940 442748-442868 Sentence denotes Acquired diaphragmatic hernias are considered more fully in the section Traumatic lesions of the abdomen and peritoneum.
T43081 442869-443015 Sentence denotes Prepubic hernias occur in small animals, usually associated with severe trauma to the caudal abdomen that produces rupture of the prepubic tendon.
T47025 443016-443121 Sentence denotes The sequelae of hernias depend largely on their location and content, but some generalities apply to all.
T95371 443122-443225 Sentence denotes As long as the hernial contents remain freely movable and reducible, there may be no untoward sequelae.
T12667 443226-443300 Sentence denotes Fixation of the hernial contents (incarceration) is a serious development.
T99628 443301-443453 Sentence denotes Incarceration may result from stenosis or tension of the hernial ring, adhesion between the contents and the sac, or distention of the herniated viscus.
T98921 443454-443662 Sentence denotes This distention may be due mainly to mural congestion and edema in any incarcerated viscus, accumulated gas or ingesta in the intestine, urine in a herniated bladder, and fetuses or pus in a herniated uterus.
T48391 443663-443773 Sentence denotes Incarcerated intestine may become obstructed, or undergo ischemic necrosis and perforate, causing peritonitis.
T94625 443774-443916 Sentence denotes Small intestine fixed by incarceration may be predisposed to volvulus. freely mobile portion of the intestine and occasionally, other viscera.
T30419 443917-444111 Sentence denotes Ventral hernia of the abdominal wall occurs uncommonly in horses, rarely in cattle, and exceptionally in other species, except perhaps following blunt trauma or biting injuries in small animals.
T11925 444112-444414 Sentence denotes These hernias through the abdominal musculature into the subcutaneous tissue, may be spontaneous in heavily pregnant females, especially older animals, or be a consequence of blunt trauma, bite wounds, horn injuries, surgical scars, or inflammations, which cause weakening or perforation of the muscle.
T42934 444415-444564 Sentence denotes In pregnant mares, they often occur in the lower flank lateral to the mammae, where there is only a single layer of muscle, the transverse abdominal.
T42218 444565-444674 Sentence denotes They may become very large in herbivores because of the weight of the alimentary viscera and pregnant uterus.
T37165 444675-444813 Sentence denotes The lesion must be differentiated from rupture of the prepubic tendon, and from postmortem rupture of abdominal muscle in bloated animals.
T31608 444814-444907 Sentence denotes Umbilical hernia is common and is often present as a congenital and perhaps inherited defect.
T57194 444908-445017 Sentence denotes It is most frequent in pigs, foals, calves, and pups and depends on persistent patency of the umbilical ring.
T76402 445018-445141 Sentence denotes It is the most common congenital defect in cattle and has a hereditary component in the Holstein and probably other breeds.
T94534 445142-445212 Sentence denotes In calves it is also significantly predisposed by umbilical infection.
T91934 445213-445322 Sentence denotes The hernial sac is formed by peritoneum and skin; the contents depend on the size of the ring and of the sac.
T32106 445323-445371 Sentence denotes Incarceration of enclosed intestine is uncommon.
T9525 445372-445491 Sentence denotes Formation of an enterocutaneous fistula, a rare complication of umbilical hernia, is seen most frequently in the horse.
T215 445492-445593 Sentence denotes Inguinal hernia may evolve to scrotal hernia when the herniated viscera pass down the inguinal canal.
T31929 445594-445750 Sentence denotes The internal, or deep, inguinal ring remains patent in intact male animals, but its diameter and the tendency to herniation in the neonate may be inherited.
T59115 445751-445805 Sentence denotes Inguinal hernias are classified as direct or indirect.
T74711 445806-446043 Sentence denotes In direct inguinal hernia, which is less common, abdominal contents pass through the internal inguinal ring and come to rest in a subcutaneous position, through a tear in either the peritoneum or the fascia around the deep inguinal ring.
T40323 446044-446184 Sentence denotes This is most commonly seen in foals and is thought to result from increased intra-abdominal pressure during passage through the birth canal.
T26330 446185-446301 Sentence denotes These direct inguinal hernias often cause necrosis of overlying skin, can become fixed by adhesions and strangulate.
T44139 446302-446328 Sentence denotes They are life threatening.
T9296 446329-446437 Sentence denotes Indirect inguinal hernias, by contrast, consist of abdominal contents contained within the tunica vaginalis.
T51383 446438-446585 Sentence denotes These are by far the most common form, occurring as a congenital problem in the young of many species, and as an acquired problem in older animals.
T13747 446586-446704 Sentence denotes Although size of the inguinal rings may be a factor in neonates, there is usually no apparent cause in acquired cases.
T43034 446705-446870 Sentence denotes The herniated viscus passes through the inguinal and vaginal rings within the vaginal sheath, coming to lie in the scrotum inside the cavity of the tunica vaginalis.
T95258 446871-446940 Sentence denotes If the hernia is scrotal, there may be degeneration of the testicles.
T86358 446941-447102 Sentence denotes Routine castration of such animals can lead to eventration through the scrotal incision, and closed castration may cause infarction of the herniated loop of gut.
T12790 447103-447257 Sentence denotes Congenital inguinal hernia is rare in dogs; West Highland Whites, Pekingese, and Basenjis may be predisposed, and it is more common in males than females.
T5361 447258-447327 Sentence denotes However, overall, inguinal hernia is much more common in female dogs.
T96415 447328-447408 Sentence denotes The bitch differs from females of other species in having a patent after 1 hour.
T67106 447409-447563 Sentence denotes However, by 3-4 hours, crypt epithelium is becoming necrotic, dissociating and exfoliating, and from that point events progress as in the small intestine.
T62934 447564-447777 Sentence denotes Reperfusion injury, superimposed on the effects of ischemia alone, may enhance the severity of the lesion, if hypoxia is only partial or ischemia is transient, and reflow of blood raises the tissue oxygen tension.
T80502 447778-447986 Sentence denotes Reperfusion injury implies that the effects of the hypoxic episode have not progressed to complete necrosis of the mucosa, and that further damage is possible because of oxygen free radicals and/or cytokines.
T54383 447987-448138 Sentence denotes Hence, there is a relatively short duration of hypoxia, and a concomitant mild-to-intermediate degree of mucosal damage, permissive of this phenomenon.
T20995 448139-448313 Sentence denotes In cases of enteric ischemic disease encountered in veterinary medicine, this threshold may frequently have been crossed by the time that the animal is presented for therapy.
T53395 448314-448489 Sentence denotes In addition, there is evidence that in swine and in horses, where intestinal ischemic events are most common, reperfusion injury is less likely to occur than in other species.
T17616 448490-448677 Sentence denotes Because reperfusion injury may cause necrosis and/or apoptosis, it is almost impossible to differentiate morphologically the changes produced by ischemia from those of reperfusion injury.
T71489 448678-449002 Sentence denotes Reperfusion injury is the result of the interplay among free-radical-mediated damage to the microvasculature and probably stromal elements and epithelium; neutrophil margination and diapedesis into tissue; complement activation; and release of proinflammatory proteins and cytokines, some of which may have systemic effects.
T81788 449003-449250 Sentence denotes Free radicals in reperfusion injury are largely generated through xanthine oxidase mechanisms in the intestinal mucosa, and through NADPH oxidase mechanisms in leukocytes, mainly neutrophils, already resident in or recruited to the damaged tissue.
T7268 449251-449351 Sentence denotes Hypoxia stimulates the conversion of xanthine dehydrogenase to xanthine oxidase in epithelial cells.
T21343 449352-449668 Sentence denotes In the presence of xanthine oxidase, hypoxanthine accumulating from adenosine triphosphate degradation in hypoxia is converted to xanthine, and molecular oxygen is reduced, generating hydrogen peroxide, superoxide radical and hydroxyl radical intermediates, which inhibit the accumulation of protective nitric oxide.
T64651 449669-449862 Sentence denotes The hydroxyl radical is likely most significant in damaging proteins and initiating a cascade of lipid peroxidation, resulting in metabolic and structural lesions and culminating in cell death.
T19752 449863-450086 Sentence denotes The acute inflammatory response that accompanies reperfusion results in production of free radicals by the respiratory burst from neutrophils, release of proteolytic enzymes, and physical impairment of the microcirculation.
T14463 450087-450377 Sentence denotes Reduction in tissue nitric oxide permits dismutation of oxygen free radicals to H 2 O 2 , which promotes activation of phospholipase, accumulation of proinflammatory mediators, and production of cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-α and -β, interleukins) and adhesion molecules by endothelium.
T64061 450378-450601 Sentence denotes Complement activation is mediated by adhesion molecules, promoting inflammatory events and release of cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-1, as well as other cytokines that increase during reperfusion.
T51426 450602-450665 Sentence denotes Sequelae of ischemia vary with duration and severity of insult.
T58669 450666-450889 Sentence denotes Short-term ischemia (maximally, ~3-4 hours), with preservation of at least the base of the crypts of Lieberkühn, will permit repair, as cells proliferating in the crypts re-epithelialize the mucosal surface within 1-3 days.
T26008 450890-451004 Sentence denotes Normal architecture is re-established after up to 1-2 weeks, although necrotic muscularis mucosae is not replaced.
T95538 451005-451033 Sentence denotes Effusion of tissue fluid and
T2918 451035-451140 Sentence denotes Inadequate or interrupted circulation of blood to the gut is a common problem, particularly in the horse.
T65836 451141-451290 Sentence denotes Obstruction of the efferent veins, blockage of afferent arteries, and reduced flow through an open circulation cause hypoxic damage to the intestine.
T37525 451291-451382 Sentence denotes Whatever the initiating cause, the effect of hypoxia at the level of the mucosa is similar.
T64504 451383-451595 Sentence denotes In the small intestine, within 5-10 minutes of the onset of ischemia, changes are observed at the tips of villi in tissue sections examined under the light microscope, and lesions are well advanced by 30 minutes.
T29143 451596-451778 Sentence denotes Separation of the epithelium from the basement membrane, beginning at the tip of the villus and progressing toward the base, causes the formation of the so-called Gruenhagen's space.
T65718 451779-451865 Sentence denotes Epithelial cells appear relatively normal, and may separate from the villus in sheets.
T34684 451866-451915 Sentence denotes The core of the villus contracts toward the base.
T28308 451916-452090 Sentence denotes Within 1-3 hours, the villus is almost completely denuded of epithelium, and the mesenchymal core is disintegrating or collapsed and stumpy, with hemorrhage from capillaries.
T33859 452091-452172 Sentence denotes Superficial epithelium may persist for several hours in the crypts of Lieberkühn.
T5477 452173-452354 Sentence denotes That this lesion is largely a function of hypoxia is indicated by the mitigating effects of intraluminal perfusion of oxygenated saline demonstrated experimentally in dogs and cats.
T4727 452355-452601 Sentence denotes The putative countercurrent exchange of oxygen between the afferent arteriole and efferent venules in the villus, and an associated progressive decline in oxygen tension distally in the villus, may render the tip prone to early damage in hypoxia.
T4351 452602-452753 Sentence denotes Villus smooth-muscle contraction, exacerbating the epithelial exfoliation on the distal villus, may be mediated by sympathetic stimulation in ischemia.
T49976 452754-452991 Sentence denotes Dissociation and necrosis of cells in the crypts of Lieberkühn begin ∼2-4 hours after the initiation of ischemia, and within 4-5 hours the epithelium appears completely necrotic or has sloughed, leaving a mesenchymal ghost of the mucosa.
T7334 452992-453093 Sentence denotes The muscularis mucosae may undergo necrosis, but the muscularis externa remains viable for 6-7 hours.
T88897 453094-453293 Sentence denotes During acute ischemia, there is initial hyperexcitability of muscle in affected areas, followed by progressive loss of contractility, which will fail to recover if ischemia persists beyond 4-6 hours.
T74331 453294-453491 Sentence denotes Mesothelial cells on the serosa undergo necrosis within 30-60 minutes of ischemia, and exfoliate; there is a local acute inflammatory response, which may predispose to the development of adhesions.
T51564 453492-453636 Sentence denotes The speed with which lesions develop in hypoxia emphasizes the significance of rapid fixation of intestinal mucosa if artifact is to be avoided.
T68991 453637-453745 Sentence denotes Differentiation between post mortem autolysis and necrosis can be particularly challenging in the intestine.
T99091 453746-454011 Sentence denotes A few useful hints to help determining autolysis versus necrosis include hemolysis of red blood cells, large numbers of rods within blood vessels and tissues not associated with inflammation, gas bubbles in the tissues and desquamation of slabs of epithelial cells.
T74465 454012-454112 Sentence denotes The colon of the dog and horse seems less sensitive to short-term ischemia than the small intestine.
T26967 454113-454379 Sentence denotes Mild morphologic damage, characterized by mild edema, and separation and exfoliation of surface epithelium between crypts, is found lumen of the stagnant ischemic area, with accumulation of gas, and extreme distention of the closed loop in strangulation obstruction.
T83148 454380-454540 Sentence denotes Toxin production by anaerobes, particularly clostridia, plays a large part in gangrene and ultimate rupture of ischemic gut, as well as having systemic effects.
T81902 454541-454685 Sentence denotes Absorption of endotoxins and exotoxins from the lumen may occur through devitalized mucosa via the portal flow, lymphatic return, or peritoneum.
T17473 454686-454790 Sentence denotes Toxins have a severe detrimental effect on cardiovascular function, contributing to circulatory failure.
T44301 454791-454976 Sentence denotes If death from some other cause does not supervene, transmural invasion by enteric bacteria or perforation of the devitalized wall results in septic peritonitis that is ultimately fatal.
T8830 454977-455062 Sentence denotes Obstruction of efferent veins is by far the most common cause of intestinal ischemia.
T50739 455063-455327 Sentence denotes This is a sequel to incarceration of herniated loops of bowel; strangulation by pedunculated masses, such as lipomas in older horses; torsion (twist about the long axis of the viscus); volvulus (twist of the intestine on its mesenteric axis ); and intussusception.
T25261 455328-455450 Sentence denotes In these circumstances, compression of thin-walled veins tends to occur before the influx of arterial blood is obstructed.
T45053 455451-455702 Sentence denotes In venous infarction, the affected tissue field, often including involved mesentery, becomes intensely edematous, congested, and hemorrhagic, so that the hypoxic bowel wall is thickened and eventually assumes a deep red-black appearance ( Fig. 1-47 ).
T49819 455703-455821 Sentence denotes It has been estimated that 40 liters of fluid may accumulate in the wall of a horse colon that has undergone volvulus.
T31834 455822-455894 Sentence denotes Bloody fluid content and gas distend the lumen of the infarcted segment.
T62300 455895-456055 Sentence denotes As gangrene of the intestinal wall proceeds, the tissue becomes green-black, and septic peritonitis eventually ensues, with or without perforation of the bowel.
T39444 456056-456232 Sentence denotes Advanced venous infarction involves the full thickness of the intestinal wall, and the initiating intestinal accident is commonly evident, except in cases subjected to surgery.
T60609 456233-456454 Sentence denotes Even if a displacement has been reduced, the limits of the infarcted segment are usually relatively sharply demarcated, and the acute inflammatory cells prevails until epithelium extends to cover the eroded surface fully.
T40201 456455-456628 Sentence denotes Partial damage to the proliferative compartment initially results in dilation of crypts, which are lined by flattened epithelium resembling that seen after radiation injury.
T93978 456629-456810 Sentence denotes If the amplifier population of progenitor cells can be regenerated, hyperplastic basophilic cells will populate crypts until the mucosal architecture is reconstituted ( Fig. 1-46) .
T99074 456811-457013 Sentence denotes Ischemic necrosis of the full thickness of the mucosa will be bounded by an acute inflammatory reaction in the submucosa, which, under favorable conditions, evolves into a granulating ulcerated surface.
T22153 457014-457183 Sentence denotes Focal ulcerative lesions may ultimately heal by epithelial migration over the bed of granulation tissue from surviving crypts within the lesion and around the periphery.
T94094 457184-457313 Sentence denotes Extensive mucosal ulcers that form following severe ischemia have little chance of resolution, owing to their large surface area.
T59048 457314-457461 Sentence denotes Chronic ischemic ulcers in the small bowel tend to develop a depressed, fairly clean granulating surface, occasionally with some fibrinous exudate.
T7933 457462-457572 Sentence denotes Ischemic ulcers in the large bowel, especially of horses, develop a dirty yellow-gray fibrinonecrotic surface.
T43996 457573-457740 Sentence denotes If the animal does not succumb to the effects of malabsorption and protein loss from the defect, or to transmural bacterial invasion, scarring and stricture may occur.
T2850 457741-457974 Sentence denotes The sequelae of ischemia with reflow are mainly seen in strangulated segments of gut that have been reduced without resection, or with inadequate resection, and in some cases of presumed thromboembolic infarction of the equine colon.
T12547 457975-458044 Sentence denotes Persistent ischemia results in necrosis involving all mural elements.
T25761 458045-458152 Sentence denotes The full thickness of the gut wall ultimately becomes necrotic, green-brown or black, flaccid, and friable.
T43863 458153-458263 Sentence denotes The consequences of ischemic lesions are partly a function of the species, and of the level of bowel affected.
T50430 458264-458374 Sentence denotes Strangulation, volvulus, and similar lesions cause physical obstruction at the site, and ileus proximal to it.
T93116 458375-458461 Sentence denotes Reduced arterial perfusion or thromboembolism causes functional obstruction and ileus.
T8532 458462-458614 Sentence denotes Loss of mucosal integrity results in cessation of electrolyte and water absorption, and ultimately in effusion of tissue fluid and blood into the lumen.
T21591 458615-458683 Sentence denotes Proliferation of anaerobes occurs in the and eventually endotoxemia.
T51946 458684-458738 Sentence denotes Part of the cecum may be incorporated in the volvulus.
T37588 458739-458853 Sentence denotes The equine cecum alone rarely undergoes torsion, and if so, it may be related to hypoplasia of the cecocolic fold.
T19143 458854-459047 Sentence denotes At surgery or autopsy, the usual signs of strangulation obstruction are evident, including dilation and devitalization of the infarcted segment and distension of the cecum if it is not twisted.
T20005 459048-459131 Sentence denotes Postmortem rupture of the diaphragm or abdominal wall may occur because of tympany.
T52067 459132-459231 Sentence denotes Duodenal sigmoid flexure volvulus is a recently described and unusual lesion of adult dairy cattle.
T16863 459232-459439 Sentence denotes The sigmoid flexure of the duodenum is first displaced in a dorsolateral direction, and then rotates about its omental attachment causing obstruction of the proximal small intestine and the common bile duct.
T46595 459440-459555 Sentence denotes The cause is unknown but this condition has been associated with prior surgical correction of a displaced abomasum.
T66658 459556-459749 Sentence denotes Intussusception involves the telescoping of one segment of bowel (the intussusceptum) into an outer sheath formed by another, usually distal, segment of gut (the intussuscipiens) ( Fig. 1-48 ).
T27695 459750-459823 Sentence denotes Any level of the gut with sufficient mesenteric mobility may be involved.
T30830 459824-460026 Sentence denotes The naming convention is that the intussusceptum is followed by the intussuscipiens; hence an ileocolic intussusception is a normograde intussusception in which the ileum has invaginated into the colon.
T38762 460027-460222 Sentence denotes The cause is usually not apparent, although linear foreign bodies, heavy parasitism, previous intestinal surgery, enteritis, and intramural lesions such as abscesses and tumors may be associated.
T73934 460223-460278 Sentence denotes It also may be a terminal, agonal, or postmortem event.
T16729 460279-460412 Sentence denotes The history is that of partial or complete intestinal obstruction, perhaps with bloody feces, and it is most common in young animals.
T85934 460413-460489 Sentence denotes Intussusception is common in dogs, in which most frequently it is ileocolic.
T23066 460490-460521 Sentence denotes It is much less common in cats.
T6563 460522-460655 Sentence denotes Intussusception is also moderately common in lambs, calves, and young horses, where it may involve small intestine, cecum, and colon.
T54122 460656-460954 Sentence denotes The progressive invagination of the leading edge of the intussusceptum into the distal segment results in the wall of the intussusception being comprised of 3 layers: (1) the inner entering, (2) middle returning, segment of invaginated bowel, and (3) the outer wall of the receiving segment of gut.
T52620 460955-461010 Sentence denotes It is affected bowel remains edematous and hemorrhagic.
T41342 461011-461193 Sentence denotes Microscopically, severe transmural edema, congestion, distention of veins, sometimes venous thrombosis, and hemorrhage are present, initially most severe in the mucosa and submucosa.
T1423 461194-461368 Sentence denotes With time, the full thickness of the mucosa becomes necrotic, and the deeper layers of the muscular wall are also devitalized, with invading enteric flora present throughout.
T87160 461369-461665 Sentence denotes Lesions that have advanced to significant necrosis or effacement of the crypt epithelium are associated with failure of the animal to survive, resulting from either euthanasia on the grounds of the degree of damage, or systemic complications despite correction of the strangulation, or resection.
T96031 461666-461818 Sentence denotes Displacements of intestine that may progress to incarceration or volvulus with strangulation and infarction have been discussed in the previous section.
T50728 461819-461876 Sentence denotes They are a common cause of colic and mortality in horses.
T18351 461877-462043 Sentence denotes Mesenteric volvulus (often referred to as "mesenteric torsion") occurs commonly in suckling ruminants and in swine, uncommonly in horses, and rarely in cats and dogs.
T82400 462044-462181 Sentence denotes The abdomen is distended and, upon opening the cavity, tensely dilated deep red-to-black loops of bowel are usually immediately apparent.
T55194 462182-462359 Sentence denotes In swine the mesentery of the small intestine and sometimes the large bowel is involved in a volvulus that is usually counterclockwise, when viewed from the ventrocaudal aspect.
T45219 462360-462540 Sentence denotes In volvulus involving the small and large intestines, the apex of the cecum may be pointing cranial in the cranial left quadrant of the abdomen, reflecting the rotation of ∼180 o .
T54883 462541-462723 Sentence denotes In swine, mesenteric volvulus may be due to gas production from a highly fermentable substrate in the colon, and its subsequent displacement, with progression to mesenteric volvulus.
T51734 462724-462843 Sentence denotes Mesenteric volvulus is a common cause of sporadic sudden death in swine but may occur as a recurrent problem in a herd.
T62028 462844-462951 Sentence denotes Many cases of intestinal hemorrhage syndrome in that species are probably misdiagnosed mesenteric volvulus.
T24908 462952-463050 Sentence denotes Death caused by mesenteric volvulus is common in suckling or artificially reared calves and lambs.
T83016 463051-463226 Sentence denotes In these species, vigorous ingestion of large amounts of feed over a short period may predispose to gas formation in the gut, or perhaps hypermotility, which induces volvulus.
T33351 463227-463418 Sentence denotes Usually only the mucosa of the proximal duodenum and terminal ileum, cecum, and colon is spared from infarction, although occasionally volvulus is restricted to shorter segments of intestine.
T24731 463419-463481 Sentence denotes Similar lesions are occasionally encountered in other species.
T26248 463482-463627 Sentence denotes In dogs, volvulus has been associated with ingestion of large quantities of food, and with exocrine pancreatic insufficiency in German Shepherds.
T47497 463628-463679 Sentence denotes It is occasionally accompanied by gastric volvulus.
T2302 463680-463870 Sentence denotes Volvulus of various lengths of the small intestine may occur in any species, but is perhaps most prevalent in the horse, where it is a common cause of strangulation obstruction of the bowel.
T16824 463871-463987 Sentence denotes The large colon of the horse is predisposed to volvulus by its lack of mesenteric anchorage, and potential mobility.
T74466 463988-464198 Sentence denotes Although frequently referred to as large colon torsion, this condition is a true volvulus, because the twist involves the mesentery between the ventral and dorsal colon at the level of the ceco-colic mesentery.
T42518 464199-464375 Sentence denotes The volvulus begins with the right ventral colon rotating medially and dorsally (clockwise as seen from behind); the severity of the rotation can vary between 270 o and 720 o .
T75758 464376-464703 Sentence denotes If the twist exceeds 360 o , there is obstruction of the lumen of the colon with subsequent accumulation of gas, ischemia of the majority of dorsal and ventral colon wall and occasionally transmural focal or segmental infarctive lesions are seen in Pasteurella septicemia in lambs and in Histophilus somni bacteremia in cattle.
T91131 464704-464852 Sentence denotes Most cases of embolic disease are associated with bacterial infections that cause softening and lysis of thrombi and facilitate formation of emboli.
T40079 464853-465044 Sentence denotes This is particularly true for the lesions associated with strongyle migrations in horses, in which lesions remain localized unless thrombi induced by the parasite become secondarily infected.
T28186 465045-465209 Sentence denotes In horses it is associated with endoarteritis, mainly at the root of the cranial mesenteric circulation, caused by migrating larvae of Strongylus vulgaris (see Vol.
T97090 465210-465236 Sentence denotes 3, Cardiovascular system).
T84522 465237-465314 Sentence denotes Effective worm control programs have rendered this problem increasingly rare.
T30918 465315-465663 Sentence denotes Candidates for a diagnosis of nonstrangulating infarction are animals in which the anatomic distribution of an ischemic lesion is incompatible with volvulus or other strangulation, or physical evidence for incarceration or strangulation obstruction is not present in the surgical history or at autopsy, and there is evidence of verminous arteritis.
T77533 465664-465799 Sentence denotes Careful consideration should be given to the fact that verminous arteritis can be present in horses without embolic intestinal lesions.
T8424 465800-465926 Sentence denotes Therefore the presence of the former does not definitely prove that intestinal infarction was produced by verminous arteritis.
T57550 465927-466183 Sentence denotes Typically, ischemic lesions of this type are limited to the "watersheds" at the periphery of the colic and cecal arterial circulatory fields-the pelvic flexure and the distal cecumbecause collateral circulation within these circulatory fields is extensive.
T62346 466184-466381 Sentence denotes Lesions limited essentially to the mucosa usually appear to be subacute, the result of ischemia of relatively short duration, and are ulcerative or fibrinonecrotic, usually with a hyperemic margin.
T5613 466382-466446 Sentence denotes They may be tens to many hundreds of square centimeters in area.
T89754 466447-466504 Sentence denotes Transmural lesions represent ischemia of longer duration.
T88694 466505-466680 Sentence denotes Devitalized gray-brown intestine of normal thickness is interpreted to represent arterial obstruction without significant reflow, except along the boundary with viable tissue.
T91287 466681-466941 Sentence denotes Large edematous, congested, or hemorrhagic, full-thickness lesions, physically or anatomically inconsistent with strangulation, are interpreted as severe arterial obstruction, with subsequent reflow either by relief of the obstruction or by way of collaterals.
T24452 466942-467096 Sentence denotes Ischemic damage to vessels of the mucosa, submucosa, and perhaps deeper structures results in hemorrhage and edema when blood flow returns ( Fig. 1-50A ).
T28110 467097-467226 Sentence denotes Ulcerative or fibrinonecrotic mucosal lesions are probably the result of transient ischemia with subsequent reflow (Fig. 1-50B ).
T17145 467227-467458 Sentence denotes Similar lesions may occur after relief of strangulation of short duration, and in NSAID drug toxicosis, salmonellosis, and infections by C. difficile or C. perfringens type C, all of which involve, in part, mucosal microthrombosis.
T42034 467459-467565 Sentence denotes Ischemia caused by reduced perfusion of the intestinal vascular bed is a difficult and uncommon diagnosis.
T93620 467566-468161 Sentence denotes Circumstances in which it may be expected to occur include severe hypovolemic states, such as hemorrhagic shock in the dog, cat, and possibly other species; in animals, particularly dogs, with disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC); in dogs with hepatic disease and portal hypertension; in hypotensive shock caused by heart failure; and in animals with reduced mesenteric arterial perfusion, mainly horses with severe verminous endoarteritis. limited in length by the increasing tension on the mesentery drawn into the lesion, to ∼10-12 cm in small animals, and ∼20-30 cm in large animals.
T1180 468162-468248 Sentence denotes This tension along one edge of the gut may cause the mass to become bowed or spiraled.
T64960 468249-468368 Sentence denotes Tension and compression of mesenteric veins cause the intussusceptum, or a portion of it, to undergo venous infarction.
T58680 468369-468528 Sentence denotes It swells with edema and congestion, and the adjacent apposed serosal surfaces become adherent as fibrin and inflammatory cells effuse from the affected bowel.
T24604 468529-468586 Sentence denotes Adhesion quickly renders the intussusception irreducible.
T48480 468587-468803 Sentence denotes Necrosis and gangrene of the invaginated intestine usually develop, but sometimes the intussusceptum sloughs, and the remaining viable segments maintain continuity of the gut, or rarely, form two adjacent blind ends.
T68197 468804-468922 Sentence denotes Intestine cranial to the obstructing intussusception may be dilated, and that distal contracted and devoid of content.
T80056 468923-469025 Sentence denotes If obstruction is chronic or partial, there may be hypertrophy of the smooth muscle of proximal bowel.
T74987 469026-469124 Sentence denotes In horses, chronic ileocecal intussusception involves a relatively short (<10 cm) length of bowel.
T44116 469125-469289 Sentence denotes Incidental terminal, agonal, or postmortem intussusception is recognized by the relative absence of congestion, edema, and adhesion of the involuted segment of gut.
T33598 469290-469576 Sentence denotes Cecal inversion, and cecocolic intussusception in the horse, with inversion of the cecum into itself, or into the right ventral colon ( Fig. 1-49) , may result in ischemia of the cecum and possibly part of the involved colon; if partial, ischemia usually involves the more distal cecum.
T97342 469577-469724 Sentence denotes Cecocolic intussusception in horses has been associated with typhlocolitis caused by Salmonella spp., cyathostomiasis, or Anoplocephala perfoliata.
T67147 469725-470029 Sentence denotes Segmental ischemic necrosis of the small colon may occur in pregnant or postpartum mares, because of mesenteric tension from intussusception and rectal prolapse of the distal large bowel, or perhaps because of laceration of the mesocolon and associated vessels by the feet of the foal during parturition.
T65730 470030-470111 Sentence denotes Colic, and intestinal obstruction, necrosis, rupture, and peritonitis may follow.
T2956 470112-470224 Sentence denotes Ischemia of the gut caused by arterial thrombosis and embolism is rare in domestic animals other than the horse.
T84342 470225-470356 Sentence denotes Mucosal endotoxemia may contribute to mucosal ischemia by obstructing capillaries in the villi, and mucosal and submucosal venules.
T19323 470357-470628 Sentence denotes Microthrombi in these vessels in association with hemorrhagic mucosal necrosis suggest the possibility of ischemia caused by "slow flow." Transient or incomplete reduction in perfusion caused by obstruction of the arterial blood supply has a similar effect on the mucosa.
T78560 470629-470733 Sentence denotes The obstruction may be due to arteriospasm, perhaps induced by vasoactive mediators such as thromboxane.
T81398 470734-470814 Sentence denotes Mucosa devitalized by hypoxia will become hemorrhagic with continued blood flow.
T75517 470815-471245 Sentence denotes Because the primary problem may not involve a systemic state as complicated as severe shock, the animal may survive long enough to develop an effusive ulcerated or pseudomembranous mucosa, with some prospect of stabilization or repair, if the lesion is not widespread. "Slow flow" caused by reduced arterial perfusion with inadequate collateral flow may be expected to affect the "watershed" of a circulatory field preferentially.
T27482 471246-471563 Sentence denotes In the horse this may be the explanation for mucosal lesions at the pelvic flexure and apex of the cecum in which thromboembolism cannot be implicated, but in which mural thrombi in the cranial mesenteric root could have caused significantly reduced perfusion or flushed vasoconstrictive thromboxane into circulation.
T93436 471564-471689 Sentence denotes Transient or noninfarctive "slow flow" has been proposed as a cause of intermittent colic resulting from verminous arteritis.
T60875 471690-471823 Sentence denotes It may also play a role in the development of functional obstruction and volvulus in horses with cranial mesenteric arterial lesions.
T29859 471824-471963 Sentence denotes Ischemia at the periphery of the circulatory field of the caudal mesenteric artery may possibly predispose to rectal perforation in horses.
T25852 471964-472103 Sentence denotes The precarious perfusion of the mucosa at this site may contribute to ischemic ulceration and the development of rectal stricture in swine.
T8353 472104-472240 Sentence denotes In many cases this condition appears to be associated with Salmonella infection, and it is discussed further with porcine salmonellosis.
T51324 472241-472392 Sentence denotes Acute acorn poisoning in the horse may cause severe gastrointestinal edema and focal hemorrhage, with infarction and ulceration in the cecum and colon.
T37005 472393-472598 Sentence denotes Microscopic lesions in the small and large intestine are consistent with an ischemic pathogenesis, and microthrombi have been associated with mucosal infarcts in the large bowel as well as in other organs.
T48431 472599-472799 Sentence denotes Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) cause ulceration of the upper small intestine and colon, as well as oral and gastric ulceration, which seem to be related to ischemia, in horses and dogs.
T36611 472800-472911 Sentence denotes In horses, phenylbutazone, even at therapeutic dosages, can result in ischemic damage to the intestinal mucosa.
T78032 472912-472994 Sentence denotes It may be that intercurrent stress or dehydration contributes to the pathogenesis.
T25283 472995-473150 Sentence denotes The right dorsal colon is affected preferentially, resulting in the term right dorsal colitis; lesions in other parts of the colon also occur occasionally.
T46642 473151-473258 Sentence denotes The NSAID-associated lesions are characterized by ischemia, often with marked edema and avascular necrosis.
T56876 473259-473378 Sentence denotes Lesions may be focal, linear, or extensive and segmental, involving the entire circumference of the bowel (Fig. 1-51) .
T11917 473379-473590 Sentence denotes Depending on the duration and severity of the lesion, the mucosa may be congested and edematous, with superficial necrosis and fibrin exudation, or extensively eroded and ulcerated, with fibrinonecrotic exudate.
T2465 473591-473707 Sentence denotes Early in the process, superficial epithelial necrosis and progressive mucosal necrosis and inflammation are evident.
T44554 473708-473869 Sentence denotes Microvascular injury, with subsequent microthrombosis and ischemic ulceration, is considered by some to be the cause of the lesions in the stomach and intestine.
T8683 473870-473874 Sentence denotes This
T13023 473875-474102 Sentence denotes In "shock gut" in dogs, and rarely other species, associated terminally with heart failure, hemorrhage, hypovolemia, and DIC, part or all of the mucosa of the small intestine is deeply congested, and the content is hemorrhagic.
T61985 474103-474332 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis of the lesion is related to reflex vasoconstriction in the mucosa and submucosa, shunting of blood away from the mucosa, dilation of mucosal capillaries, and reduction in rate of flow of blood through the villus.
T88103 474333-474509 Sentence denotes Countercurrent transfer of oxygen from the afferent to efferent vessels in the villus aggravates hypoxemia in the villus by increased shunting of oxygen to the efferent venule.
T48767 474510-474668 Sentence denotes Splanchnic pooling of blood, systemic arterial hypotension, and intestinal vasoconstriction occur in endotoxic shock in dogs, causing similar mucosal lesions.
T69334 474669-474724 Sentence denotes Microthrombosis associated with sluggish flow, DIC, and
T78779 474726-474782 Sentence denotes absolute increase in small intestinal bacterial numbers.
T53059 474783-475048 Sentence denotes SIBO is a recognized entity in humans occurring secondary to a number of underlying disorders including hypochlorhydria, exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, hypomotility, partial smallbowel obstruction, radiation injury, or impairment of systemic and local immunity.
T3963 475049-475128 Sentence denotes The existence of genuine bacterial overgrowth in animals remains controversial.
T95062 475129-475354 Sentence denotes Though cases of "idiopathic SIBO" have been described in young large-breed dogs, many of these have been responsive to antibiotic therapy, which supports a diagnosis of a similar condition antibioticresponsive diarrhea (ARD).
T61312 475355-475480 Sentence denotes This term is more appropriate in cases that respond clinically to antibiotics and where other conditions have been ruled out.
T94083 475481-475610 Sentence denotes Secondary SIBO, however, likely exists in dogs, and this term is best used in cases where such an initiating cause is documented.
T99601 475611-475784 Sentence denotes For SIBO and ARD, histologic examination of intestinal biopsies is often normal, other than the presence of bacterial colonies in mucus on the mucosal surface in some cases.
T92314 475785-475922 Sentence denotes Intestinal lipofuscinosis (brown gut) in dogs is characterized grossly by tan-brown discoloration of the tunica muscularis ( Fig. 1-52) .
T17088 475923-476092 Sentence denotes It may involve any segment of gut, but is most commonly observed in the lower small intestine; the bladder and mesenteric or peripheral lymph nodes also may be affected.
T10335 476093-476281 Sentence denotes Although the lesion may be incidental, it is usually associated with chronic enteric and/or pancreatic disease. may be the result of direct phenylbutazone toxicity to the microvasculature.
T80335 476282-476446 Sentence denotes Vasoconstriction or depression of other cytoprotective effects, mediated by phenylbutazone inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis, could be the cause of the lesions.
T69002 476447-476541 Sentence denotes Animals may develop diarrhea and hypoproteinemia as a result of the extensive mucosal defects.
T8076 476542-476642 Sentence denotes Minor mucosal lesions may resolve; a sequel to severe colonic damage in horses is colonic stricture.
T10454 476643-476766 Sentence denotes Lesions in the oral cavity associated with NSAID administration are deep crateriform ulcers, with a clean granulating base.
T4164 476767-476940 Sentence denotes Concurrent with punched-out ulcers in the glandular mucosa, there may be chronic gastritis and atrophy of the mucosa with loss of differentiation of the cells in the fundus.
T23658 476941-477025 Sentence denotes In the upper small intestine, ulcers may be focal, linear, or segmental and annular.
T26703 477026-477202 Sentence denotes Microscopic lesions that may precede ulceration of the small intestine include mild to severe atrophy of villi, epithelial necrosis, mucosal inflammation, and fibrin exudation.
T52639 477203-477407 Sentence denotes Renal papillary necrosis is often concurrent, if animals are dehydrated. intestinal wall, and they tend to follow the pathway of blood vessels and are mainly located adjacent to the mesenteric attachment.
T84167 477408-477601 Sentence denotes Intestinal emphysema, or pneumatosis cystoides intestinalis, is a rare condition found mainly in weaned pigs, in which it is usually an incidental finding in slaughtered animals ( Fig. 1-54 ).
T10429 477602-477778 Sentence denotes It is characterized by numerous thin-walled, gas-filled cystic structures, a few millimeters to several centimeters in diameter, within the gut wall and on the serosal surface.
T11163 477779-477912 Sentence denotes These are mainly located in the small intestine, although the large intestine, mesentery, and mesenteric lymph nodes may be involved.
T40392 477913-478096 Sentence denotes Microscopically, the cystic structures appear to be dilated lymphatics that are located in the lamina propria, submucosa, muscularis, subserosa, mesentery, and mesenteric lymph nodes.
T46440 478097-478177 Sentence denotes A mixed cellular inflammatory reaction may be evident in the walls of the cysts.
T5029 478178-478264 Sentence denotes Although production of gas by bacteria has been implicated, the cause remains obscure.
T78443 478265-478424 Sentence denotes Lipofuscinosis is reported in Boxer dogs with histiocytic ulcerative colitis, but a definitive correlation between the two conditions has not been established.
T55537 478425-478642 Sentence denotes Increased prevalence of lipofuscinosis has also been reported in dogs consuming high levels of polyunsaturated fats with a relative deficiency of vitamin E, and the condition is prevented by vitamin E supplementation.
T51711 478643-478877 Sentence denotes Any condition, such as exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, causing a reduction in the absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins, especially in the presence of polyunsaturated fatty acids in the diet, may predispose to lipofuscinosis.
T21362 478878-479075 Sentence denotes The microscopic lesions of intestinal lipofuscinosis are gray-to-brown granules in the cytoplasm of smooth-muscle cells in the tunica muscularis; the reason they tend to accumulate here is unknown.
T2485 479076-479227 Sentence denotes The granules stain positive by periodic acid-Schiff and Sudan, are weakly acid-fast with Ziehl-Neelsen, and are mildly fluorescent in paraffin section.
T97662 479228-479417 Sentence denotes The granules, termed leiomyometaplasts, are oxidized polymerized phospholipids derived from cell membrane lipid peroxidation, and are highly resistant to further endophagocytic degradation.
T40200 479418-479640 Sentence denotes In Cocker Spaniel dogs affected with the inherited storage disease generalized ceroid-lipofuscinosis, intestinal lipofuscinosis is also observed, and is often accompanied by progressive hindlimb paresis and incoordination.
T31239 479641-479781 Sentence denotes Muscular hypertrophy of the intestine was formerly a common finding in swine, but it appears to have diminished in prevalence in most areas.
T623 479782-479909 Sentence denotes It may be found in apparently healthy animals at slaughter as a uniform thickening of the muscular coats of the terminal ileum.
T42764 479910-480017 Sentence denotes The most caudal ileal segment is involved, but it may extend a variable distance forward, usually 25-50 cm.
T55333 480018-480142 Sentence denotes The ileum is thickened and turgid; the lumen is small, the tunica muscularis is markedly thickened and the mucosa is folded.
T70591 480143-480250 Sentence denotes This condition must be differentiated from manifestations of enteropathy associated with Lawsonia in swine.
T92232 480251-480493 Sentence denotes Perforation or rupture of the intestine may occur in association with feed impaction in the hypertrophic segment; this may be a secondary to formation of pseudodiverticula, or as the result of violent peristalsis through the affected segment.
T78559 480494-480650 Sentence denotes Although the underlying basis remains obscure, it is likely that the muscular hypertrophy is secondary to a functional obstruction of the ileocecal orifice.
T8170 480651-480742 Sentence denotes Idiopathic muscular hypertrophy of the small intestine also occurs in horses ( Fig. 1-53) .
T76931 480743-480947 Sentence denotes A similar lesion has been associated with Anoplocephala sp. tapeworms at the ileocecal orifice; however, this remains uncertain because many cases also show muscular hypertrophy of the terminal esophagus.
T30132 480948-481137 Sentence denotes The lesions are similar to those described in swine and the ileum is the most common site; however, any segment of the small intestine, and occasionally the large intestine can be affected.
T83885 481138-481263 Sentence denotes Horses with this condition may have chronic mild colic and anorexia or intermittent diarrhea with progressive loss of weight.
T94924 481264-481356 Sentence denotes Diverticula, and perforation or laceration of the thickened intestinal wall, also may occur.
T98011 481357-481500 Sentence denotes Intestinal smooth-muscle hyperplasia has been described in a goat and, unlike the condition in horses and swine, only the jejunum was affected.
T86156 481501-481636 Sentence denotes Pseudodiverticulosis of the small intestine is a rare lesion that is sometimes associated with muscular hypertrophy in pigs and horses.
T93027 481637-481808 Sentence denotes Single or multiple saccular dilations lined by intestinal mucosal epithelium are formed secondary to defects in the tunica muscularis and subserosa of the small intestine.
T2895 481809-482230 Sentence denotes Pseudodiverticula are distinguished from true diverticula, which are congenital defects involving all layers of the A study of a large number of cases of jejunal hematoma and normal cows did not find a statistically significant relationship between the isolation of C. perfringens, C. perfringens type A or the cpb2 gene and jejunal hematoma, strongly suggesting that C. perfringens is not associated with this condition.
T73466 482231-482347 Sentence denotes No association was found between jejunal hematoma and bovine viral diarrhea virus, Salmonella sp., or copper levels.
T51576 482348-482581 Sentence denotes Intestinal encephalopathy with clinical signs and lesions similar to those traditionally seen in hepatic encephalopathy, has been described in horses without liver disease, but with colic and/or diarrhea preceding neurological signs.
T61836 482582-482764 Sentence denotes Because those horses had hyperammonemia, it was speculated that this was consequence of excessive production and absorption of ammonia in the intestine because of intestinal disease.
T80831 482765-482836 Sentence denotes Intestinal overgrowth of ammonia-producing bacteria may be responsible.
T75640 482837-483015 Sentence denotes An investigation of 13 documented cases of this syndrome did not find any breed, age or sex predisposition, and no specific diet could be found to be associated with these cases.
T87743 483016-483174 Sentence denotes As in cases of hepatic encephalopathy, the most common microscopic finding in the brain of horses with the disease is the presence of Alzheimer type II cells.
T1376 483175-483257 Sentence denotes Laboratory findings include hyperammonemia, metabolic acidosis, and hyperglycemia.
T85136 483258-483323 Sentence denotes Rectal prolapse most commonly occurs in swine, sheep, and cattle.
T53815 483324-483517 Sentence denotes It may occur in any animal that has prolonged episodes of tenesmus or excessive coughing increasing abdominal pressure, and is often associated with colitis or urinary infection or obstruction.
T76167 483518-483670 Sentence denotes In pigs, rectal prolapse occurs as a herd problem when the ration contains zearalenone, an estrogenic mycotoxin produced by fungi of the genus Fusarium.
T19621 483671-483809 Sentence denotes The toxin causes marked swelling and congestion of the vulva and vaginal mucosa, straining, and eventually vaginal and/or rectal prolapse.
T26451 483810-483958 Sentence denotes Rectal prolapse in sheep may be the consequence of ingestion of estrogenic pastures, and is accompanied by other signs of hyperestrogenism (see Vol.
T11774 483959-483985 Sentence denotes 3, Female genital system).
T73975 483986-484095 Sentence denotes The prolapsed rectum is edematous, congested, and there may be necrosis and ulceration of the everted mucosa.
T4260 484096-484205 Sentence denotes These lesions are ischemic in origin owing to interference with venous blood flow from the prolapsed section.
T37846 484206-484283 Sentence denotes Only the mucosa, or all layers of the bowel, may be involved in the prolapse.
T94348 484284-484376 Sentence denotes In swine surviving slough or amputation of the prolapsed tissue, rectal stricture may ensue.
T32296 484377-484447 Sentence denotes Rectal stricture is discussed further in the section on salmonellosis.
T3165 484448-484653 Sentence denotes Jejunal hematoma (hemorrhagic bowel syndrome, intestinal hematoma) has been described mainly in adult dairy cattle in North America, with occasional reports from Europe, the Middle East, and South America.
T88515 484654-484844 Sentence denotes The syndrome is usually characterized clinically by sudden death, although a few affected animals may have blood in their feces, bloat and acute abdominal pain for a short time before death.
T11954 484845-484955 Sentence denotes At postmortem examination, there are one or more short jejunal loops with intramural hemorrhage (Fig. 1-55A ).
T70356 484956-485093 Sentence denotes The latter usually distends the intestinal mucosa to the point of complete or partial obstruction of the intestinal lumen ( Fig. 1-55B) .
T89865 485094-485148 Sentence denotes Intraluminal hemorrhage is also present in some cases.
T51938 485149-485480 Sentence denotes Determination of the primary location of the hemorrhage (intramural versus intraluminal) requires careful dissection, as in the cases of intramural hemorrhage, the compressed and thin intestinal mucosa frequently tears when the intestine is opened, giving the false impression that the blood is intraluminal rather than intramural.
T15489 485481-485754 Sentence denotes Microscopically, the interface between the hematoma and nonhematoma portions of the jejunum has an abrupt elevation of the mucosa, and the muscularis mucosa is often split by severe hemorrhage, with one portion adherent to the submucosa and the other to the lamina propria.
T21346 485755-485850 Sentence denotes The elevated mucosa may be completely necrotic or have only necrosis of the surface epithelium.
T35142 485851-485960 Sentence denotes Often, the affected mucosa has moderate to large numbers of large, gram-positive rods on the luminal surface.
T84963 485961-486166 Sentence denotes Because the percentage of gram-positive rods was found to increase with the degree of autolysis, it has been postulated that this bacterial population is a consequence rather than a cause of the condition.
T64477 486167-486367 Sentence denotes The affected mucosa, but also the more normal looking adjacent mucosa, has dilated villus lacteals that are either empty or contain abundant erythrocytes and/or pale eosinophilic, hyalinized material.
T1289 486368-486470 Sentence denotes Occasionally there are small numbers of hemosiderophages in the lamina propria of the affected mucosa.
T85892 486471-486602 Sentence denotes In a few cases, the mucosa may show mild to moderate edema, mild neutrophilic infiltration and small foci of submucosal hemorrhage.
T88271 486603-486887 Sentence denotes Submucosal blood vessels in these areas are usually within normal limits but a small percentage of cases may have mild to moderate vasculopathy with hyaline change of the vessel wall, mild pleocellular perivascular and subintimal inflammatory infiltrates and plump lining endothelium.
T57670 486888-486970 Sentence denotes Focal suppurative peritonitis can rarely be seen in affected areas of the jejunum.
T94887 486971-487009 Sentence denotes The cause of this entity is not known.
T26796 487010-487039 Sentence denotes A B factor for these changes.
T21393 487040-487281 Sentence denotes In a study of 30 equids referred to a medical teaching hospital with a diagnosis of oleander intoxication, 85% had gastrointestinal signs included colic, diarrhea, gastric reflux, intestinal hyper- or hypo-motility, and abdominal distention.
T71482 487282-487485 Sentence denotes Gross changes in the alimentary tract of horses and ruminants with oleander intoxication include hemorrhage ( Fig. 1-56 ), edema and, occasionally, the presence of pseudomembranes in the small intestine.
T57944 487486-487703 Sentence denotes Histologically, the most significant changes are hyperemia and hemorrhage of the mucosa in the small and/or large intestine, although neutrophilic and/ or pseudomembranous enteritis can be seen in more advanced cases.
T77461 487704-487895 Sentence denotes In dogs, and to a lesser extent in horses, cats, and other species, usually idiopathic syndromes occur, variably signaled by chronic diarrhea, weight loss, hypoproteinemia, and malabsorption.
T57028 487896-488027 Sentence denotes Endoscopic or full-thickness intestinal biopsy, where feasible, is usually necessary to make a diagnosis and establish a prognosis.
T55347 488028-488334 Sentence denotes These syndromes are typically characterized by abnormal lamina proprial inflammatory infiltrates (eosinophils, lymphocytes, and plasma cells, or granulomatous inflammation), neoplasia, especially lymphosarcoma, or amyloid, and structural alterations, including hyperplasia of the crypts and villus atrophy.
T19843 488335-488388 Sentence denotes Lymphangiectasia may also produce a similar syndrome.
T57996 488389-488475 Sentence denotes Infectious causes of erosion or ulceration need to be considered, but are less common.
T80105 488476-488668 Sentence denotes In dogs, histoplasmosis, protozoal infections (giardiasis, cryptosporidiosis), and sequelae to severe parvoviral infections in animals recovered from the acute phase may cause such a syndrome.
T9108 488669-488816 Sentence denotes Inflammatory bowel disease in dogs and cats can be associated with protein-losing enteropathies where clear evidence of lymphangiectasis is absent.
T48802 488817-488917 Sentence denotes This may be due to alterations in epithelial permeability secondary to chronic mucosal inflammation.
T81538 488918-489032 Sentence denotes In horses, chronic salmonellosis and Lawsonia are potential infectious causes of malassimilation and protein loss.
T8413 489033-489171 Sentence denotes The limitations on the interpretation of biopsies noted in the section on normal form and function of the intestine must be borne in mind.
T55942 489172-489262 Sentence denotes Neoplasia needs to be differentiated from inflammation, amyloidosis, and lymphangiectasia.
T1608 489263-489359 Sentence denotes Rarely, characteristic lesions or an agent may be recognized, implicating an infectious process.
T39588 489360-489612 Sentence denotes If inflammatory bowel disease is recognized, associated or complicating problems, such as Baccharis cordifolia and B. megapotamica are found in several South American countries, but most cases of intoxication have been reported in Brazil and Argentina.
T97344 489613-489721 Sentence denotes Baccharis pteronioides has been implicated in similar livestock poisoning in the southwestern United States.
T89424 489722-489829 Sentence denotes The numerous toxic principles of these plants include the macrocyclic trichothecene complex of antibiotics.
T35702 489830-490003 Sentence denotes Spontaneous intoxication by B. cordifolia causes acute disease in cattle, sheep, and horses; intoxication by B. megapotamica has been reported in cattle, buffalo, and sheep.
T38372 490004-490157 Sentence denotes The syndrome produced by both plants is similar and it is characterized clinically by ocular discharge, incoordination, mild bloat, and muscle trembling.
T86852 490158-490320 Sentence denotes Gross findings include dehydration, abundant liquid rumen content, reddening of the mucosa of forestomachs, abomasum and intestine, and edema of the ruminal wall.
T90685 490321-490566 Sentence denotes The main histologic lesions are superficial to full-thickness degeneration and necrosis of the stratified epithelium lining the forestomachs, necrosis of the small intestinal mucosa, hemorrhagic gastroenteritis, and widespread lymphoid necrosis.
T70333 490567-490718 Sentence denotes Chinaberry tree (Melia azedarach) is cultivated worldwide as an ornamental plant which has caused intoxication in pigs, cattle, sheep, goats, and dogs.
T28903 490719-490804 Sentence denotes The toxic principles (melia toxins A1, A2, B1, and B2) are concentrated in the fruit.
T4006 490805-490838 Sentence denotes Pigs seem to be most susceptible.
T15186 490839-490945 Sentence denotes Neurological and/or gastrointestinal clinical signs develop within a few hours of ingestion of the fruits.
T83703 490946-491030 Sentence denotes The former include excitement or depression, convulsions, ataxia, paresis, and coma.
T86460 491031-491137 Sentence denotes Gastrointestinal signs include anorexia, vomiting, constipation or diarrhea, frequently bloody, and colic.
T86855 491138-491299 Sentence denotes Grossly, the changes observed in different animal species are similar and include intestinal congestion, yellow discoloration of the liver, and brain congestion.
T17046 491300-491598 Sentence denotes Microscopically there is individual cell necrosis randomly distributed throughout the parenchyma or concentrated in the centrilobular zone of the liver, degenerative and necrotic changes in the epithelium of the forestomachs, necrosis of lymphoid tissue and hyaline degeneration and fiber necrosis.
T90554 491599-491725 Sentence denotes Oleander toxicosis occurs in several mammalian species, including sheep, goats, cattle, camelids, monkeys, equids, and humans.
T11343 491726-491881 Sentence denotes In addition to the main cardiac lesion produced by intoxication with Nerium oleander, intestinal changes are frequently observed in several animal species.
T42681 491882-492066 Sentence denotes In horses and ruminants, it is thought that the changes in the alimentary tract are primarily caused by the highly irritant effect of oleandrin, the main glycoside present in oleander.
T1501 492067-492153 Sentence denotes However, it is possible that hypoperfusion caused by cardiac failure is a contributing
T27389 492155-492249 Sentence denotes Further reading Berghaus RD, et al mesenteric lymphatics may be prominent, white, and dilated.
T2093 492250-492452 Sentence denotes Nodular white masses up to 5-10 mm in size may be present on the serosa at the mesenteric border and along lymphatics; rarely, they are found on the liver, diaphragm, other abdominal organs, and pleura.
T10105 492453-492556 Sentence denotes In section, villi may be of normal length or somewhat blunt or stubby, with some hypertrophy of crypts.
T90514 492557-492683 Sentence denotes The surface epithelium may appear normal or perhaps slightly attenuated, and lateral interepithelial spaces are often dilated.
T33748 492684-492821 Sentence denotes The lacteals in many villi are distended, and lymphatics in deeper portions of the mucosa, submucosa, and muscularis usually are as well.
T61194 492822-493088 Sentence denotes Occasional lipid-laden macrophages are present in and around lacteals and lymphatics; large focal accumulations of lipophages around lymphatics, sometimes with a local granulomatous response to lipid or saponified fat, form the white masses that may be seen grossly.
T26731 493089-493151 Sentence denotes A similar reaction may be present in the draining lymph nodes.
T8351 493152-493242 Sentence denotes The lamina propria is edematous, as are the submucosa and deeper portions of the gut wall.
T49741 493243-493420 Sentence denotes The proprial inflammatory cell population may be normal, or the numbers of lymphocytes, plasma cells, and eosinophils may be increased, as in chronic inflammatory bowel disease.
T73952 493421-493609 Sentence denotes Multiple dilated crypts that are filled with cellular debris (crypt abscesses) can be a microscopic finding associated with lymphangiectasia; however, this is a fairly nonspecific finding.
T37215 493610-493854 Sentence denotes Because dilation of lymphatics may be present in the submucosa and muscularis, multiple full-thickness intestinal biopsies that include duodenal and ileal samples may be more sensitive than endoscopic biopsies for diagnosis of lymphangiectasia.
T14725 493855-493980 Sentence denotes The cause of lymphangiectasia may be lymphatic obstruction with increased lymphatic pressure that can be primary or acquired.
T20410 493981-494198 Sentence denotes Many cases appear to be acquired and common causes include lamina proprial inflammatory cell infiltrates, intestinal neoplasia (lymphosarcoma), and granulomatous infiltrates obstructing flow in mesenteric lymph nodes.
T29446 494199-494260 Sentence denotes Lesions may be multifocal or diffuse in the intestinal tract.
T17995 494261-494467 Sentence denotes Lipogranulomas along the lymphatic drainage are inconsistent features of lymphangiectasia, and are probably in response to chronic leakage of lipid-laden chyle, rather than a cause of lymphatic obstruction.
T85976 494468-494658 Sentence denotes Usually, no congenital or acquired obstruction of the lymphatic system is obvious, although several dogs with lymphangiectasia have had chylothorax associated with thoracic duct obstruction.
T2690 494659-494898 Sentence denotes Experimental obstruction of mesenteric lymphatics produces hypoproteinemia and lymphangiectasia, but not diarrhea and weight loss, suggesting that the etiology of the clinical syndrome may be more complex than simple lymphatic obstruction.
T52149 494899-495042 Sentence denotes Increased vascular permeability associated with chronic inflammatory bowel disease may also contribute to mucosal edema and lymphatic dilation.
T4087 495043-495164 Sentence denotes Moderate malabsorption of lipid, and plasma protein loss into the gut, causes the signs associated with lymphangiectasia.
T2762 495165-495262 Sentence denotes Malabsorbed lipid may contribute to diarrhea via the effects of fatty acids on colonic secretion.
T7294 495263-495409 Sentence denotes Mucosal permeability associated with increased proprial hydrostatic pressure may cause filtration secretion and contribute to plasma protein loss.
T32258 495410-495514 Sentence denotes It has been proposed that dilated lacteals may rupture, releasing lymph into the lumen of the intestine.
T28955 495515-495693 Sentence denotes Hypocalcemia may be related to loss of the mineral bound to plasma albumin, and perhaps to vitamin D malabsorption, or formation of soaps with malabsorbed lipid in the gut lumen.
T22176 495694-495767 Sentence denotes Hypocholesterolemia is due to lipid malabsorption and effusion of plasma.
T85573 495768-495858 Sentence denotes Lymphopenia is thought to be the result of the loss of lymphocyte-rich lymph into the gut.
T53237 495859-496035 Sentence denotes Associations with the dietary habits and history of the animal also should be investigated because some cases may be associated with inappropriate responses to dietary antigen.
T19123 496036-496218 Sentence denotes Lymphangiectasia has been described most commonly in the dog, where it is among the most common causes of malabsorption/ protein-losing enteropathy; it has not been reported in cats.
T24302 496219-496473 Sentence denotes Breed predisposition seems limited to Yorkshire Terriers and the Norwegian Lundehund, in which lymphangiectasia is part of a syndrome of protein-losing enteropathy with inflammatory bowel disease and in which gastritis and gastric neoplasia may co-exist.
T63983 496474-496523 Sentence denotes The disorder has also been reported in the horse.
T69920 496524-496692 Sentence denotes Lymphangiectasia is associated with a syndrome variably characterized by chronic diarrhea, wasting, hypoproteinemia, lymphopenia, hypocalcemia, and hypocholesterolemia.
T45708 496693-496764 Sentence denotes Peripheral edema, ascites, and hydrothorax result from hypoalbuminemia.
T51312 496765-496915 Sentence denotes The lesion in the small intestine is dilation of the lacteals, and often lymphatics of the submucosa, muscularis, serosa, and mesentery ( Fig. 1-57 ).
T46896 496916-497062 Sentence denotes Villi containing dilated chyle-filled lacteals may stand out grossly as white papillate foci in a thickened, transversely folded edematous mucosa.
T90840 497063-497231 Sentence denotes Serosal and A B impaired movement of interstitial fluid into lacteals or perhaps increased permeability of capillaries, possibly explaining protein loss into the lumen.
T94798 497232-497242 Sentence denotes Kim DY, et
T66887 497244-497596 Sentence denotes Some animals, mainly dogs and cats, but less commonly cattle and horses, showing signs consistent with malabsorption and/ or plasma loss into the gut, have microscopic lesions in the mucosa of the small intestine described as chronic inflammatory bowel disease, lymphocytic-plasmacytic enteritis, filled-villi syndrome, or eosinophilic gastroenteritis.
T2695 497597-497760 Sentence denotes Eosinophilic gastroenteritis in cats and horses is often part of systemic eosinophilic syndromes affecting those species, considered separately in a later section.
T74366 497761-497999 Sentence denotes In dogs, there is no proof that differentiation of eosinophilic gastroenteritis from chronic inflammatory bowel disease is clinically relevant, nor are there clear criteria for such differentiation, so the two will be considered together.
T96742 498000-498231 Sentence denotes In both dogs and cats, idiopathic mucosal colitis and gastritis may be present as components of chronic inflammatory bowel disease, perhaps with predominant signs reflecting gastric or colonic dysfunction; both are considered here.
T4248 498232-498626 Sentence denotes In contrast to the mucosal pattern of inflammation evident in these entities, inflammatory lesions of the large and small intestine of any species that include a significant population of macrophages usually adopt a transmural pattern, and may be associated with a specific etiology (e.g., Mycobacterium, Histoplasma) or represent a distinct syndrome (histiocytic ulcerative colitis of Boxers).
T93268 498627-498709 Sentence denotes They are described with transmural granulomatous enteritis and with typhlocolitis.
T55097 498710-498993 Sentence denotes Inflammatory bowel disease is a clinical syndrome for which it is difficult to develop a valid, objective histologic counterpart, and it should be considered by the clinician after alternatives such as food intolerance, motility disorders, and infectious disease have been ruled out.
T21425 498994-499212 Sentence denotes However, the thoroughness of the clinical and laboratory investigation before the use of endoscopic biopsy is influenced by the amount of time and money available to evaluate what are often elusive functional entities.
T38710 499213-499326 Sentence denotes Endoscopic biopsies are often done early, after symptomatic medical therapy has failed to control clinical signs.
T1367 499327-499511 Sentence denotes The microscopic findings commonly associated with inflammatory bowel disease are not specific, and reflect chronic mucosal inflammation resulting from a number of potential etiologies.
T44986 499512-499771 Sentence denotes It is probably not appropriate for a pathologist to issue a diagnosis of inflammatory bowel disease; it is more appropriate simply to list the histologic findings and to indicate that the changes could be compatible with a clinical diagnosis of that syndrome.
T8491 499772-500005 Sentence denotes Regardless of the portion of the gastrointestinal tract under consideration, the histologic abnormalities are grouped under 3 broad headings: (1) changes in mucosal architecture reflecting active or recent epithelial abnormality; (2)
T15451 500007-500130 Sentence denotes Amyloid deposition in the small intestine and stomach occasionally may be encountered in animals with systemic amyloidosis.
T52155 500131-500222 Sentence denotes Sometimes the gastrointestinal lesions predominate and contribute to the clinical syndrome.
T53808 500223-500328 Sentence denotes Significant intestinal amyloidosis leads to signs consistent with malabsorption and enteric protein loss.
T28006 500329-500412 Sentence denotes Usually there is no gross indication of the deposition of amyloid in the intestine.
T23903 500413-500479 Sentence denotes However, occasionally focal ulceration or hemorrhage may be noted.
T3918 500480-500571 Sentence denotes In geriatric dogs, amyloid deposits may occur in the intestine, often around blood vessels.
T80641 500572-500679 Sentence denotes Rarely, intestinal amyloid is associated with neoplasia, including intestinal extramedullary plasmacytomas.
T58808 500680-500840 Sentence denotes Microscopically, amyloid is seen beneath the epithelium or throughout the propria in villi, and perhaps around or within vessels in the submucosa ( Fig. 1-58 ).
T33912 500841-501027 Sentence denotes It must not be mistaken for collagen deposition, which is most unusual in these locations, although a band of collagenous material is sometimes present at the base of the mucosa in cats.
T12384 501028-501101 Sentence denotes The pathogenic effects of amyloid in the intestine seem to involve either
T96721 501103-501293 Sentence denotes Further reading Hayden DW, et enteropathy; it is merely a severe variant of lymphocyticplasmacytic enteritis, and we see no benefit in expanding the nomenclature in an already-confused area.
T95560 501294-501458 Sentence denotes Occasionally, rupture of such crypts will be seen; lakes of mucus, reactive histiocytes, and occasional giant cells are present in the lamina propria ( Fig. 1-61 ).
T42522 501459-501529 Sentence denotes Other distended crypts may contain casts of eosinophilic glycoprotein.
T54079 501530-501674 Sentence denotes Care should be taken to differentiate chronic inflammatory bowel disease from early intestinal lymphoma (see discussion of Malignant lymphomas).
T68527 501675-501757 Sentence denotes Some suggest that, in the Basenji at least, the former can evolve into the latter.
T27080 501758-501893 Sentence denotes In cats this also can be problematic, where differentiation of lymphocytic enteritis from low-grade lymphoma is a diagnostic challenge.
T86738 501894-502076 Sentence denotes Idiopathic mucosal colitis is the colonic manifestation of chronic inflammatory bowel disease, and the commonest form proprial leukocytes; and (3) fibrosis within the lamina propria.
T65997 502077-502157 Sentence denotes Of these, the epithelial changes are the most reliable, yet the least prevalent.
T72868 502158-502311 Sentence denotes Although severe inflammatory changes can be quickly identified, it is often more difficult to objectively identify moderate or mild mucosal inflammation.
T68029 502312-502555 Sentence denotes Subjective impressions of increased numbers of leukocytes within the lamina propria are the least reliable, but are the most widely used criterion for a diagnosis, simply because most biopsy samples do not have any other mucosal abnormalities.
T58105 502556-502729 Sentence denotes The pathologist, faced with substantial pressure to make some kind of diagnosis, may reach for the one observation that cannot be disproved (or proved): too many leukocytes.
T7927 502730-502965 Sentence denotes In the small intestine, the cardinal finding is abnormally intense infiltrates of well-differentiated lymphocytes and plasma cells, and sometimes eosinophils, in the lamina propria of villi, between crypts and perhaps in the submucosa.
T18518 502966-503153 Sentence denotes However, normal intestine contains these types of cells and the distinction between normal and abnormal infiltrates is subjective, based on the position and number of cells in the villus.
T95278 503154-503359 Sentence denotes A layer of lymphocytes, plasma cells, and perhaps neutrophils or eosinophils more than about 4 cells thick, in the deep mucosa, below the crypts and above the muscularis mucosae, is abnormal ( Fig. 1-59) .
T9813 503360-503492 Sentence denotes Villi may be normal, blunted, or moderately to severely atrophic, and occasionally fusion of villi may be prevalent ( Fig. 1-60A ).
T5705 503493-503626 Sentence denotes The surface epithelium may appear relatively normal, mucous metaplastic, or low columnar to cuboidal with an indistinct brush border.
T79765 503627-503672 Sentence denotes Intraepithelial lymphocytes may be increased.
T13825 503673-503820 Sentence denotes Detection of increased intraepithelial lymphocytes may aid in diagnosis of chronic mucosal inflammation associated with inflammatory bowel disease.
T85047 503821-503929 Sentence denotes Crypts may be hypertrophic and lined by numerous goblet cells; in other cases goblet cells are less obvious.
T92741 503930-504103 Sentence denotes There may be edema of the lamina propria and dilation of lacteals, suggesting concurrent lymphangiectasia, but usually the edema is not as severe as occurs with that lesion.
T657 504104-504342 Sentence denotes In this and other conditions with increased inflammatory infiltrates ( Fig. 1-60B ) or edema in the lamina propria, including lymphangiectasia, crypts may be obstructed and dilated, and contain mucus and a few exfoliated epithelial cells.
T89508 504343-504429 Sentence denotes This has been termed cystic mucinous glands dilate and fill with mucus or cell debris.
T95424 504430-504520 Sentence denotes Hyperplastic glands are lined by basophilic enterocytes and goblet cells may be decreased.
T15427 504521-504566 Sentence denotes In some cases, goblet cells may be increased.
T9256 504567-504797 Sentence denotes Inflammatory cells, mainly neutrophils, but perhaps lymphocytes, plasma cells, and eosinophils, may accumulate excessively along the mucosal side of the muscularis mucosae, as in inflammatory disease involving the small intestine.
T61285 504798-504903 Sentence denotes The lesions in mild acute colitis often seem mild in proportion to the severity of the clinical syndrome.
T13276 504904-505146 Sentence denotes The spectrum of inflammation in colitis grades from acute toward an increasingly chronic infiltrate, which, along with edema, separates colonic glands and may accumulate deep in the mucosa between glands and muscularis mucosae ( Fig. 1-63 ).
T98958 505147-505278 Sentence denotes Neutrophils and eosinophils may be scattered among round cells in the propria, and transmigrating surface and glandular epithelium.
T35637 505279-505315 Sentence denotes Globule leukocytes may be prevalent.
T41780 505316-505420 Sentence denotes Accumulation of granulocytes and necrotic debris in the lumen of glands forms so-called crypt abscesses.
T69610 505421-505579 Sentence denotes Greater severity of the lesion is reflected in attenuation and exfoliation of surface epithelium, and the development of microerosions on the mucosal surface.
T83214 505580-505693 Sentence denotes Inflammatory cells, mainly neutrophils, and tissue fluid effuse into the lumen through defects in the epithelium.
T40610 505694-505876 Sentence denotes Persistent erosion, or previous erosion in a healed mucosa, is marked by the development of a thin, horizontally arrayed layer of connective tissue in the superficial lamina propria.
T9301 505877-506128 Sentence denotes With increasing chronicity in colitis of mild or moderate degree, there may be deposition within the lamina propria of a collagenous stroma, throughout which inflammatory cells are interspersed, which separates glands abnormally throughout the mucosa.
T61192 506129-506230 Sentence denotes Downgrowth of glands into often-involuted submucosal lymphoid follicles may occur in chronic colitis.
T43249 506231-506369 Sentence denotes Severe erosion and ulceration are usually associated with local acute inflammation and with a heavy, mainly of colitis recognized in dogs.
T55140 506370-506503 Sentence denotes It is etiologically nonspecific, occurring as chronic or chronic-active lymphocytic-plasmacytic or eosinophilic mucosal inflammation.
T62916 506504-506669 Sentence denotes Histiocytic ulcerative colitis is the distinctive pattern differentiated from it on microscopic grounds, along with rare cases of Histoplasma or protothecal colitis.
T87477 506670-506856 Sentence denotes Mild acute mucosal colitis, reflecting a grossly reddened friable surface visible on endoscopy, is characterized by congestion of superficial capillaries and venules, and proprial edema.
T95607 506857-507000 Sentence denotes Neutrophils infiltrate the superficial lamina propria around vessels, and transmigrate or pass between surface epithelial cells into the lumen.
T50373 507001-507275 Sentence denotes The population of lymphocytes and plasma cells in the lamina propria may not differ from normal, but there is generally a moderate increase in mononuclear cells, and perhaps eosinophils, which are usually rare in the superficial colonic mucosa, between glands ( Fig. 1-62 ).
T78226 507276-507392 Sentence denotes There are often few goblets on the surface and in glands, probably owing to mucous discharge, rather than cell loss.
T94442 507393-507457 Sentence denotes Surface epithelium may be basophilic, low columnar, or cuboidal.
T25765 507458-507696 Sentence denotes Hyperplasia of epithelium in glands may be evident, and proof) that such fibrosis and glandular atrophy are sequelae to previous inflammation or necrosis, such changes have not been correlated with gastric dysfunction or clinical illness.
T98524 507697-507823 Sentence denotes Unlike the situation in the intestinal and colonic mucosa, epithelial injury is not as prominent in gastritis in dogs or cats.
T67044 507824-508017 Sentence denotes It is uncommon to encounter erosion or ulceration as part of gastritis, and acute ulceration associated with chemical or mechanical injury to the stomach has little mucosal cellular infiltrate.
T24192 508018-508091 Sentence denotes It is therefore prudent to distinguish gastric ulceration from gastritis.
T68717 508092-508400 Sentence denotes Lesions compatible with a diagnosis of gastritis include leukocytic infiltrates in the superficial third of the mucosa, mucous metaplasia and hyperplasia in fundic glands, extensive lymphoplasmacytic and/or eosinophilic infiltrates deep in the mucosa, interstitial fibrosis, and associated atrophy of glands.
T6724 508401-508614 Sentence denotes The diagnosis of gastric mucosal atrophy must be made with great care because there is substantial difference in mucosal thickness between various portions of the stomach, and even within the same anatomic region.
T21416 508615-508831 Sentence denotes Most discussions of inflammatory bowel disease assume that the change in mucosal cellularity is primary and that characterization of that cellularity should provide the greatest insight into pathogenesis and therapy.
T18785 508832-508954 Sentence denotes However, assessment of mucosal cellularity is almost entirely subjective and has exceedingly poor interobserver agreement.
T69991 508955-509148 Sentence denotes There are no useful objective reference intervals for small intestinal mucosal cellularity because the range is so broad, and accurate identification of the different cell types is problematic.
T958 509149-509344 Sentence denotes Characterization of the immunophenotype of lymphocytes in the small intestine has produced variable results that have yet to be usefully associated with the presence or absence of clinical signs.
T96382 509345-509645 Sentence denotes Attempts to create more objective grading systems for the histologic assessment of inflammatory bowel disease have stressed the significance of architectural changes within the surface epithelium and lamina propria rather than relying exclusively on shifts in total or relative leukocyte populations.
T32449 509646-509984 Sentence denotes Such grading criteria include detection of villus or cryptal enterocyte injury (villus fusion, superficial ulceration, enterocyte flattening and basophilia, cryptal hyperplasia), as well as remodeling of mucosal architecture (separation of the crypts from one another or from the muscularis mucosae by edema, fibrosis, and/or leukocytes).
T40436 509985-510225 Sentence denotes However, these schemes still fail to resolve the dilemma of substantial overlap between "normal" and subjectively increased leukocyte numbers in mild inflammatory bowel disease in which there is no epithelial injury or architectural change.
T87344 510226-510442 Sentence denotes The World Small Animal Veterinary Association Gastrointestinal Standardization Group has developed a standardized grading scheme that works toward distinguishing normal from mucosal lesions in each grading criterion.
T2105 510443-510647 Sentence denotes Skepticism about the utility of estimating leukocyte numbers or identifying shifts in phenotype among mucosal leukocytes may not be so appropriate when looking at colonic and gastric inflammatory disease.
T19776 510648-511017 Sentence denotes Perhaps because of its lesser overall proprial cellularity in comparison with small intestine, or perhaps because of its greater accessibility to biopsy, the colonic mucosa was the first part of the canine intestinal tract to be subjected to morphometric grading of architectural changes and objective leukocyte counting, although application of such data is difficult.
T3345 511018-511170 Sentence denotes In comparison with small intestine, the normal range in leukocyte numbers is narrower and the overall population much smaller in both colon and stomach.
T82640 511171-511217 Sentence denotes This is particularly true of the granulocytes.
T28916 511218-511365 Sentence denotes The presence of neutrophils within the lamina propria of any part of mononuclear cell infiltrate in the lamina propria, and often in the submucosa.
T63325 511366-511554 Sentence denotes The ulcerated areas extend usually no further than the muscularis mucosae, and have a base of granulation tissue heavily infiltrated by neutrophils that effuse into the lumen of the bowel.
T13812 511555-511609 Sentence denotes The margin of surviving mucosa may overhang the ulcer.
T61998 511610-511727 Sentence denotes Crypt abscesses may be present in remaining mucosa, and all degrees of erosion and partial ulceration may be present.
T57101 511728-511871 Sentence denotes Idiopathic ulcerative colitis is uncommon, and does not seem as severe as histiocytic ulcerative colitis of Boxers; it rarely comes to autopsy.
T92956 511872-511970 Sentence denotes Severely affected dogs may be cachectic, probably owing in part to enteric loss of plasma protein.
T21347 511971-512212 Sentence denotes The mucosa in ulcerative colitis is usually deep red, swollen, folded, and granular because of edema and cellular infiltrates; the depressions may be punctate or up to several centimeters across, roughly round or oval, irregular or elongate.
T49982 512213-512255 Sentence denotes Their margins may be tattered or puckered.
T16932 512256-512306 Sentence denotes Colonic lymph nodes may be enlarged and edematous.
T26737 512307-512571 Sentence denotes In canine colitis, there is a broad 3-dimensional spectrum: (1) in relative chronicity and density of the inflammatory infiltrate; (2) in the distribution of the infiltrate within the wall of the bowel; and (3) in the severity of the epithelial and mucosal change.
T37708 512572-512713 Sentence denotes Generally, milder lesions of superficial epithelium are associated with mild or moderate mucosal inflammation, which may be acute or chronic.
T23858 512714-512812 Sentence denotes In many cases of mild chronic mucosal colitis, the glands do not appear particularly hyperplastic.
T11206 512813-512997 Sentence denotes However, defective repair in the face of severe or ongoing injury may result in crypts that are tortuous or even nearly horizontal, and papillary hyperplasia of the epithelial surface.
T4620 512998-513181 Sentence denotes Severe erosion and ulceration are usually related to a more intense or heavy chronic inflammatory process, which may be limited to the mucosa, but which can extend into the submucosa.
T30829 513182-513416 Sentence denotes Truly granulomatous colitis is not common; when fully developed, perhaps as a component of regional enteritis involving the ileocecocolic area, or in histiocytic colitis of Boxer dogs considered later, it is ulcerative and transmural.
T60548 513417-513566 Sentence denotes Occasionally, a granulomatous response to barium, or to other foreign material breaching the epithelium, may be observed in the mucosa and submucosa.
T48455 513567-513794 Sentence denotes Atrophic colitis, in which the mucosa is markedly thinned, with relatively inactive crypts and modest chronic or chronic-active interstitial inflammation, perhaps with notable interstitial fibrosis, is occasionally encountered.
T24650 513795-514026 Sentence denotes Gastric changes in dogs or cats with clinically suspected inflammatory bowel disease are challenging to interpret, because of variation in normal microscopic anatomy within the stomach, and because gastric lesions are often patchy.
T76955 514027-514165 Sentence denotes As well, ingestion of chemicals and foreign bodies can create gastric lesions misinterpreted as being those of inflammatory bowel disease.
T93438 514166-514312 Sentence denotes The stomach has a variety of normal anatomic features and common background lesions that have not been proved to have any functional significance.
T15902 514313-514613 Sentence denotes These include a dense band of hyalinized fibrous tissue (lamina densa) between the muscularis mucosae and the base of the crypts in cats, lymphoid nodules within the deep lamina propria of both dogs and cats, and a substantial amount of fibrous tissue within the lamina propria of the pyloric antrum.
T40552 514614-514707 Sentence denotes It is not clear whether some of these have any significance as signposts of previous disease.
T52792 514708-514974 Sentence denotes Background lesions that may or may not be correlated with some previous specific stimulus include globule leukocytes in the gastric epithelium of cats, and a combination of gastric proprial fibrosis, glandular atrophy, and glandular nesting within the fundic mucosa.
T44863 514975-515030 Sentence denotes Although we assume (without invading enteric pathogens.
T79515 515031-515226 Sentence denotes Changes in mucosal dendritic cell phenotype and frequency have been detected in dogs with inflammatory bowel disease, suggesting altered antigen sampling and subsequent adaptive immune responses.
T6677 515227-515433 Sentence denotes The common morphologic changes in the mucosa-cryptal hypertrophy, villus atrophy, and in severe cases, mucous metaplasia of surface enterocytes-may be side-effects of T-cell-mediated activity in the mucosa.
T88926 515434-515543 Sentence denotes Similar lesions occur in humans with celiac disease (gluten-sensitive enteropathy), which is T-cell mediated.
T11947 515544-515767 Sentence denotes Reduced numbers of T-regulatory cells has been identified in dogs which also may play a role in loss of tolerance to luminal antigens, recruitment of inflammatory T-cell populations, and progression of mucosal inflammation.
T29936 515768-515895 Sentence denotes Lymphocytic-plasmacytic enteritis associated with familial sensitivity to wheat protein has been demonstrated in Irish Setters.
T37412 515896-515989 Sentence denotes An enteropathy in Basenji dogs has similarities to other forms of inflammatory bowel disease.
T92835 515990-516208 Sentence denotes In Basenjis and in the Lundehund, syndromes of hypoalbuminemia, chronic diarrhea, and wasting occur with high prevalence, primarily attributable to lymphocytic-plasmacytic enteritis, with lymphangiectasia in some dogs.
T28874 516209-516365 Sentence denotes In the Basenji chronic gastritis or hypertrophic gastritis may be associated, and malassimilation and plasma protein loss into the gut have been documented.
T1761 516366-516505 Sentence denotes Hypergammaglobulinemia commonly occurs in the late stages of the syndrome in Basenjis, and lymphosarcoma develops in some affected animals.
T60365 516506-516691 Sentence denotes In this sense, the syndrome resembles immunoproliferative small intestinal disease (α-heavy chain disease, or Mediterranean lymphoma), which is a disorder of IgA immunoblasts in humans.
T74391 516692-516884 Sentence denotes IgA plasmacytes do not dominate in the Basenji intestinal mucosa; though high circulating levels of IgA are present, it is not known if they are associated with abnormal α-heavy-chain protein.
T96185 516885-517227 Sentence denotes In cats, dogs, and horses, submucosal or transmural lymphoplasmacytic infiltrates may signal a precursor to lymphoma, and the infiltrating cell population must be carefully evaluated; a monomorphic population of lymphocytes, blurring of the proprial-epithelial interface by lymphocytic infiltrates, and mitotic activity suggest lymphosarcoma.
T37178 517228-517344 Sentence denotes Animals with the gray Collie syndrome (cyclic neutropenia) also may have lymphocytic-plasmacytic enteritis (see Vol.
T37867 517345-517370 Sentence denotes 3, Hematopoietic system).
T30922 517371-517502 Sentence denotes Malabsorptive and syndromes with weight loss have been described in the horse with some similarities to inflammatory bowel disease.
T93207 517503-517618 Sentence denotes The etiologies in the horse are unknown, but it is possible that similar mechanisms described earlier are involved.
T79077 517619-517712 Sentence denotes Multiple forms are described that include lymphoplasmacytic, granulomatous, and eosinophilic.
T33914 517713-517841 Sentence denotes Day M, et al the intestine is probably abnormal, and is probably a reliable marker for recent epithelial damage or permeability.
T97947 517842-517958 Sentence denotes Eosinophils have more variation, and often are present in very large numbers throughout the small intestinal mucosa.
T51057 517959-518092 Sentence denotes However, they are very sparse within the superficial half of the canine colonic mucosa, and are infrequent within the gastric mucosa.
T98838 518093-518275 Sentence denotes Because the normal stomach has relatively few mucosal leukocytes, the pursuit of a diagnosis of gastritis based upon objective assessment of leukocyte numbers may be a credible goal.
T4377 518276-518672 Sentence denotes Although it has been possible, by counting different types of leukocytes identified by routine histology and immunohistochemistry, to establish reference intervals for eosinophils, plasma cells, B cells, and T cells within various parts of the gastric lamina propria of healthy dogs, more than half of the round cells in the normal canine gastric lamina propria could not be precisely identified.
T72748 518673-518808 Sentence denotes Healthy dogs had an 8-fold range in total mucosal cellularity, and the pyloric antrum was 3 times more cellular than the fundic mucosa.
T14397 518809-519115 Sentence denotes Although dogs with clinical signs of gastritis had an objective increase in eosinophils, plasma cells, and/or intraepithelial lymphocytes in many different combinations, it was difficult to correlate clinical severity or response to therapy with cellular or other parameters of gastric mucosal abnormality.
T56322 519116-519298 Sentence denotes There was no significance to whether the inflammation was limited to the superficial third of the mucosa or was found throughout, although the former was more common than the latter.
T86357 519299-519409 Sentence denotes In a second study of idiopathic gastritis, all cases were classified as lymphocytic, and T cells predominated.
T7292 519410-519513 Sentence denotes Eosinophils were not a significant component, and there was no observed regional variation in severity.
T90757 519514-519616 Sentence denotes The etiopathogenesis of idiopathic inflammatory bowel disease is not understood in any animal species.
T85738 519617-519793 Sentence denotes Similar to humans with IBD, it is likely that multiple factors, including genetics, mucosal immunity, intestinal microbiota, diet, and environment, play a role in pathogenesis.
T52587 519794-519946 Sentence denotes A familial role in dogs is established with enteropathies documented in multiple breeds including Boxers, Basenjis, German Shepherds, and Irish Setters.
T5680 519947-520098 Sentence denotes As molecular techniques to detect intestinal microbes improve, alterations in the intestinal microbial communities in dogs and cats have been detected.
T50579 520099-520301 Sentence denotes Shifts in the major microbial constituents, from gram-positive Firmicutes species to gram-negative proteobacteria in the gut have been noted in healthy animals versus those with intestinal inflammation.
T83554 520302-520395 Sentence denotes These alterations in the composition of the intestinal microbiota have been termed dysbiosis.
T3322 520396-520490 Sentence denotes Dysbiosis correlates with mucosal inflammation and may be a driver of persistent inflammation.
T70041 520491-520631 Sentence denotes Potential pathogens, such as invasive species of E. coli in Boxer dogs and French Bulldogs with granulomatous colitis, have been identified.
T41472 520632-520778 Sentence denotes Diet also appears to be important with a significant percentage of dogs and cats with chronic enteropathy responding favorably to dietary changes.
T29640 520779-520910 Sentence denotes An immunologic basis for this sensitivity is not always determined and adverse food reaction may be better terms than food allergy.
T12368 520911-521012 Sentence denotes In addition to food allergy, adverse food reactions would include food intolerance and intoxications.
T51119 521013-521171 Sentence denotes The nature of the inflammatory infiltrate suggests that loss of tolerance to dietary antigen or antigens produced by the enteric microflora may be implicated.
T76333 521172-521313 Sentence denotes Similar to humans' defects in regulation of innate immune responses may be an initial component of loss of mucosal tolerance in dog and cats.
T10936 521314-521604 Sentence denotes In dogs with inflammatory bowel disease, innate recognition of commensal bacteria through toll-like receptors has been shown to generate a proinflammatory response typical of syndrome, associated with eosinophilic granulomatous pancreatitis and eosinophilic dermatitis, among other lesions.
T37830 521605-521747 Sentence denotes Affected animals have weight loss, and diarrhea or unformed feces, associated with hypoalbuminemia, suggesting enteric loss of plasma protein.
T22359 521748-521824 Sentence denotes Reduced absorption of glucose occurs, but peripheral eosinophilia is absent.
T46315 521825-521953 Sentence denotes At autopsy, mucosal and sometimes transmural thickening may occur at any level of the alimentary tract from esophagus to rectum.
T46729 521954-522011 Sentence denotes Esophageal and gastric squamous mucosa is hyperkeratotic.
T40893 522012-522111 Sentence denotes Thickened mucosa is thrown into turgid transverse folds, or occasionally is fissured and roughened.
T75026 522112-522336 Sentence denotes Focal or diffuse ulcers may be present on the small and large intestine and focal caseous lesions up to 1.5 cm in diameter may be in the submucosa of the gut and common bile duct, as well as in an enlarged fibrotic pancreas.
T81703 522337-522529 Sentence denotes Microscopically there is diffuse infiltration of the mucosa, submucosa, and often deeper layers of the enteric wall by eosinophils, mast cells, macrophages, lymphocytes, and some plasma cells.
T62138 522530-522648 Sentence denotes Moderate to severe villus atrophy, fibroplasia in the lamina propria, and hypertrophy of the muscularis mucosae occur.
T40065 522649-522814 Sentence denotes Caseous foci in the mucosa and submucosa consist of central masses of eosinophils, sometimes surrounded by macrophages, giant cells, and occasionally fibrous tissue.
T97878 522815-523049 Sentence denotes Eosinophilic interstitial infiltrates and granulomas are described in the biliary and pancreatic ducts, pancreas, salivary glands, capsule, and outer cortex of enlarged firm mesenteric lymph nodes, and near portal tracts in the liver.
T85908 523050-523146 Sentence denotes The skin may be thickened and hyperkeratotic and the limbus of the hoof thickened and ulcerated.
T12221 523147-523195 Sentence denotes The eosinophilic dermatitis is described in Vol.
T20004 523196-523220 Sentence denotes 1, Integumentary system.
T52652 523221-523307 Sentence denotes Villus atrophy is common, but if large-bowel lesions are absent, there is no diarrhea.
T68539 523308-523388 Sentence denotes Chronic inflammation in the mucosa may explain protein loss and hypoalbuminemia.
T2653 523389-523427 Sentence denotes The cause of this syndrome is unknown.
T43313 523428-523604 Sentence denotes A hypersensitivity response to migrating parasitic larvae has been suggested, as has the possibility that undetected T-cell lymphoma secreting interleukin-5 may be responsible.
T91425 523605-523707 Sentence denotes Eosinophilic gastroenteritis also occurs in horses apart from the multisystemic eosinophilic syndrome.
T31189 523708-523897 Sentence denotes In addition to eosinophilic inflammation associated with enteric parasitism, idiopathic eosinophilic enteritis has been described as a part of the equine inflammatory bowel disease complex.
T23201 523898-524004 Sentence denotes An uncommon focal form of eosinophilic inflammation of the equine small intestine also has been described.
T9966 524005-524164 Sentence denotes This lesion is characterized by focal infiltration of large numbers of eosinophils and macrophages that are focused on the submucosa and the tunica muscularis.
T7715 524165-524289 Sentence denotes In the lamina propria there is often increased density of lymphocytes, plasma cells, and macrophages with fewer eosinophils.
T96491 524290-524349 Sentence denotes This lesion has been associated with obstruction and colic.
T7487 524351-524517 Sentence denotes Eosinophilic enteritis in cats is rare, and appears to be one manifestation of a hypereosinophilic syndrome that may involve many organs in middle-aged or older cats.
T86354 524518-524583 Sentence denotes It is much more severe than eosinophilic gastroenteritis in dogs.
T27106 524584-524672 Sentence denotes Diarrhea, sometimes bloody, vomition, loss of appetite, and loss of condition may occur.
T1268 524673-524891 Sentence denotes Clinically, intestinal thickening, hepatomegaly and splenomegaly, and enlarged mesenteric lymph nodes may be present, in association with circulating eosinophilia and hyperplasia of the eosinophil series in the marrow.
T78462 524892-524946 Sentence denotes The postmortem picture reflects the clinical findings.
T36163 524947-525154 Sentence denotes Enlargement of the various organs, including liver, spleen, lymph nodes in many locations, and tan nodularities on the kidneys, is associated with heavy infiltrates of usually welldifferentiated eosinophils.
T25229 525155-525310 Sentence denotes In the small intestine, the eosinophilic infiltrate may be transmural and is accompanied by grossly visible hypertrophy of the muscle layers ( Fig. 1-64) .
T46072 525311-525356 Sentence denotes Eosinophilic colitis may occur in some cases.
T30081 525357-525442 Sentence denotes Lymph nodes may have hyperplastic follicles and many mature eosinophils in sinusoids.
T12904 525443-525675 Sentence denotes Alternatively they may vary through eosinophilic lymphadenitis with fibrosis to complete obliteration of normal architecture and replacement by eosinophils in a fibrillar stroma extending through the capsule into surrounding tissue.
T7567 525676-525787 Sentence denotes Chronic eosinophilic enteritis in horses has been described as part of a distinct multisystemic epitheliotropic
T24434 525789-525924 Sentence denotes For general reactions to injury of the cecal and colonic epithelium, see the earlier section, Epithelial renewal in health and disease.
T41704 525925-526136 Sentence denotes Ischemia, obliteration of the proliferative epithelium by etiologic agents, severe inflammation, and some luminal toxins are responsible for the development of focal or diffuse ulceration of the large intestine.
T69979 526137-526391 Sentence denotes Inflammatory infiltrates in the lamina propria are classified based on the inflammatory cell phenotype, and may be limited in distribution to the mucosa or be transmural involving all layers of the intestinal wall and frequently the draining lymph nodes.
T96397 526392-526627 Sentence denotes Typhlitis and colitis may be manifestations of a generalized disease; they may be part of enterocolitis involving both small and large intestine, or they may be regional and limited to any specific segment or segments of the intestine.
T52456 526628-526737 Sentence denotes Damaged colonic mucosa may provide the portal of entry for cross-mucosal translocation of bacteria or toxins.
T65160 526738-526833 Sentence denotes Increased mucosal permeability in the colon may permit enteric loss of plasma protein or blood.
T80659 526834-526944 Sentence denotes Intestinal flora dysbacteriosis in hindgut fermenters may compromise uptake of volatile fatty acids and water.
T3767 526945-527066 Sentence denotes In any species, damage to the colonic mucosa may result in malabsorption of electrolytes and water, or altered secretion.
T86242 527067-527120 Sentence denotes Colitis in each of the species is considered in turn.
T92454 527121-527383 Sentence denotes Colitis cystica profunda, the presence of dilated mucusfilled colonic glands protruding through the muscularis mucosae into the submucosa or tunica muscularis, is uncommon in domestic animals and has been described in pigs, dogs, and goats; the cause is unknown.
T95075 527384-527562 Sentence denotes The lesion may be a sequel to colitis and local damage to the muscularis mucosae, or it may represent herniation into the space left by an involuted submucosal lymphoid follicle.
T5739 527563-527671 Sentence denotes The lesion may be associated with colitis, especially swine dysentery, or it also may be found incidentally.
T4729 527672-527836 Sentence denotes Inflammation of the large bowel in dogs is usually associated with frequent diarrhea, which is small in volume, mucoid or bloody, and often accompanied by tenesmus.
T11723 527837-527989 Sentence denotes By far the most common form encountered in dogs is idiopathic mucosal colitis, considered in the earlier section, Idiopathic inflammatory bowel disease.
T86139 527990-528138 Sentence denotes Histiocytic ulcerative colitis, or granulomatous colitis, is a distinctive histologic syndrome described mostly in young Boxers and French Bulldogs.
T26344 528139-528248 Sentence denotes This is a chronic transmural ulcerative colitis with nonspecific gross and characteristic histologic lesions.
T23555 528249-528362 Sentence denotes Clinically, there is frequent bloody mucoid diarrhea, anemia, hypoalbuminemia, weight loss, and chronic cachexia.
T63554 528363-528549 Sentence denotes Grossly, the colon of dogs with advanced disease is ulcerated, variably thickened, folded, and perhaps dilated and shortened with some segmental or focal areas of scarring and stricture.
T85446 528550-528714 Sentence denotes Lesions on the mucosa vary from patchy punctate red ulcers to more extensive irregular circular or linear coalescing ulcers, with islands of remnant surface mucosa.
T48232 528715-528962 Sentence denotes Histologic lesions are unique and include severe mucosal ulceration, goblet cell loss and infiltration of the lamina propria and submucosal layers by many granulocytes and macrophages ( Fig. 1-65) containing periodic acid-Schiff positive material.
T59139 528963-529069 Sentence denotes These cells are also found within and surrounding lymphatics of the tunica muscularis and serosal surface.
T55912 529070-529234 Sentence denotes Their presence in draining lymph nodes, along with lymphoid hyperplasia, explains the localized or generalized lymphadenopathy that often accompanies this syndrome.
T66455 529235-529247 Sentence denotes The cecum is
T19737 529248-529442 Sentence denotes The presence of chronic inflammatory infiltrates, including aggregates of histiocytes, and perhaps giant cells, in the lamina propria is the criterion for a diagnosis of granulomatous enteritis.
T14904 529443-529582 Sentence denotes With time, the inflammatory reaction typically follows lymphatics transmurally into the submucosa and through the muscularis to the serosa.
T67481 529583-529648 Sentence denotes The submucosa is usually edematous, and lymphatics are prominent.
T38618 529649-529725 Sentence denotes Granulomas may be present in the submucosa or at intervals along lymphatics.
T69357 529726-529812 Sentence denotes The affected lymph nodes are hyperplastic, usually with prominent sinus histiocytosis.
T21562 529813-529908 Sentence denotes Giant cells may be present in sinusoids, or granulomatous foci of various sizes may be evident.
T61006 529909-530032 Sentence denotes Sinusoids contain numerous neutrophils and perhaps eosinophils, and neutrophils may accumulate in the center of granulomas.
T28295 530033-530094 Sentence denotes Granulomatous enteritis can potentially occur in all species.
T15260 530095-530275 Sentence denotes Johne's disease, other intestinal mycobacterioses, and Histoplasma enteritis are specific examples (see later section on Infectious and parasitic diseases of the alimentary tract).
T74487 530276-530310 Sentence denotes Often the cause is not identified.
T32631 530311-530384 Sentence denotes Transmural granulomatous enteritis is occasionally seen in dogs and cats.
T21762 530385-530521 Sentence denotes It is generally segmental and perhaps discontinuous in distribution, usually affecting the lower ileum, colon, and draining lymph nodes.
T74929 530522-530653 Sentence denotes Because of the extent of the attendant fibrosis, these lesions may be stenotic, and must be differentiated from invasive carcinoma.
T30621 530654-530747 Sentence denotes In dogs, there may be marked necrosis in the centers of granulomas and considerable fibrosis.
T91322 530748-530890 Sentence denotes Idiopathic granulomatous enteritis as a cause of wasting and protein-losing enteropathy is most commonly seen as a sporadic problem in horses.
T36306 530891-531084 Sentence denotes Depending on the duration of the disease, animals may be markedly cachectic, have subcutaneous edema, especially of dependent areas, and there may be hydrothorax, hydropericardium, and ascites.
T11275 531085-531197 Sentence denotes Lesions in the horse usually affect the small intestine; stomach and large bowel are occasionally also involved.
T79320 531198-531361 Sentence denotes Mesenteric lymph nodes are usually enlarged, edematous, with mottled firm gray areas, fibrotic nodules, or, rarely, caseous or mineralized foci on the cut surface.
T81176 531362-531439 Sentence denotes Granulomatous pale, caseous, or calcified foci may be scattered in the liver.
T59714 531440-531582 Sentence denotes The microscopic lesion may be patchy, regional, or diffuse, and it may be mucosal, or transmural, ultimately gaining the draining lymph nodes.
T20274 531583-531643 Sentence denotes Transmural inflammation is characteristically granulomatous.
T91237 531644-531709 Sentence denotes Villi are mildly to markedly atrophic with hypertrophy of crypts.
T69632 531710-531817 Sentence denotes The epithelium may vary from apparently normal to low columnar or cuboidal with an indistinct brush border.
T82578 531818-531971 Sentence denotes There may be leaks between cells on the surface, or microerosions may be present through which neutrophils and proteinaceous exudate pass into the lumen.
T6443 531972-532130 Sentence denotes The lamina propria is edematous and contains scattered aggregates of histiocytes and perhaps giant cells, or less commonly, more organized granulomatous foci.
T22305 532131-532270 Sentence denotes Neutrophils and eosinophils are distributed diffusely throughout the lamina propria, and may be concentrated in or near granulomatous foci.
T95397 532271-532427 Sentence denotes A heavy population of lymphocytes and plasma cells inhabits the lamina propria, and the infiltrate and edema may separate crypts abnormally from each other.
T65418 532429-532550 Sentence denotes Further reading Cline JM, et occur in the antimesenteric border of the left colonic flexure or proximal descending colon.
T44050 532551-532601 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis of these lesions remains unclear.
T61015 532602-532708 Sentence denotes Ulcerative colitis with perforation has been reported in dogs with uremia, but the mechanism is uncertain.
T34976 532709-532971 Sentence denotes Given the frequency of concurrent vascular lesions including arteritis, fibrinoid necrosis, and mineralization, colonic mucosal damage may be related to mucosal ischemia or a variety of toxins, including increased ammonia formed by bacterial urease in the colon.
T85105 532972-533177 Sentence denotes Trichuris vulpis, the canine whipworm, causes acute or chronic mucosal colitis or typhlitis; in heavy infestations, there may be significant blood loss because of mucosal damage inflicted by the nematodes.
T93024 533178-533355 Sentence denotes Clinical trichuriasis is generally associated with adult trichurid nematodes extending from the cecum and proximal ascending colon into more distal parts of the large intestine.
T12261 533356-533430 Sentence denotes Ulcerative colitis in dogs is also rarely caused by Entamoeba histolytica.
T14432 533431-533554 Sentence denotes Ulcerative granulomatous transmural colitis is common as an enteric manifestation of infection with Histoplasma capsulatum.
T39906 533555-533644 Sentence denotes The alga Prototheca is a rare cause of enterocolitis as part of systemic disease in dogs.
T3516 533645-533827 Sentence denotes Leishmaniasis in dogs is often a multisystemic disease, but chronic mixed-cell inflammatory infiltration of the colon along with numerous L. infantum amastigotes is usually observed.
T2389 533828-533971 Sentence denotes Canine parvovirus 2 causes colonic damage, but in virtually all cases, there are more severe lesions elsewhere, notably in the small intestine.
T38165 533972-534067 Sentence denotes Canine coronavirus has also been implicated as a cause of colonic and small intestinal lesions.
T43298 534068-534219 Sentence denotes Brachyspira spp. may be present in the canine colon and may be associated with diarrheal disease; however, their role in disease remains controversial.
T8388 534220-534375 Sentence denotes Campylobacter spp. can be isolated from dogs with and without diarrhea, but has been implicated as a cause of enterocolitis outbreaks in some dog colonies.
T71924 534376-534493 Sentence denotes These conditions are discussed fully in the later section, Infectious and parasitic diseases of the alimentary tract.
T91083 534494-534506 Sentence denotes Craven M, et
T13424 534508-534558 Sentence denotes Colitis in cats is less common compared with dogs.
T79267 534559-534727 Sentence denotes Idiopathic mucosal colitis, similar to that described in dogs, also occurs in cats, and is discussed with the previous section on idiopathic inflammatory bowel disease.
T72986 534728-534969 Sentence denotes Tritrichomonas foetus is associated with persistent large-bowel diarrhea and idiopathic mucosal colitis in cats <1 year of age, and is considered later in this chapter in the section Infectious and parasitic diseases of the alimentary tract.
T52619 534970-535211 Sentence denotes Feline panleukopenia virus (FPLV) causes colonic lesions in about half of the cases; typical lesions are less widespread or severe compared with small intestinal lesions. also involved with similar lesions, although often to a lesser degree.
T53852 535212-535341 Sentence denotes This condition was long regarded as an idiopathic immunemediated disease with variable response to empirical therapeutic support.
T41585 535342-535483 Sentence denotes Recent work, however, has elegantly demonstrated the presence of selective intramucosal colonization by invasive strains of Escherichia coli.
T13695 535484-535682 Sentence denotes Furthermore, longterm clinical remission has been demonstrated in cases of ulcerative histiocytic colitis of Boxer dogs, with eradication of invasive E. coli using appropriate antibacterial therapy.
T63006 535683-535842 Sentence denotes Antibiotic resistance, especially to enrofloxacin, has been correlated with invasive E. coli isolated from Boxer dogs with nonresponsive or refractory disease.
T12463 535843-536145 Sentence denotes Severe acute necrotizing colitis and, less commonly typhlitis leading to ulceration and perforation has been associated with functional adrenal cortical tumors or glucocorticoid administration, especially following trauma or surgery involving the spinal cord; gastric ulceration may occur concurrently.
T5547 536146-536265 Sentence denotes The perforations can occur anywhere in the colon, but usually A B sign, with sudden death the only sign in a few foals.
T64547 536266-536395 Sentence denotes C. difficile occurs in horses of any age and it almost invariably produces diarrhea regardless of the age of the affected animal.
T18663 536396-536608 Sentence denotes Potomac horse fever usually results in diarrhea that does not exceed 10 days in duration; at autopsy there is congestion and ulceration of the mucosa of the large bowel, and enlargement of mesenteric lymph nodes.
T23231 536609-536776 Sentence denotes Suppurative ulcers involving lymphoid tissue in the cecocolic mucosa, and cecal and colic lymphadenitis, characterize enteric infection with Rhodococcus equi in foals.
T50171 536777-536989 Sentence denotes Other bacterial agents, including Clostridium sordellii, Actinobacillus equuli, and others, have been associated with acute colitis in horses, but definitive evidence of their role in these infections is lacking.
T95310 536990-537126 Sentence denotes Subacute and chronic diarrhea in horses almost always involves the large intestine, with or without concomitant small-bowel involvement.
T71075 537127-537201 Sentence denotes Salmonella and C. difficile typhlocolitis must be suspected in such cases.
T60673 537202-537369 Sentence denotes Salmonellosis in horses may have an extremely variable course and pathologic manifestations (see section on Infectious and parasitic diseases of the alimentary tract).
T4170 537370-537461 Sentence denotes Histoplasmosis has been reported once in a horse with salmonellosis and ulcerative colitis.
T88421 537462-537704 Sentence denotes Extensive mucosal involvement by larval cyathostomes and strongyles and, rarely, ulcerative typhlitis resulting from anoplocephalid tapeworms, may also cause chronic diarrhea and wasting; these topics are discussed under specific parasitisms.
T23389 537705-537853 Sentence denotes Co-infection by Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella enterica sv Typhimurium, and cyathostomes probably led to granulomatous typhlocolitis in a horse.
T97196 537854-538149 Sentence denotes Ciliate protozoa may be seen over the colonic mucosa of horses dead of a variety of enteric and nonenteric problems; the protozoa are usually not associated with tissue inflammatory changes and are considered normal inhabitants of the intestine with no proven pathogenic role in enteric disease.
T97604 538150-538247 Sentence denotes Intralesional protozoa, however, have been reported in a horse with diffuse eosinophilic colitis.
T96085 538248-538387 Sentence denotes Chronic diarrhea and possibly cachexia may also result from persistent ulceration of the cecum or colon caused by ischemic mucosal lesions.
T42474 538388-538508 Sentence denotes These may be the product of arterial thromboembolism and slow flow, or less likely, corrected strangulation with reflow.
T63156 538509-538606 Sentence denotes Use of NSAIDs also has been associated with cecal and colonic ulceration and plasma protein loss.
T10684 538607-538835 Sentence denotes Right dorsal colitis, in which ulcerative lesions are mostly limited primarily to the right dorsal colon, may be associated Panleukopenia is considered in the section on Infectious and parasitic diseases of the alimentary tract.
T87270 538836-539083 Sentence denotes Mycotic colitis has been reported in cats as a hemorrhagic ulcerative colitis with microvascular thrombosis and mucosal invasion by Candida, zygomycetes, or Aspergillus; these are probably secondary to colonic damage and leukopenia caused by FPLV.
T585 539084-539246 Sentence denotes Clostridium piliforme is reported as a cause of mild mucosal colitis in kittens, also probably occurring primarily in kittens immunocompromised by FPLV infection.
T17992 539247-539366 Sentence denotes The lesions include focal necrosis, dilation of crypts, exfoliation of epithelial cells, and neutrophilic inflammation.
T99452 539367-539450 Sentence denotes C. piliforme was recognized by histology, immunohistochemistry, and ultrastructure.
T74012 539451-539717 Sentence denotes Necrotic colitis caused by Entamoeba histolytica and characterized by severe necrosis of the colon and cecum is described in cats; a similar condition in older cats with no apparent etiologic agent has been described, and is hypothesized to be secondary to ischemia.
T10563 539718-539835 Sentence denotes Transmural acute ulcerative colitis with heavy infiltration of neutrophils is the hallmark of Salmonella enterica sv.
T65826 539836-539980 Sentence denotes Typhimurium infection in cats; this is discussed with salmonellosis in the section on Infectious and parasitic diseases of the alimentary tract.
T99059 539981-540129 Sentence denotes Anaerobiospirillum sp. is also associated with ileocolitis in cats, is discussed later in the section on Bacterial diseases of the alimentary tract.
T84868 540130-540197 Sentence denotes Ulcerative colitis as seen in dogs is apparently very rare in cats.
T74127 540198-540361 Sentence denotes Granulomatous or pyogranulomatous foci in the wall of the colon or ileocecocolic junction associated with feline infections peritonitis virus may mimic a neoplasm.
T69624 540362-540376 Sentence denotes De Cock HE, et
T29215 540378-540581 Sentence denotes The diagnosis of acute colitis/typhlocolitis in horses resolves mainly into the differentiation of salmonellosis, intestinal clostridial diseases, and Potomac horse fever (equine monocytic ehrlichiosis).
T96321 540582-540727 Sentence denotes Although acute colitis can be produced in horses by other agents, they are less common and the role of many of them remains not fully understood.
T33499 540728-540884 Sentence denotes Infectious colitis must also be differentiated from the sequelae of intestinal accidents, NSAID intoxication, and thromboembolism involving the large bowel.
T40293 540885-541072 Sentence denotes Salmonellosis in horses is most frequently associated with Salmonella enterica ssp. enterica serovar Typhimurium, although other serovars may be associated with sporadic cases of disease.
T16274 541073-541132 Sentence denotes Diarrhea is the main clinical sign of equine salmonellosis.
T23821 541133-541202 Sentence denotes Equine intestinal clostridial diseases are increasingly well defined.
T41523 541203-541402 Sentence denotes In the past, many of these cases were lumped together in an umbrella category, colitis X, a term that was used to refer to severe acute colitis in which all known etiologic agents had been ruled out.
T61281 541403-541562 Sentence denotes This term should no longer be used as it does not describe a specific syndrome but rather a group of diseases in which a final diagnosis cannot be established.
T46920 541563-541723 Sentence denotes Clostridium perfringens type C and Clostridium difficile (Fig. 1-66) are the most common clostridial species responsible for equine clostridial enteric disease.
T16164 541724-541888 Sentence denotes C. perfringens type C occurs most commonly in neonates although disease in older horses occasionally can be seen; diarrhea is a frequent but not consistent clinical
T94336 541890-541923 Sentence denotes Further reading Harvey CJ, et al.
T23669 541924-541994 Sentence denotes An uncommon intestinal manifestation of feline infectious peritonitis:
T89620 541995-542164 Sentence denotes 26 cases (1986) (1987) (1988) (1989) (1990) (1991) (1992) (1993) acute stages of C. difficile infection being suppurative and marked by characteristic mesocolonic edema.
T92442 542165-542283 Sentence denotes Details of these conditions are discussed in the section on Infectious and parasitic diseases of the alimentary tract.
T72013 542284-542511 Sentence denotes Diagnostic considerations in cattle >2-3 months of age with acute to subacute fibrinohemorrhagic typhlocolitis include salmonellosis, bovine viral diarrhea, coccidiosis, adenoviral infection, and winter dysentery (coronavirus).
T80671 542512-542656 Sentence denotes Lesions of the oral cavity and upper alimentary tract may be expected, but are not necessarily present, in bovine viral diarrhea and rinderpest.
T58960 542657-542803 Sentence denotes Bovine coronavirus causes microscopic lesions in colonic crypts in cattle with winter dysentery; mild fibrinous typhlocolitis may be seen grossly.
T79890 542804-543011 Sentence denotes Salmonellosis affects all age groups from neonate to adult and may frequently involve both small and large intestine in catarrhal to fibrinohemorrhagic enteritis; mesenteric lymph nodes usually are enlarged.
T71491 543012-543062 Sentence denotes Coccidiosis may involve ileum and large intestine.
T93349 543063-543156 Sentence denotes Bovine adenovirus infection may cause severe hemorrhagic colitis, with few lesions elsewhere.
T26233 543157-543268 Sentence denotes Arsenic, other heavy metals, and oak or acorn poisoning also may cause hemorrhagic typhlocolitis and dysentery.
T93876 543269-543337 Sentence denotes Rarely, trichuriasis causes hemorrhagic mucosal typhlitis in calves.
T44145 543338-543451 Sentence denotes Chronic fibrinous or ulcerative typhlocolitis may occur in salmonellosis, bovine viral diarrhea, and coccidiosis.
T29659 543452-543624 Sentence denotes Granulomatous typhlocolitis associated with chronic diarrhea and wasting may occur in Johne's disease, concurrently with granulomatous ileitis and mesenteric lymphadenitis.
T40428 543625-543694 Sentence denotes The mucosa of the large bowel in these cases is thickened and rugose.
T69026 543695-543781 Sentence denotes Impressions of affected mucosa or ileocecal lymph node will contain acid-fast bacilli.
T76408 543782-543876 Sentence denotes Johne's disease in sheep and goats is usually associated with wasting, but often not diarrhea.
T90806 543877-543968 Sentence denotes The large bowel may be involved in a minority of cases; the ileum is consistently affected.
T29165 543969-544108 Sentence denotes In sheep, hemorrhagic typhlocolitis may be present in animals with bluetongue and peste des petits ruminants; it is rarely the only lesion.
T12234 544109-544319 Sentence denotes Salmonellosis may cause fibrinohemorrhagic enteritis in lambs and pregnant ewes, and typhlitis caused by trichuriasis will occur rarely, although the presence of parasites in small numbers is common in weaners.
T78927 544320-544478 Sentence denotes Coccidiosis may be implicated in hemorrhagic ileotyphlocolitis in lambs and kids, although the small intestine is usually more commonly and severely involved.
T98355 544479-544662 Sentence denotes In goats, enterotoxemia caused by C. perfringens type D may cause moderate to severe fibrinonecrotic typhlocolitis, which occasionally extends to the terminal small intestine as well.
T36613 544663-544750 Sentence denotes Uremia may cause hemorrhagic lesions associated with vasculitis in the cecum and colon.
T85101 544751-544829 Sentence denotes Tumors of the lower gastrointestinal tract are not common in domestic animals.
T45336 544830-544994 Sentence denotes However, they are relatively prevalent among surgical biopsy submissions from dogs and cats, in sharp contrast to their rarity in horses and food-producing animals.
T58369 544995-545100 Sentence denotes Malignant neoplasms are more common than benign tumors, and excepting lymphosarcoma, most are carcinomas.
T53878 545101-545158 Sentence denotes Polyps are generally hyperplastic rather than neoplastic.
T53725 545159-545242 Sentence denotes The exceptions are rectal polyps in dogs, which also can be adenomas or carcinomas.
T55419 545243-545336 Sentence denotes Highly malignant scirrhous adenocarcinomas of the stomach and intestine occur in all species.
T31570 545337-545431 Sentence denotes Lymphosarcoma is the most common malignant tumor of with colic, and acute or chronic diarrhea.
T65079 545432-545600 Sentence denotes This syndrome and others associated with the use of NSAIDs are considered with ischemia caused by reduced perfusion (see section on Intestinal ischemia and infarction).
T96923 545601-545674 Sentence denotes The specific cause of extensive ulceration may be difficult to determine.
T32650 545675-545811 Sentence denotes Smaller chronic ulcers and widespread subacute erosion and ulceration are most likely the result of salmonellosis, rather than ischemia.
T27714 545812-545974 Sentence denotes A history of administration of NSAIDs, and the presence of lesions in the renal papilla, mouth, and upper alimentary tract, suggests intoxication by those agents.
T14078 545975-545988 Sentence denotes Arroyo LG, et
T58499 545990-546184 Sentence denotes The differential diagnosis of typhlocolitis in swine mainly revolves around identifying swine dysentery and other spirochetoses, Salmonella enterocolitis, and Lawsonia intracellularis infection.
T71018 546185-546281 Sentence denotes Swine dysentery, caused by Brachyspira hyodysenteriae, involves only the cecum and spiral colon.
T30155 546282-546359 Sentence denotes It is a catarrhal to mildly fibrinohemorrhagic erosive mucosal typhlocolitis.
T91120 546360-546414 Sentence denotes The colonic content is fluid and usually blood-tinged.
T32423 546415-546597 Sentence denotes A similar but milder disease, intestinal spirochetosis, is associated with B. pilosicoli, which causes distinctive microscopic lesions as it colonizes the apex of surface epithelium.
T66527 546598-546832 Sentence denotes Salmonella enterocolitis, mainly resulting from Salmonella Typhimurium, is a fibrinous, erosive to focally ulcerative condition, mainly of the cecum and colon, but occasionally involving the small intestine, especially terminal ileum.
T35811 546833-546888 Sentence denotes The intestinal content is fluid but usually not bloody.
T63893 546889-546926 Sentence denotes Mesenteric lymph nodes are prominent.
T71203 546927-547098 Sentence denotes L. intracellularis infection is readily recognized by the consistent involvement of the terminal ileum by adenomatosis, with or without hemorrhage, or by necrotic ileitis.
T69529 547099-547222 Sentence denotes Postweaning colibacillosis is characterized by catarrhal to mild fibrinohemorrhagic enterocolitis in piglets after weaning.
T46875 547223-547365 Sentence denotes Fibrinohemorrhagic typhlitis is caused by heavy infestations with Trichuris suis, especially in weaned pigs with access to pastures and yards.
T34611 547366-547448 Sentence denotes Under similar circumstances, Eimeria infection may rarely cause ileotyphlocolitis.
T45784 547449-547585 Sentence denotes Rectal stricture appears to be a product of ischemic proctitis, probably related in many cases to infection with Salmonella Typhimurium.
T40019 547586-547736 Sentence denotes Clostridium perfringens type C and C. difficile are also increasingly important causes of enteritis with occasional typhlocolitis in neonatal piglets.
T39337 547737-548051 Sentence denotes They are both characterized by necrotizing or pseudomembranous inflammation, with • Based on easily observed and objective features to allow a high degree of interobserver agreement when in use; and • Easily adaptable in response to new information about significant differences in behavior or response to therapy.
T25182 548052-548385 Sentence denotes There appears to be no significant difference in the histologic appearance or the biological behavior of the various neoplasms based on their site of origin in the lower gastrointestinal tract, that is, there is no reason to consider colonic adenocarcinomas (or lymphomas) separately from small intestinal or gastric adenocarcinomas.
T1835 548386-548505 Sentence denotes Prefixes such as "gastric" or "colonic" are used as descriptive anatomic terms only to aid in communication of results.
T11558 548506-548517 Sentence denotes Head KW, et
T14733 548519-548606 Sentence denotes The prevalence and distribution of gastrointestinal adenocarcinomas vary among species.
T10643 548607-548712 Sentence denotes In dogs, gastric carcinomas predominate; small intestinal and colonic carcinomas are relatively uncommon.
T98286 548713-548832 Sentence denotes In contrast, gastric carcinoma is rare in cats, but small intestinal and colonic adenocarcinomas are relatively common.
T53394 548833-548951 Sentence denotes In other species, where they are generally rare, gastrointestinal adenocarcinomas also involve mainly small intestine.
T49177 548952-549025 Sentence denotes The microscopic appearance is similar, regardless of species or location.
T38750 549026-549161 Sentence denotes A few develop as tubular and papillary proliferations of differentiated columnar epithelial cells projecting into the intestinal lumen.
T75892 549162-549229 Sentence denotes This is perhaps most commonly seen with colonic carcinomas in cats.
T40080 549230-549403 Sentence denotes Such lesions are distinguished from rare papillary adenomatous hyperplasia because they have at least some invasion into the lamina propria, submucosa, or tunica muscularis.
T55046 549404-549630 Sentence denotes Such invasion cannot be appreciated with endoscopic biopsies, and these papillary carcinomas sometimes cannot be distinguished from benign adenomatous hyperplasia or papillary adenomas without full-thickness surgical biopsies.
T38694 549631-549838 Sentence denotes This becomes particularly relevant when trying to distinguish the very common rectal papillary adenoma from the occasional, truly malignant, papillary carcinoma arising in the distal colon or rectum of dogs.
T45926 549839-550095 Sentence denotes The earliest recognizable histologic lesion of gastrointestinal carcinomas, regardless of the location, is local effacement or obliteration of glandular mucosal architecture at the site of origin by proliferating polygonal mucus-producing epithelial cells.
T22633 550096-550263 Sentence denotes These cells infiltrate the lamina propria, and then invade sequentially through the submucosa and tunica muscularis, infiltrating into lymphatics, and sometimes veins.
T39987 550264-550389 Sentence denotes They penetrate the serosa and exfoliate into the peritoneal cavity to establish neoplastic implants on omentum and mesentery.
T16615 550390-550561 Sentence denotes The tumor also spreads early via lymphatic and venous routes, so that even surgical excision on discovery is rarely curative, because it is too late to prevent metastasis.
T85325 550562-550714 Sentence denotes The microscopic appearance of the invading tumor can be quite variable, and usually more than one histologic subtype mesenchymal origin in most species.
T66564 550715-550821 Sentence denotes It may arise in the gut, although involvement of this area is often part of multicentric disease (see Vol.
T74032 550822-550847 Sentence denotes 3, Hematopoietic system).
T28101 550848-550968 Sentence denotes The third major category of gastrointestinal tumors is stromal, mainly phenotypically smooth muscle or undifferentiated.
T71329 550969-551205 Sentence denotes Elaborate classification schemes have been proposed based on histologic or immunophenotypic characterization with, in many cases, little evidence that they are relevant to the biological behavior of the tumor or its response to therapy.
T81950 551206-551339 Sentence denotes Furthermore, there is often so much variation within these lesions that it is difficult to make them conform to arbitrary categories.
T20624 551340-551509 Sentence denotes However, it is important to recognize the range in appearance inherent in the various neoplasms, so that they may be diagnosed correctly, in a clinically meaningful way.
T34814 551510-551554 Sentence denotes The 2003 Table 1 -1 is considerably simpler.
T2309 551555-551657 Sentence denotes This classification, and the discussion arising from it, is based upon several fundamental principles:
T50071 551658-551904 Sentence denotes Any classification of neoplasms should be: • The simplest that is compatible with our current understanding of tumor biology, including therapeutic and prognostic information; particularly lung, liver, and adrenal, by the time they are diagnosed.
T11946 551905-551964 Sentence denotes Rare cases of gastric adenocarcinoma are described in cats.
T63474 551965-552150 Sentence denotes They adopt tubular and diffuse patterns, and behave typically, but are so rare that a diagnosis of carcinoma should be made only on a full-thickness surgical biopsy or autopsy specimen.
T28079 552151-552287 Sentence denotes Endoscopic samples suggestive of gastric carcinoma in cats are almost always foci of adenomatous hyperplasia upon further investigation.
T49092 552288-552412 Sentence denotes Gastric adenocarcinoma in cattle is exceptionally uncommon, but when it occurs it resembles similar tumors in other species.
T33092 552413-552572 Sentence denotes Intestinal adenocarcinomas are uncommon in dogs; they occur most frequently in the proximal small intestine and large bowel of animals averaging 8-9 years old.
T6133 552573-552748 Sentence denotes Some investigators have reported a slightly higher prevalence of intestinal carcinomas in males, with a breed predisposition in Boxers, Collies, Poodles, and German Shepherds.
T79955 552749-552905 Sentence denotes Weight loss, persistent vomiting, anorexia, emaciation, and abdominal distention are the most common signs when the tumor is located in the small intestine.
T55841 552906-552999 Sentence denotes Dogs with colorectal tumors have large-bowel diarrhea, tenesmus, hematochezia, and dyschezia.
T41488 553000-553096 Sentence denotes Many dogs with intestinal carcinomas are anemic on account of hemorrhage from ulcerating tumors.
T91139 553097-553252 Sentence denotes Macroscopically, the tumors appear as gray-white, firm, sometimes annular, stenotic areas that commonly affect the entire thickness of the intestinal wall.
T67638 553253-553347 Sentence denotes These tumors often do not ulcerate, and they usually do not project into the lumen of the gut.
T11150 553348-553511 Sentence denotes Papillary or polypoid intestinal adenocarcinomas do form intraluminal masses, which tend to involve larger segments of the intestine, suggesting horizontal spread.
T7702 553512-553670 Sentence denotes There is dilation of the gut proximal to stenotic and obstructive tumors and there may be hypertrophy of the intestinal muscularis proximal to such neoplasms.
T88439 553671-553744 Sentence denotes These tumors metastasize widely, mainly via the lymphatics ( Fig. 1-68) .
T14407 553745-553903 Sentence denotes Involvement of the small intestine leads to metastases mainly in the mesenteric lymph nodes, less commonly to other abdominal nodes, liver, spleen, and lungs.
T5466 553904-554145 Sentence denotes Histologic evidence of metastasis at the time of resection of small intestinal tumors predicts a markedly reduced postsurgical survival time, but even dogs without such evidence may succumb to metastatic disease, albeit with longer survival.
T7480 554146-554238 Sentence denotes Colonic adenocarcinomas metastasize to colonic, iliac, and other pelvic and abdominal nodes.
T20854 554239-554297 Sentence denotes Metastases also may occur occurs within the same neoplasm.
T29012 554298-554393 Sentence denotes There is no proven prognostic or therapeutic significance to the different histologic patterns.
T73869 554394-554594 Sentence denotes Most are scirrhous, mucus-producing carcinomas that can create mucus-filled epithelial lakes throughout the intestinal wall, accompanied by what is often a great deal of fibrous stromal proliferation.
T67761 554595-554725 Sentence denotes The degree of cytologic maturation may be high, yet the diagnosis of carcinoma is obvious, given the transmural invasive behavior.
T76466 554726-555069 Sentence denotes Less commonly, the tumor cells invade in a tubular or acinar pattern, which tends to be less scirrhous, or as scattered individual anaplastic epithelial cells, accompanied by a great deal of desmoplastic fibrous tissue, so that recognizing carcinoma (in contrast to stromal malignancy or postinflammatory reactive fibrosis) may be challenging.
T93755 555070-555186 Sentence denotes In almost all cases, however, the tumor cells produce mucus, which may be revealed by periodic acid-Schiff staining.
T24135 555187-555348 Sentence denotes Formation of signet ring cells (an epithelial cell with the nucleus displaced to the periphery by a single large clear cytoplasmic vacuole) is relatively common.
T57629 555349-555416 Sentence denotes The histologic diagnosis is best made with a full-thickness biopsy.
T57727 555417-555613 Sentence denotes The submucosal and transmural portions of the tumor are routinely larger and more readily identified as malignancy than the mucosal portion of the tumor, which endoscopic biopsies may not capture.
T67316 555614-555798 Sentence denotes Alternatively, especially when large deep ulcerative lesions are biopsied endoscopically, only the necrosis, inflammation, and fibrosis that accompany neoplastic cells may be captured.
T46267 555799-556087 Sentence denotes On the other hand, a false-positive diagnosis may be made when attempting to distinguish early carcinoma (especially gastric carcinoma) from dysplastic repair of recent ulceration; in such cases, a full-thickness biopsy to detect invasion is more reliable than the best endoscopic sample.
T36293 556088-556191 Sentence denotes Adenocarcinoma of the stomach is most frequently reported in dogs, usually in animals <10 years of age.
T4312 556192-556308 Sentence denotes It is the most common gastrointestinal adenocarcinoma in dogs, and the most common gastric neoplasm in that species.
T45544 556309-556448 Sentence denotes Males predominate in the population with gastric cancer, and more than half of gastric adenocarcinomas in dogs occur in the pyloric region.
T8625 556449-556614 Sentence denotes Breed predisposition has been reported in multiple breeds including the Tervuren, Bouvier des Flandres, Groenendael, Collie, Standard Poodle, and Norwegian Elkhound.
T90995 556615-556766 Sentence denotes In the Lundehund, there may be a relationship to the chronic gastritis common in that breed, but otherwise no causal association is recognized in dogs.
T76064 556767-556860 Sentence denotes The antrum and pylorus are common sites for development of gastric adenocarcinoma in the dog.
T55389 556861-557052 Sentence denotes Grossly, some gastric neoplasms appear as nonulcerating, firm thickenings involving most of the gastric wall and causing loss of the normal rugal pattern on the mucosal surface ( Fig. 1-67) .
T33427 557053-557156 Sentence denotes Others are more localized plaque-like thickenings that tend to obliterate rugae and ulcerate centrally.
T53069 557157-557227 Sentence denotes Ulceration occurs in more than half of canine gastric adenocarcinomas.
T9936 557228-557334 Sentence denotes Surface proliferation or irregularity other than ulceration is very uncommon in gastric carcinoma in dogs.
T53690 557335-557437 Sentence denotes Cut sections through the stomach wall invaded by carcinoma reveal edema and pale, firm fibrous tissue.
T88693 557438-557572 Sentence denotes Induration or plaque-like pale masses may be evident on the serosa, where the pale outline of infiltrated lymphatics may be prominent.
T35347 557573-557752 Sentence denotes Widespread gastric mural fibrosis and thickening, the result of desmoplasia induced by the malignant epithelium, cause linitis plastica, the so-called "leather bottle" appearance.
T67125 557753-558039 Sentence denotes Gastric carcinomas in dogs infiltrate the stomach wall aggressively, invading lymphatics, and usually they have metastasized to the local lymph nodes, and often to distant organs, certain fertilizers, and pastures with the weed Cynosaurus cristatus, have been reported from New Zealand.
T6164 558040-558087 Sentence denotes Tumors occur mainly in animals ≥5 years of age.
T19502 558088-558227 Sentence denotes Clinically affected sheep lose weight and have abdominal distention caused by ascites, but most cases are incidental findings at slaughter.
T94929 558228-558332 Sentence denotes The tumors are usually located in the middle or lower small intestine (Fig. 1-70) , rarely in the colon.
T70635 558333-558511 Sentence denotes They are dense, firm, white masses, 0.5 to several centimeters long and up to 1 cm thick, which may form annular constrictive bands at the in most abdominal organs and the lungs.
T99627 558512-558631 Sentence denotes Implantation on serosal surfaces may result in obstruction of omental and diaphragmatic lymphatics, leading to ascites.
T93819 558632-558781 Sentence denotes In a few cases malignant cells may spread retrograde in the lymphatics of the abdomen and pelvic limbs, causing edema of the abdominal wall and legs.
T49036 558782-558940 Sentence denotes Dogs with annular colorectal carcinomas have a much shorter survival period compared to dogs that have a single, pedunculated polypoid tumor in this location.
T32377 558941-559115 Sentence denotes The etiopathogenesis of colonic carcinomas in dogs is uncertain, but there appears to be progression to malignancy from benign adenomatous lesions in at least some instances.
T78022 559116-559380 Sentence denotes Colorectal adenocarcinoma in the dog has been used as a model of human colon cancer with common features in tumorigenesis being identified. β-Catenin and cyclooxygenase-2 are overexpressed in malignant colonic epithelial cells in some cases, as they are in humans.
T6319 559381-559654 Sentence denotes In addition, adenomatous polyposis coli (APC), a protein encoded by the tumor suppressor gene APC, is frequently altered in sporadic canine colon adenomas and adenocarcinoma as it is in human colon tumors and changes in this gene may be an early event in tumor development.
T48245 559655-559785 Sentence denotes In cats, intestinal adenocarcinoma is less prevalent than lymphosarcoma, but it is relatively more prevalent in cats than in dogs.
T165 559786-559870 Sentence denotes Carcinomas of the intestine are more prevalent in Siamese cats than in other breeds.
T95877 559871-559957 Sentence denotes As in dogs, a higher prevalence of this tumor has been reported in males than females.
T35247 559958-560021 Sentence denotes The mean age of cats with intestinal carcinomas is 10-11 years.
T57785 560022-560090 Sentence denotes The ileum is the most common site affected, followed by the jejunum.
T61245 560091-560258 Sentence denotes Carcinomas occasionally arise in the large intestine, and when the tumor is located at the ileocecal junction, both the large and small intestine usually are involved.
T23479 560259-560328 Sentence denotes The clinical signs and gross appearance are similar to those in dogs.
T32440 560329-560483 Sentence denotes The microscopic appearance of intestinal carcinomas in cats is typical (Fig. 1-69) , except that osteochondroid metaplasia of the stroma may be a feature.
T13899 560484-560651 Sentence denotes The rare carcinomas involving the large intestine have tended to be papillary, better differentiated, and less scirrhous than carcinomas involving the small intestine.
T15627 560652-560894 Sentence denotes Intestinal adenocarcinoma is relatively common in sheep in New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Scotland, Iceland, Norway, and southeastern Australia; in New Zealand and Australia there is a high prevalence in breeds used for fat lamb production.
T9471 560895-561021 Sentence denotes The cause of the high prevalence is unknown, but may be related to exposure to bracken fern or other unidentified carcinogens.
T85622 561022-561062 Sentence denotes Other associations, such as heavy use of
T24594 561064-561152 Sentence denotes Hematogenous spread to the liver, lung, kidney, uterus, and ovaries may occur in cattle.
T38593 561154-561297 Sentence denotes Adenomatous hyperplasia occurs as focal papillary or papillotubular proliferation of surface epithelium anywhere in the gastrointestinal tract.
T85839 561298-561435 Sentence denotes In the stomach (Fig. 1-72) , it is to be distinguished from chronic hypertrophic pyloric gastropathy, discussed with pyloric obstruction.
T35486 561436-561538 Sentence denotes The most common site is the distal rectum of middle-aged dogs, within 10 cm of the anal-rectal margin.
T70501 561539-561726 Sentence denotes Given a variety of names, such as adenomatous hyperplasia, papillotubular adenoma, colorectal polyp or adenoma, and polypoid carcinoma in situ, we refer to it as rectal papillary adenoma.
T57866 561727-561840 Sentence denotes It occurs in dogs of almost any age, and is usually a single nodule easily managed by adequate surgical excision.
T87110 561841-561970 Sentence denotes Tenesmus, prolapse of the polyp, rectal bleeding following defecation, chronic dyschezia, and diarrhea are the most common signs.
T65009 561971-562047 Sentence denotes Some, but not all, surveys indicate that this tumor is more common in males.
T94266 562048-562178 Sentence denotes Macroscopically, the tumor is usually sessile or slightly pedunculated, varying from 1 cm to several centimeters in affected site.
T18180 562179-562242 Sentence denotes Cauliflower-like growths may be evident on the serosal surface.
T11803 562243-562331 Sentence denotes Polyps or plaques may protrude into the lumen, but ulceration of the mucosa is uncommon.
T26892 562332-562390 Sentence denotes The distal edge of the tumor is generally well demarcated.
T95374 562391-562449 Sentence denotes There is dilation of the intestine proximal to the lesion.
T82483 562450-562627 Sentence denotes Metastatic implantations on serosal surfaces are common and these appear as opaque to white plaques or diffusely thickened areas, which must be differentiated from mesothelioma.
T54796 562628-562698 Sentence denotes Obstruction of serosal lymphatics by tumor emboli may lead to ascites.
T36361 562699-562734 Sentence denotes Lung and liver metastases are rare.
T45760 562735-562941 Sentence denotes Microscopically, the tumor is characterized by solid sheets or nests of well-differentiated to highly anaplastic polyhedral, cuboidal, or columnar epithelial cells that may form irregular acinar structures.
T40968 562942-563075 Sentence denotes They may be distributed singly, or in small aggregates, and are often difficult to detect in the heavy fibrous desmoplastic response.
T84630 563076-563249 Sentence denotes The neoplastic cells infiltrate the bowel wall along lymphatics, vessels, and nerve trunks, through to the serosal surface, whence they spread to the mesenteric lymph nodes.
T19823 563250-563362 Sentence denotes This is apparently followed by retrograde lymphogenous metastasis to the gut wall proximal to the primary tumor.
T92461 563363-563449 Sentence denotes These secondary tumors are particularly responsible for constriction of the gut lumen.
T76354 563450-563647 Sentence denotes Sclerotic masses with anaplastic epithelial cells, many of which are periodic acid-Schiff-positive, are located on the serosal surfaces of the abdominal organs but rarely infiltrate the parenchyma.
T58684 563648-563747 Sentence denotes Argentaffin cells may form part of some intestinal carcinomas, especially in lymph node metastases.
T37108 563748-563812 Sentence denotes Mineralization and osseous metaplasia may develop in the stroma.
T34958 563813-563904 Sentence denotes Intestinal carcinomas are generally rare in cattle ( Fig. 1-71) , goats, horses, and swine.
T74195 563905-564032 Sentence denotes In horses, intestinal adenocarcinomas represent <1% of equine neoplasms and are found less frequently than intestinal lymphoma.
T95904 564033-564208 Sentence denotes In cattle, intestinal adenocarcinoma is associated with bracken fern, papillomavirus, and upper alimentary cancer (see section on Neoplasia of the esophagus and forestomachs).
T285 564209-564448 Sentence denotes Most of these tumors in cattle are adenomas and three types are recognized: (1) a sessile plaque; (2) an adenomatous polyp; and (3) a more proliferative adenoma of the ampullae in which the bile and pancreatic ducts open into the duodenum.
T47910 564449-564524 Sentence denotes Intestinal carcinomas are usually an incidental finding at meat inspection.
T79159 564525-564663 Sentence denotes The location, morphology, and routes of metastasis are similar to those described for sheep, except that serosal lesions are less obvious.
T37190 564664-564810 Sentence denotes In cattle, intestinal polyps are usually an incidental finding, except in those cases in which they are large enough to cause partial obstruction.
T21304 564811-564898 Sentence denotes The tumors are raised, often pedunculated, gray-to-brown masses on the mucosal surface.
T70674 564899-564971 Sentence denotes They may occur singly, in grape-like clusters, or they may be scattered.
T35054 564972-565117 Sentence denotes Microscopically they resemble benign rectal polyps in the dog, but they may be capable of malignant transformation (see earlier in this chapter).
T3031 565118-565189 Sentence denotes Adenomatous polyps frequently occur in sheep with intestinal carcinoma.
T98463 565190-565359 Sentence denotes Hyperplastic polyps occur in the small intestines of lambs and goats with chronic coccidiosis (see section on Infectious and parasitic diseases of the alimentary tract).
T2623 565360-565577 Sentence denotes The proliferative lesions caused by Lawsonia intracellularis in horses and swine may impart a polypoid appearance to the intestinal mucosa grossly, and microscopically should not be mistaken for adenomatous neoplasia.
T47090 565579-565724 Sentence denotes Carcinoids arise from neuroendocrine cells that are scattered in the mucosa of a wide variety of organs, including the stomach and the intestine.
T81976 565725-565828 Sentence denotes These cells secrete low-molecularweight polypeptide hormones, such as secretin, somatostatin, diameter.
T30451 565829-565911 Sentence denotes It may be firm or friable and hemorrhagic; the mucosal surface is often ulcerated.
T13305 565912-566014 Sentence denotes Microscopically, the polyp may have a predominantly tubular or papillary growth pattern ( Fig. 1-73) .
T61521 566015-566201 Sentence denotes In welloriented specimens the tubular pattern is characterized by branching crypts that are lined by generally well-differentiated columnar-to-cuboidal pseudostratified epithelial cells.
T65449 566202-566361 Sentence denotes The papillary type consists of villus-like projections of proprial connective tissue that are covered by a layer of pseudostratified columnar epithelial cells.
T44502 566362-566486 Sentence denotes There may be cytoplasmic basophilia, loss of nuclear polarity, and prominent nucleoli in epithelium in both types of polyps.
T16765 566487-566553 Sentence denotes The number of mitotic figures varies, often within the same polyp.
T263 566554-566753 Sentence denotes These tumors often appear to originate in the superficial portion of the crypts, deeper portions of which may remain normal, with tubules or slender papillae of hyperchromatic tumor cells above them.
T93250 566754-566865 Sentence denotes The stalk of the tumor is highly vascular and is continuous with the lamina propria or submucosa of the rectum.
T63708 566866-566939 Sentence denotes The tumors are generally well demarcated from the adjacent normal mucosa.
T7797 566940-567059 Sentence denotes The amount of mucin in the epithelium varies considerably, and it is often absent, especially in more dysplastic cells.
T38267 567060-567115 Sentence denotes Some polyps have a malignant appearance histologically.
T17182 567116-567288 Sentence denotes These are characterized by the presence of anaplastic epithelial cells in situ in the mucosa, and, in some cases, invading the propria and adjacent submucosa ( Fig. 1-74 ).
T17762 567289-567361 Sentence denotes There is limited information on the biological behavior of these tumors.
T33568 567362-567434 Sentence denotes In dogs, adequate surgical removal usually results in complete recovery.
T53947 567435-567746 Sentence denotes Some are interpreted at presentation as carcinoma in situ, based on cytologic characteristics, and deep biopsies and/or complete excision of these polyps are essential to rule out local invasion or infiltration of lymphatics, which should be sought in specimens with epithelial morphology suggesting malignancy.
T97469 567747-567985 Sentence denotes Polyps that are >1 cm in diameter tend to have cells with a more anaplastic appearance, and recurrence is most probable in cases interpreted as carcinoma in situ, those with multiple masses, or those with more diffuse colonic involvement.
T38426 567986-568049 Sentence denotes In other species, polypoid and adenomatous tumors are uncommon.
T20755 568050-568174 Sentence denotes Benign adenomatous polyps are reported in the stomach and duodenum of cats, predominantly middle-aged males of Asian breeds.
T34253 568175-568208 Sentence denotes They are presented with vomition,
T58869 568209-568324 Sentence denotes Squamous cell carcinomas derived from the mucosa of the pars esophagea are the most common gastric tumor in horses.
T12196 568325-568544 Sentence denotes They occur predominantly in middle-aged or older animals, which are usually presented in an advanced state, with unexplained anorexia, occasionally dysphagia, and weight loss sometimes progressing rapidly to emaciation.
T62026 568545-568713 Sentence denotes At autopsy there may be peritoneal effusion, and there is usually evidence of the neoplasm as plaques of proliferative or scirrhous tissue on the serosa of the stomach.
T93258 568714-569015 Sentence denotes There also may be peritoneal implants, especially on intestine, testes, omentum, parietal abdominal surfaces, and diaphragm; direct extension to adjacent organs, including liver, spleen, and diaphragm, with progression to the pleural space; and sometimes distant metastases, usually in liver and lung.
T92983 569016-569151 Sentence denotes The appearance of the tumor on serosal surfaces resembles mesothelioma, with smooth creamy plaques or nodules up to 2-4 cm in diameter.
T4748 569152-569338 Sentence denotes The origin of these lesions is usually a fungating cauliflowerlike mass 10-40 cm in diameter, with superficial fissures, projecting above the surface of the pars esophagea ( Fig. 1-75 ).
T96323 569339-569416 Sentence denotes Sometimes these lesions are superficially more ulcerative than proliferative.
T97779 569417-569542 Sentence denotes Necrosis and hemorrhage are evident in the tumor mass, which is usually well demarcated from adjacent normal squamous mucosa.
T19642 569543-569621 Sentence denotes Occasionally the tumor extends into the distal esophagus, and may obstruct it.
T86810 569622-569754 Sentence denotes Microscopically, these neoplasms are typical squamous cell carcinomas, invading in cords or nests of cells through the gastric wall.
T90417 569755-569918 Sentence denotes They and cholecystokinin, or they are part of the amine precursor uptake decarboxylation (APUD) group, producing compounds such as serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine).
T69116 569919-569995 Sentence denotes Carcinoid tumors of the gastrointestinal tract are rare in domestic animals.
T56786 569996-570083 Sentence denotes They have been reported mainly in aged dogs and very rarely in the cat, cow, and horse.
T65995 570084-570214 Sentence denotes In dogs, most carcinoids are located in the duodenum, colon, and rectum, and only rarely in the stomach and lower small intestine.
T14927 570215-570318 Sentence denotes Clinically, they may cause intestinal obstruction, and anemia resulting from ulceration and hemorrhage.
T20774 570319-570438 Sentence denotes Associated diarrhea in some cases can speculatively be attributed to hypersecretion of functional polypeptide hormones.
T53644 570439-570516 Sentence denotes Rectal carcinoids may protrude from the anus and resemble adenomatous polyps.
T20696 570517-570653 Sentence denotes Macroscopically, carcinoids are usually lobulated, firm, dark-red to cream-colored masses a few millimeters to perhaps 2 cm in diameter.
T81297 570654-570839 Sentence denotes They seem to arise deep in the mucosa, often forming submucosal or subserosal nodules, perhaps with ulceration of overlying mucosa, and infiltrating transmurally and into the mesentery.
T45969 570840-570905 Sentence denotes Microscopically, carcinoids have a distinct endocrine appearance.
T73687 570906-571053 Sentence denotes Round or oval to polyhedral cells have abundant finely granular eosinophilic or vacuolated cytoplasm and vesiculate nuclei with prominent nucleoli.
T83665 571054-571149 Sentence denotes They form nests, ribbons, rosettes, or diffuse sheets in the mucosa, submucosa, and muscularis.
T67622 571150-571243 Sentence denotes A fine vascularized fibrous stroma often divides the tumor masses into pseudoalveolar arrays.
T81435 571244-571308 Sentence denotes Amyloid may be present in intercellular and perivascular spaces.
T36937 571309-571388 Sentence denotes Uninuclear megalocytes and multinucleated giant cells are present occasionally.
T48606 571389-571626 Sentence denotes A diagnosis of carcinoid is based on the endocrine histologic pattern, cytoplasmic argentaffinic and argyrophilic granularity, immunohistochemical identification of specific secretory products, and the typical ultrastructural appearance.
T28319 571627-571832 Sentence denotes The histochemical reactions may be negative, especially in rectal carcinoids, and they also may be lost during fixation in formalin or by autolysis prior to fixation, as may immunohistochemical reactivity.
T46334 571833-572078 Sentence denotes These cells are routinely positive with immunohistochemical staining for neuron-specific enolase and chromogranin, as are most neuroendocrine tumors, and then with one or more of the specific immune probes related to the peptides being produced.
T86162 572079-572168 Sentence denotes An increased concentration of specific secretory products may be detected in circulation.
T80676 572169-572269 Sentence denotes Electron microscopic examination helps to differentiate carcinoids from intestinal mast cell tumors.
T67456 572270-572406 Sentence denotes Carcinoid cells have dense, round-to-oval, membrane-bound secretory granules in the cytoplasm, which vary in diameter from 75 to 300 nm.
T78872 572407-572510 Sentence denotes They have abundant rough endoplasmic reticulum and the plasma membrane forms interdigitating processes.
T41239 572511-572596 Sentence denotes Carcinoid cells are Schiff-negative and do not show metachromasia with Giemsa stains.
T77212 572597-572670 Sentence denotes Data on biological behavior of intestinal carcinoids in dogs are limited.
T44646 572671-572711 Sentence denotes Most cases reported have been malignant.
T4310 572712-572812 Sentence denotes There may be extensive invasion of the gut wall and veins, with metastasis, especially to the liver.
T52113 572813-572918 Sentence denotes The few cases that have been described in other species have features similar to those described in dogs.
T70689 572919-573101 Sentence denotes Goblet cell carcinoids (adenocarcinoids, mucinous carcinoids) are tumors that are most commonly found in the appendix of humans, with features of both carcinoids and adenocarcinomas.
T54352 573102-573166 Sentence denotes There is a single report of such a tumor in the rectum of a dog.
T16927 573167-573360 Sentence denotes Microscopically goblet cell carcinoids have distinct areas of mucinous adenocarcinoma and carcinoid The tumors are located in the small intestine, stomach, and colon in that order of frequency.
T86775 573361-573466 Sentence denotes They are soft-to-firm, creamcolored masses located in the submucosa that may protrude into the gut lumen.
T21123 573467-573505 Sentence denotes The overlying mucosa may be ulcerated.
T41817 573506-573596 Sentence denotes The masses can be nodular to diffuse and several sections of the gut are usually affected.
T47156 573597-573702 Sentence denotes The mesenteric nodes are often enlarged and the liver is frequently involved at the time of presentation.
T35957 573703-573888 Sentence denotes The majority of primary gastrointestinal lymphomas in dogs are epitheliotropic T-cell tumors based on immunohistochemical reactions, the remainder being mixed, B-cell, or indeterminate.
T90393 573889-574134 Sentence denotes Microscopically, in typical cases of epitheliotropic intestinal lymphoma, the mucosal, submucosal, and muscular architecture is effaced by a population of monotypic large lymphocytes with variable nuclear morphology and obvious mitotic activity.
T67491 574135-574205 Sentence denotes The crypts are effaced as they become infiltrated by neoplastic cells.
T9279 574206-574345 Sentence denotes In contrast to cats, alimentary lymphoma in dogs is usually large lymphoblastic type with small cell neoplastic infiltrates being uncommon.
T78329 574346-574402 Sentence denotes The lesions of very early lymphoma are more challenging.
T14599 574403-574636 Sentence denotes They are distinguished from chronic inflammatory bowel disease by the relatively monotypic lymphocyte population and the intraepithelial infiltration of lymphocytes that obscures the distinction between lamina propria and epithelium.
T15498 574637-574891 Sentence denotes Even with these criteria, differentiation of early neoplastic from inflammatory disease can be problematic because residual plasma cells, eosinophils, and benign lymphocytes of the normal lamina propria persist among the neoplastic lymphocyte population.
T31589 574892-575128 Sentence denotes Similarly, not all cases of intestinal lymphoma exhibit epitheliotropic growth, and there is overlap between neoplastic epithelial invasion and the increase in intraepithelial lymphocytes that is commonly seen with inflammatory disease.
T12444 575129-575239 Sentence denotes The key is not just the presence of the lymphocytes, but the obliteration of the proprial:epithelial boundary.
T56824 575240-575479 Sentence denotes Once the lymphoma effaces crypts or invades submucosa, diagnosis should not be problematic, but full-thickness biopsies from several areas of the intestine may help differentiate chronic inflammatory bowel disease from intestinal lymphoma.
T65353 575480-575650 Sentence denotes Lymphoplasmacytic enteritis in the dog, particularly the Basenji, may represent a prelymphomatous stage similar to immunoproliferative small intestinal disease in humans.
T9206 575651-575855 Sentence denotes The latter is characterized by diffuse lymphoplasmacytic infiltration of the small intestinal mucosa that results in malabsorption, and predisposes to the development of primary enteromesenteric lymphoma.
T60848 575856-575913 Sentence denotes In cats, the situation is substantially more complicated.
T26579 575914-576099 Sentence denotes There are at least three histologic categories of gastrointestinal lymphoma, small cell lymphocytic villus lymphoma, large cell lymphoblastic lymphoma, and large granular cell lymphoma.
T86109 576100-576292 Sentence denotes The small cell lymphomas tend to have a longer clinical course, whereas the lymphoblastic (T-and B-cell) and large granular cell lymphomas are associated with more rapidly progressive disease.
T12348 576293-576372 Sentence denotes The jejunum may be the site of highest incidence of T-cell lymphoma in the cat.
T95353 576373-576591 Sentence denotes Small cell lymphocytic villus lymphoma is a T-cell lymphoma that typically begins at the base of the villi within the small intestine of old cats, and is the most frequent type of intestinal lymphoma in geriatric cats.
T1028 576592-576785 Sentence denotes Clustering of suspiciously monotypic small hyperchromatic lymphocytes within the lamina propria just at the base of villi is an exceedingly common observation in cats 15 years of age and older.
T35829 576786-576857 Sentence denotes It is not clear whether this is incipient lymphoma or a normal finding.
T5822 576858-577055 Sentence denotes The number of such cells may vary substantially from induce desmoplasia, imparting a scirrhous, firm texture and appearance to the thickened gastric wall and to the peritoneal and pleural implants.
T46156 577056-577140 Sentence denotes One such tumor has been reported as a cause of pseudohyperparathyroidism in a horse.
T42940 577141-577226 Sentence denotes A squamous cell carcinoma is reported arising from the pyloric gland mucosa in a dog.
T45275 577227-577234 Sentence denotes Patnaik
T72617 577236-577308 Sentence denotes Gastrointestinal lymphomas occur in most species and are common in cats.
T46798 577309-577410 Sentence denotes These neoplasms may be primary or part of the systemic or multicentric form of the neoplasm (see Vol.
T21311 577411-577436 Sentence denotes 3, Hematopoietic system).
T14801 577437-577667 Sentence denotes Primary lymphoma of the intestine includes cases having malignant lymphocytic infiltrates in the intestine, with or without involvement of the abdominal organs or bone marrow, but with no lesions in the thorax or peripheral sites.
T20893 577668-577777 Sentence denotes Lymphoma is the most common gastrointestinal neoplasm in companion animals, more prevalent in cats than dogs.
T60208 577778-577859 Sentence denotes It can be segmental within any portion of the gastrointestinal tract, or diffuse.
T49778 577860-578069 Sentence denotes Although the gastrointestinal tract may be involved in advanced multicentric lymphoma in dogs, such cases are rarely submitted for biopsy because the diagnosis has already been made based on lesions elsewhere.
T46355 578070-578188 Sentence denotes Most samples submitted for histologic assessment are from cases suspected of having primary gastrointestinal lymphoma.
T85091 578189-578278 Sentence denotes In cats, almost all cases examined at biopsy are primary within the stomach or intestine.
T15273 578279-578397 Sentence denotes In both species, spread outside intestine is usually to mesenteric lymph nodes and to liver, and less commonly beyond.
T45415 578398-578559 Sentence denotes In liver, the neoplasm infiltrates in a characteristic portal pattern that should not be mistaken for chronic portal hepatitis or lymphocytic cholangiohepatitis.
T26272 578560-578719 Sentence denotes In lymphoma, the tumor cells often form layers 10-20 deep in the portal tract, and cholangiolar proliferation, fibrosis, and hepatocellular atrophy are absent.
T46308 578720-578787 Sentence denotes In advanced hepatic disease, the cells also surround central veins.
T50637 578788-578963 Sentence denotes Although scattered tumor cells may occur within the sinusoids, a primarily sinusoidal distribution of lymphocytes signals lymphocytic leukemia rather than intestinal lymphoma.
T61376 578964-579102 Sentence denotes The classification of lymphomas in animals is complex, integrating distribution, histologic and cytologic appearance, and immunophenotype.
T20484 579103-579270 Sentence denotes Most categories are based on lymphomas discovered in lymph nodes or skin; as a group, intestinal lymphomas have received little detailed investigation in this context.
T56362 579271-579519 Sentence denotes Most of the controversy about intestinal lymphoma is related not to its diagnosis, but rather to the relationship (if any) between its classification and subsequent behavior, including response to therapy; currently no clear association is evident.
T26181 579520-579618 Sentence denotes In dogs, intestinal lymphoma can affect animals from adolescence to old age, with a male sex bias.
T19111 579619-579727 Sentence denotes Nonspecific signs of enteric disease and weight loss may be acute or occur over a period of weeks to months.
T39914 579728-579824 Sentence denotes Hypoproteinemia, probably associated with enteric protein loss, occurs in ~30% of affected dogs.
T88007 579825-579860 Sentence denotes Further reading McKenzie EC, et al.
T2501 579861-579970 Sentence denotes Gastric In the horse, alimentary lymphoma is a relatively common tumor; most are attributed to B lymphocytes.
T87958 579971-580004 Sentence denotes It occurs mainly in young adults.
T99842 580005-580170 Sentence denotes Affected horses lose condition, likely because of malabsorption and protein loss; in addition they may be anemic, icteric, and have mild intermittent bouts of colic.
T73889 580171-580196 Sentence denotes Diarrhea is inconsistent.
T20965 580197-580282 Sentence denotes Serum albumin often can be decreased, but they are frequently hypergammaglobulinemic.
T95974 580283-580372 Sentence denotes Alimentary lymphoma in horses needs to be differentiated from inflammatory bowel disease.
T18814 580373-580557 Sentence denotes Macroscopic lesions in horses are usually located in the small intestine, and these are characterized by local to diffuse thickening of the gut wall with prominent rugae on the mucosa.
T39354 580558-580629 Sentence denotes Nodules or plaques with fibrous adhesions may be evident on the serosa.
T97159 580630-580673 Sentence denotes The mesenteric nodes are markedly enlarged.
T7331 580674-580726 Sentence denotes Other nodes may be enlarged, but to a lesser extent.
T35653 580727-580865 Sentence denotes Microscopically, there is diffuse lymphoid infiltration of the lamina propria and submucosa, usually extending transmurally to the serosa.
T71770 580866-580947 Sentence denotes There is marked villus atrophy to the point of complete loss of villi and crypts.
T20237 580948-581046 Sentence denotes Plasmacytoid cells are regularly present in the lamina propria but less numerous in the submucosa.
T79589 581047-581148 Sentence denotes Similar lymphoid cell infiltration involves the mesenteric nodes and the perinodal connective tissue.
T56939 581149-581204 Sentence denotes Other lymph nodes are involved in about half the cases.
T83668 581205-581301 Sentence denotes A plasmacytoid or plasmacytic reaction and occasional giant cells are also present in the nodes.
T21505 581302-581457 Sentence denotes The neoplastic lymphoid cells are probably of B-cell origin and home into the gut-associated lymphoid tissue and the lamina propria of the small intestine.
T521 581458-581655 Sentence denotes Epitheliotropic T-cell lymphomas resembling those in dogs, and ulcerating large granular lymphomas caused by T cells, somewhat resembling those described in cats, also occur infrequently in horses.
T19305 581656-581872 Sentence denotes A T-cell lymphoma occurred concurrently with multisystemic eosinophilic epitheliotropic disease in a horse, prompting the suggestion that undetected T-cell lymphoma secreting interleukin-5 may underlie that syndrome.
T34155 581873-581969 Sentence denotes Paraneoplastic eosinophilia has also been associated with intestinal lymphosarcoma in the horse.
T54780 581970-582161 Sentence denotes In cattle and sheep, alimentary lymphomas are generally part of the adult multicentric form of the disease, and the intestinal lesions resemble the effacing tumors described in other species.
T62467 582162-582253 Sentence denotes More important in cattle is lymphosarcoma of the abomasum, which is common in adult cattle.
T37764 582254-582345 Sentence denotes Diffuse mucosal and submucosal lymphocytic infiltrates or nodular proliferations may occur.
T58715 582346-582403 Sentence denotes Strategically placed pyloric tumor may cause obstruction.
T7485 582404-582532 Sentence denotes Diffuse lesions, thickening the gastric wall, frequently ulcerate, and hemorrhage from such ulcers, as melena, is a common sign.
T38278 582533-582629 Sentence denotes The lymphoid infiltrates are recognizable as firm gray-white tissue in the submucosa and mucosa.
T1613 582630-582695 Sentence denotes Involvement of abomasal lymph nodes is disproportionately slight.
T48639 582696-582743 Sentence denotes In swine, diffuse gastric lymphosarcoma occurs.
T22127 582744-582924 Sentence denotes The wall of the stomach is thickened by submucosal lymphocytic infiltrates, which sometimes invade the mucosa locally in many areas, producing nodular elevations that may ulcerate.
T56548 582925-583042 Sentence denotes B-cell lymphomas involving the Peyer's patches also have been detected at meat inspection in swine. villus to villus.
T23957 583043-583202 Sentence denotes As these clusters seem to expand, the lymphocytes infiltrate into the overlying epithelium, obliterating the distinction between lamina propria and epithelium.
T99758 583203-583338 Sentence denotes Unlike inflammatory bowel disease, such lesions may be very patchy, and there is no concurrent increase in plasma cells or eosinophils.
T68950 583339-583446 Sentence denotes With time, the lymphocyte population appears to expand throughout the lamina propria and then transmurally.
T15257 583447-583533 Sentence denotes Sixty percent of intestinal T-cell lymphomas have been reported to be epitheliotropic.
T16668 583534-583658 Sentence denotes Microscopically this is demonstrated by increased numbers of intraepithelial lymphocytes within villus and crypt epithelium.
T166 583659-583964 Sentence denotes The syndrome shares substantial clinical overlap with inflammatory bowel disease in that it is often slowly progressive and it is usually not accompanied by clinical signs related to neoplastic infiltration of liver, spleen, or lymph node, even though there is often microscopic tumor within those organs.
T37017 583965-584099 Sentence denotes The extent of microscopic disease within the intestine is usually much greater than the macroscopic impression at the time of surgery.
T65120 584100-584257 Sentence denotes Determination of T-cell receptor (TCR) rearrangement clonality using PCR has been shown to be an accurate method of diagnosis of small cell lymphoma in cats.
T76396 584258-584483 Sentence denotes Large cell/lymphoblastic lymphoma, in contrast, is characterized by a rapidly progressing transmural lesion that is usually accompanied by clinically palpable intestinal masses and by markedly enlarged mesenteric lymph nodes.
T44332 584484-584516 Sentence denotes Cats of any age may be affected.
T47697 584517-584693 Sentence denotes Most of these are reported as B-cell tumors, although not all investigators concur, and the majority of these high-grade lymphomas have not been subjected to immunophenotyping.
T17681 584694-584769 Sentence denotes It is likely that the incidence of T-cell lymphoma has been underestimated.
T64579 584770-584961 Sentence denotes B-cell lymphomas have been shown to be most common in the stomach and ileocecocolic junction, whereas T-cell lymphomas are most common in the proximal small intestine, especially the jejunum.
T10011 584962-585144 Sentence denotes The tumor resembles canine lymphomas, in that there is usually transmural effacement of intestinal architecture, and obliteration of the structure of affected mesenteric lymph nodes.
T92841 585145-585234 Sentence denotes Many cases differ from canine lymphomas, however, in having marked cellular pleomorphism.
T99 585235-585336 Sentence denotes The tumor cells may have fairly abundant cytoplasm, nuclear cleavage, and up to 2-fold anisokaryosis.
T50106 585337-585531 Sentence denotes Descriptive names such as "histiocytic lymphoma" for some of these more anaplastic variants are no longer appropriate because immunophenotyping is available to identify the cells more precisely.
T45567 585532-585617 Sentence denotes Lesions are often sharply segmental and the primary lesion can be completely excised.
T48160 585618-585695 Sentence denotes However, the high prevalence of metastatic disease makes surgical cures rare.
T56020 585696-585781 Sentence denotes Large granular lymphoma is usually a rapidly progressive intestinal lymphoma of cats.
T63448 585782-585841 Sentence denotes The tumor cells are either T cells or natural killer cells.
T16383 585842-585927 Sentence denotes These are medium-to-large lymphocytes with pleomorphic nuclei with frequent clefting.
T65107 585928-586023 Sentence denotes The distinctive features are the large red cytoplasmic granules, and perforin immunoreactivity.
T69732 586024-586186 Sentence denotes In the presence of cleaved nuclei, the large granules may be mistaken for those of eosinophils, but they are larger, rounder, and are more intensely eosinophilic.
T7831 586187-586297 Sentence denotes The cytologic characteristics have also caused such tumors to be attributed to globule leukocytes in the past.
T86618 586298-586354 Sentence denotes The granular cells are not present as a pure population.
T71657 586355-586567 Sentence denotes They are often intermingled with other lymphocyte types and with macrophages, so these invasive and destructive transmural lesions are sometimes confused with transmural granulomatous disease or mast cell tumors.
T75234 586568-586807 Sentence denotes These tumors progress rapidly, with widespread dissemination and even leukemia, and they may perforate affected areas of intestine. c-KIT, but cytology and lack of metachromatic granules when stained with toluidine blue differentiate them.
T29552 586808-586968 Sentence denotes Ultrastructurally the cytoplasm of gastrointestinal mucosal mast cell tumor cells contains many membrane-bound granules that appear as single or fused vesicles.
T93889 586969-587037 Sentence denotes Fine fibrillar material forms a loose network within these vesicles.
T5393 587038-587120 Sentence denotes A few tumor cells contain electron-dense fibrillar granules or intermediate forms.
T39514 587121-587259 Sentence denotes The crystalline electron-dense granules that are present in connective tissue mast cells, such as those from the skin, are rarely evident.
T95617 587260-587373 Sentence denotes Metastases occur most often in the mesenteric lymph nodes, followed by the liver, spleen, and, rarely, the lungs.
T63086 587374-587601 Sentence denotes Ulceration of the gastrointestinal mucosa occurs commonly with systemic tissue mast cell tumors in cats and with large cutaneous mastocytomas in dogs, owing to histamine stimulation of acid production by gastric parietal cells.
T69506 587602-587759 Sentence denotes Gastrointestinal ulceration is not a feature of mucosal mast cell tumors of intestinal origin, except perhaps as a result of mucosal effacement by the tumor.
T17307 587761-587878 Sentence denotes Plasmacytomas of the lower gastrointestinal tract are uncommon neoplasms in dogs, and rare in cats and other species.
T49655 587879-588047 Sentence denotes They are encountered most frequently in the submucosa of the distal colon and rectum of dogs, where they are associated with signs of large-bowel diarrhea and bleeding.
T98157 588048-588127 Sentence denotes Histologically they resemble plasmacytomas of the skin, oral cavity, or larynx.
T60140 588128-588282 Sentence denotes The tumor is formed by solid packets of pleomorphic round cells with various degrees of plasmacytoid maturation, especially at the periphery of the tumor.
T40299 588283-588340 Sentence denotes There is frequent nuclear hyperchromasia and convolution.
T58403 588341-588529 Sentence denotes The cells are typically arranged in solid endocrine-like packets of 10-20 cells surrounded by a delicate fibrovascular stroma, and there may be AL amyloid deposition among the tumor cells.
T96643 588530-588595 Sentence denotes A few syncytial plasmacytoid or histiocytic cells may be evident.
T58339 588596-588715 Sentence denotes The majority of the tumor growth is submucosal, with a little bit of overflow into the deep half of the lamina propria.
T54761 588716-588789 Sentence denotes Most tumors have a discrete local growth habit amenable to surgical cure.
T56674 588790-588978 Sentence denotes A small proportion exhibit more aggressive behavior, including invasion of tunica muscularis, and some spread to regional lymph nodes and spleen, perhaps producing a monoclonal gammopathy.
T97419 588979-588991 Sentence denotes Platz SJ, et
T75455 588993-589019 Sentence denotes These tumors are uncommon.
T79814 589020-589121 Sentence denotes They occur in aged dogs, and occasionally in cats, with signs such as vomition, diarrhea, and melena.
T70732 589122-589348 Sentence denotes They are seen in biopsies as invasive round cell tumors that can resemble carcinoids, lymphomas, and gastrointestinal stromal tumors; definitive diagnosis requires histochemical and possibly immunohistochemical investigations.
T50443 589349-589599 Sentence denotes Primary mast cell tumors of the gastrointestinal tract are comprised of mucosal mast cells, which differ from connective tissue mast cells, such as those found in skin, in having few granules, which usually do not stain well in formalin-fixed tissue.
T45217 589600-589678 Sentence denotes Abnormal mast cells do not appear in circulation in animals with these tumors.
T61301 589679-589761 Sentence denotes Mast cell tumors are most commonly seen in stomach, and least common in the colon.
T79867 589762-589892 Sentence denotes Affected areas in the mucosa are tan-colored, firm, thickened, possibly ulcerated, and may be 1 cm to several centimeters in size.
T68793 589893-590015 Sentence denotes The tissue architecture is effaced by a population of granular round cells accompanied by variable numbers of eosinophils.
T41627 590016-590150 Sentence denotes They generally grow in infiltrative cords, but occasionally form endocrine-like packets surrounded by a delicate fibrovascular stroma.
T27027 590151-590201 Sentence denotes There is a wide range in the cytologic appearance.
T13905 590202-590334 Sentence denotes Some tumors are populated by fairly mature mast cells with abundant cytoplasmic granularity easily demonstrated with toluidine blue.
T49980 590335-590574 Sentence denotes Others are populated by anaplastic and pleomorphic round cells or spindle-shaped cells, sometimes with giant nuclei or forming syncytia, in which cytoplasmic granules with metachromatic staining, while present, may be difficult to observe.
T63664 590575-590784 Sentence denotes Those with abundant metachromatic granules must be differentiated from connective tissue mast cell tumors metastatic to the gastrointestinal tract, in which case lesions should be sought in skin and elsewhere.
T74281 590785-591023 Sentence denotes There can be marked variation in the number of eosinophils in the tumor, and they are not definitive because eosinophils are also common in some intestinal lymphomas, and as part of the background cell population in normal lamina propria.
T69432 591024-591122 Sentence denotes In cats, a subset of intestinal mast cell tumors is associated with a significant collagen stroma.
T40643 591123-591255 Sentence denotes Gastrointestinal mucosal mast cell tumors are differentiated using a suite of histochemical and immunohistochemical characteristics.
T20575 591256-591407 Sentence denotes They have at least a few metachromatic granules when stained with toluidine blue, and many tumors have at least some cells that stain with alcian blue.
T97735 591408-591689 Sentence denotes They stain immunohistochemically positive for mast cell tryptase and c-KIT (CD117), but negatively for CD3 (distinguishing them from most T-cell lymphomas), cytokeratin (distinguishing them from carcinomas), and chromogranin and synaptophysin (distinguishing them from carcinoids).
T60700 591690-591776 Sentence denotes However, only 33% of feline gastrointestinal mast cell tumors were positive for c-KIT.
T72912 591777-591831 Sentence denotes Gastrointestinal stromal tumors should be positive for
T42104 591832-591873 Sentence denotes Further reading Howl figures are evident.
T72125 591874-591932 Sentence denotes Areas of coagulative necrosis may occur in the tumor mass.
T30034 591933-592057 Sentence denotes Leiomyosarcomas often resemble leiomyomas grossly, but they are invasive rather than circumscribed, and may ulcerate mucosa.
T68078 592058-592243 Sentence denotes The cells resemble those in leiomyomas in general cytology, but there is usually some degree of anisokaryosis, multiple nucleoli, scattered bizarre nuclei, and obvious mitotic activity.
T50690 592244-592341 Sentence denotes There may be necrosis in the mass and a mild lymphocytic or eosinophilic inflammatory infiltrate.
T95143 592342-592514 Sentence denotes Gastrointestinal stromal tumors may be demarcated and grow by expansion, sometimes forming exophytic nodules on the serosal surface, or they may be transmural and invasive.
T15565 592515-592571 Sentence denotes Overlying mucosa, although usually intact, may ulcerate.
T8105 592572-592780 Sentence denotes They are usually comprised of spindle cells arranged as interlacing fascicles, or in a storiform (whorling or matted) pattern, with oval nuclei, and a somewhat basophilic cytoplasm with indistinct boundaries.
T47766 592781-592994 Sentence denotes A minority of cases may have somewhat epithelioid tumor cells arranged in trabeculae or solid sheets, perhaps with a somewhat myxoid intercellular matrix, often infiltrating between normal smooth-muscle fascicles.
T81718 592995-593162 Sentence denotes Epithelioid tumors are thought to reflect some degree of neural differentiation, whereas a storiform pattern is considered to reflect a poor degree of differentiation.
T7565 593163-593281 Sentence denotes There may be nuclear pleomorphism in all patterns of tumor, and mitotic figures are usually evident and may be common.
T43481 593282-593396 Sentence denotes Hemorrhage or necrosis may be present within the tumor, and lymphocytic and/or eosinophilic infiltrates can occur.
T69763 593397-593590 Sentence denotes The difficulty in determining the prognosis of these tumors in dogs has not changed with the recognition that the great majority are gastrointestinal stromal tumors rather than leiomyosarcomas.
T30669 593591-593697 Sentence denotes No objective criteria or nomenclature differentiate benign from malignant gastrointestinal stromal tumors.
T21510 593698-593867 Sentence denotes In humans, larger tumor size and high mitotic activity are considered to be poor prognostic indicators, but there are no data substantiating these tendencies in animals.
T18733 593868-594007 Sentence denotes Invasion into the mucosa causes ulceration and cavitation on the luminal surface ( Fig. 1-76) , which may lead to perforation of the bowel.
T84802 594008-594224 Sentence denotes Even in the absence of perforation, microorganisms from the gut lumen may cause local abscessation and secondary septic peritonitis in which there is intermingling of suppuration, granulation tissue, and tumor cells.
T37355 594225-594290 Sentence denotes Based on studies carried out before revision of the nomenclature,
T46234 594291-594567 Sentence denotes The intestinal stromal tumors include leiomyoma, leiomyosarcoma, gastrointestinal stromal tumor, and very uncommon examples of almost every other type of stromal neoplasm, including hemangiosarcoma, nerve sheath tumors, fibroma and fibrosarcoma, osteosarcoma, and even lipoma.
T88912 594568-594640 Sentence denotes Ganglioneuromas have been described in dogs, a sow, horse, and a kitten.
T75178 594641-594737 Sentence denotes Other mesenchymal tumors include fibrous histiocytoma in a cow and histiocytic sarcoma in a dog.
T68887 594738-594981 Sentence denotes Leiomyoma, leiomyosarcoma, and gastrointestinal stromal tumor are considered together, because recognition of the latter prompted re-evaluation of the criteria for diagnosis of leiomyosarcoma; older literature should be read with this in mind.
T37866 594982-595132 Sentence denotes Together, they are more common in dogs than other types of mesenchymal tumors except lymphosarcoma, and they also occur with some frequency in horses.
T16697 595133-595236 Sentence denotes Smoothmuscle tumors occur uncommonly in cats, equally prevalent in stomach, small intestine, and colon.
T36219 595237-595289 Sentence denotes They occur only rarely, if at all, in other species.
T68448 595290-595488 Sentence denotes Leiomyoma and leiomyosarcoma represent the two extremes of a morphologic continuum, which included, toward the malignant end of the spectrum, tumors now classified as gastrointestinal stromal tumor.
T50760 595489-595698 Sentence denotes The latter are thought to be derived from interstitial cells of Cajal, or from a stem cell precursor to both those cells and smooth-muscle cells, and they are distinguished by expressing c-KIT (CD117) antigen.
T18730 595699-595773 Sentence denotes Although some may contain smooth-muscle actin, they rarely express desmin.
T85215 595774-595896 Sentence denotes Leiomyomas and leiomyosarcomas, on the other hand, do not express c-KIT, and should express smoothmuscle actin and desmin.
T99997 595897-596095 Sentence denotes Immunohistochemical reactivity is the definitive means of differentiating these tumors, but may be adversely affected by autolysis and duration of fixation, which must be considered in such studies.
T47437 596096-596172 Sentence denotes However, leiomyomas can be recognized based on their histology and cytology.
T19282 596173-596287 Sentence denotes In dogs, as a group these tumors occur in older animals, in many of which they may be asymptomatic and incidental.
T17548 596288-596510 Sentence denotes Signs can include weight loss, lethargy, anorexia, anemia resulting from intestinal hemorrhage, abdominal pain, palpable abdominal masses, diarrhea, vomition, and dehydration or other signs of gastrointestinal obstruction.
T80878 596511-596716 Sentence denotes Based on limited studies in which the immunophenotype of stromal tumors of the gut has been determined, leiomyomas are most common and tend to occur in the esophagus and stomach of predominantly male dogs.
T82407 596717-596896 Sentence denotes Gastrointestinal stromal tumors are the next most common, and may occur in the stomach and intestine, with a tendency to predominate in the large bowel; sex distribution is equal.
T94447 596897-597045 Sentence denotes They have a spectrum of behavior from benign to malignant, and include tumors that were diagnosed as leiomyosarcomas before revision of terminology.
T64091 597046-597162 Sentence denotes Leiomyosarcomas are seemingly least common, and tend to occur in the intestine, with no apparent sex predisposition.
T7755 597163-597335 Sentence denotes Most symptomatic tumors of this type are expansile nodules arising in the muscularis externa and can be cured by surgical excision, as is certainly the case with leiomyoma.
T50471 597336-597450 Sentence denotes However, a minority, perhaps up to 30%, of the other types have metastasized by the time that they are discovered.
T72415 597451-597703 Sentence denotes Leiomyomas are sharply circumscribed masses of welldifferentiated smooth-muscle cells, and generally lie beneath an intact mucosa, although they may deform the serosal or mucosal profile, and ulceration, perhaps related to pressure necrosis, can occur.
T37831 597704-597947 Sentence denotes They are comprised of swirling bundles of uniform fusiform cells, with abundant eosinophilic cytoplasm, and a central nucleus with blunt ends; usually no mitotic conditions or the steps required at autopsy to confirm a diagnosis are discussed.
T74689 597948-598069 Sentence denotes The diseases causing gastritis, and those causing typhlocolitis in all species, have been discussed in previous sections.
T19383 598070-598236 Sentence denotes They are only briefly reiterated here; further information on the pathogenesis and diagnosis of most infectious and parasitic conditions is found in the next section.
T59823 598237-598440 Sentence denotes Diarrhea causing dehydration, metabolic acidosis, and electrolyte depletion is an important cause of morbidity and mortality in neonatal piglets, calves, lambs, and kids, and to a lesser extent in foals.
T47498 598441-598618 Sentence denotes Several classes of agents occur in most species of large animals, and mixed infections often occur, such as Escherichia coli, coronavirus, rotavirus, and Cryptosporidium parvum.
T30880 598619-598820 Sentence denotes These and some other less common agents produce diarrhea in neonatal animals, the etiology of which cannot be readily differentiated on clinical grounds or on the basis of gross postmortem examination.
T83407 598821-598987 Sentence denotes Undifferentiated diarrhea of neonatal animals requires etiologic diagnosis if appropriate advice is to be rendered regarding prevention and management of the disease.
T36358 598988-599174 Sentence denotes Many of the agents involved are either transiently present or produce lesions such as villus atrophy that is easily obscured by autolysis, which significantly hinders accurate diagnosis.
T56540 599175-599334 Sentence denotes To overcome these obstacles, one or more live untreated animals in the early phase of clinical disease and representative of the herd problem must be examined.
T17305 599335-599634 Sentence denotes They should be euthanized and examined immediately using an autopsy procedure modified so that specimens of small intestine are formalin-fixed within a few minutes of death, and so that appropriate samples of tissue and content are quickly collected to facilitate a complete etiologic investigation.
T902 599635-599833 Sentence denotes The prevalence of diarrhea and potentially associated agents in neonates is expected to vary considerably on the basis of locality, climate, season, and the management system, as well as by species.
T83643 599834-599947 Sentence denotes The presence of specific microscopic lesions and their distribution within the intestine may suggest an etiology.
T87824 599948-600087 Sentence denotes Bacterial culture or rapid immunologic methods using gut content, formalin-fixed or frozen tissues may identify a bacterial or viral agent.
T34551 600088-600211 Sentence denotes Some agents, such as cryptosporidia and coccidia, may be identified in Giemsa-stained mucosal scrapings or tissue sections.
T25904 600212-600450 Sentence denotes In each species, undifferentiated neonatal diarrhea may be caused by other less common agents; therefore care is required to establish an accurate diagnosis, and to distinguish from other potential diseases that may occur in each species.
T93865 600451-600554 Sentence denotes In all species, neonates succumbing to the effects of undifferentiated diarrhea are overtly dehydrated.
T45520 600555-600665 Sentence denotes The eyes are sunken in the orbits, the skin lacks elasticity, and the subcutis and mucous membranes are tacky.
T27169 600666-600798 Sentence denotes There is usually fecal staining on the perineum, but rare acute cases may display signs of dehydration without significant diarrhea.
T2559 600799-600985 Sentence denotes Animals with diarrhea may continue to suckle during the early phase of their illness; therefore a milk clot or curd may be present in the stomach and internal fat depots may be adequate.
T87997 600986-601135 Sentence denotes Animals that lose interest in feed because of more chronic disease and those taken off nutrients may have serous atrophy of fat and appear cachectic.
T54646 601136-601273 Sentence denotes The small intestine is flaccid and dilated with thin walls, and increased fluid content is present throughout the full intestinal length.
T10107 601274-601560 Sentence denotes The content is usually watery and clear green-yellow and often separates into 2 phases, the more solid of which appears to consist of small masses of tumors in cecum and colon, where gastrointestinal stromal tumors predominate, were determined to have a relatively high metastatic risk.
T64335 601561-601782 Sentence denotes They may metastasize to the mesenteric nodes, mesentery, and liver, but in general, these tumors have a more favorable prognosis after complete resection than other malignant neoplasms of the lower gastrointestinal tract.
T42336 601783-601957 Sentence denotes The large intestinal tumors may also cause paraneoplastic hypoglycemia, owing to the production of insulin-like growth factors that may precipitate the search for a neoplasm.
T30367 601958-602042 Sentence denotes Production of erythropoietin, resulting in erythrocytosis, also has been documented.
T15574 602043-602237 Sentence denotes In old horses, tumors of the intestine have been described that in many cases meet morphologic or immunohistochemical criteria for gastrointestinal stromal tumor, as it has been described above.
T38748 602238-602452 Sentence denotes Most are encountered incidentally, at surgery, meat inspection, or autopsy, but tumors of this type, or previously diagnosed as leiomyomas, may cause intermittent bouts of colic that become more frequent with time.
T6923 602453-602776 Sentence denotes They occur in the stomach, small intestine, and most frequently in the cecum and colon, as encapsulated, moderately firm, multinodular, pale tan, or hemorrhagic masses in the muscularis or subserosa, protruding on the serosal surface, or rarely, as somewhat pedunculated tumors projecting from the serosa or into the lumen.
T17688 602777-602880 Sentence denotes They may vary from 1 to >10 cm in diameter, and are usually solitary, but occasionally may be multiple.
T24983 602881-602909 Sentence denotes Malignancy is not described.
T99728 602910-603123 Sentence denotes The diagnosis of gastrointestinal disease is facilitated by knowledge of the entities that may be expected in a particular species and age group, and the clinicopathologic syndromes with which they are associated.
T62728 603124-603242 Sentence denotes In this section, etiologic entities associated with various syndromes in each domestic species are briefly summarized.
T99232 603243-603317 Sentence denotes The salient diagnostic features of some in hypogammaglobulinemic neonates.
T54182 603318-603505 Sentence denotes Enterohemorrhagic colibacillosis, caused by Shiga toxin (verotoxin) producing E. coli, seen as fibrinohemorrhagic enterocolitis, occurs in calves usually within the first 2 weeks of life.
T56318 603506-603676 Sentence denotes Rotavirus and bovine coronavirus are common, and responsible for a significant proportion of neonatal calf diarrhea, alone, together, or in combination with other agents.
T84215 603677-603765 Sentence denotes Disease caused by these viruses may begin at any time in the first 1 or 2 weeks of life.
T90339 603766-603857 Sentence denotes Both viruses produce villus atrophy by causing lysis or exfoliation of surface enterocytes.
T89151 603858-603966 Sentence denotes Recent prevalence data suggest that bovine rotavirus group A plays a primary role in neonatal calf diarrhea.
T53820 603967-604063 Sentence denotes Bovine coronavirus also commonly causes microscopic and occasionally gross lesions in the colon.
T78248 604064-604184 Sentence denotes Both agents may be confirmed by demonstration of viral antigen or nucleic acids in feces or intestinal epithelial cells.
T65270 604185-604383 Sentence denotes Cryptosporidium parvum, a minute apicomplexan protist, is very commonly associated with undifferentiated diarrhea and villus atrophy in calves often along with other pathogens, particularly viruses.
T80407 604384-604431 Sentence denotes It is most common in animals ∼4-20 days of age.
T71726 604432-604627 Sentence denotes Cryptosporidia organisms can be identified in their intracellular but extracytoplasmic location, along the brush border of epithelium on villi, and in mucosal smears, fecal smears, or flotations.
T68610 604628-604785 Sentence denotes Beta toxin-producing Clostridium perfringens type C infection can occur in calves, and causes acute hemorrhagic and necrotizing enteritis with enterotoxemia.
T81105 604786-604874 Sentence denotes Confirmation is by detection of beta toxin in the intestinal contents or feces by ELISA.
T75780 604875-604970 Sentence denotes Clostridium perfringens type B may be a rare cause of hemorrhagic enteritis in neonatal calves.
T7048 604971-605199 Sentence denotes Clostridium perfringens type A also has been suggested to cause necrotizing and hemorrhagic enterocolitis in calves; however, it is a common inhabitant in normal calf intestine and its role as a primary pathogen remains unclear.
T87582 605200-605279 Sentence denotes Salmonellosis, usually caused by Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, or S.
T4323 605280-605292 Sentence denotes Dublin or S.
T6015 605293-605369 Sentence denotes Muenster in enzootic areas, occurs in calves as young as 4 or 5 days of age.
T78944 605370-605580 Sentence denotes Salmonellosis may mimic undifferentiated neonatal diarrhea, particularly in peracute cases; later there is often development of fibrinous and necrotizing enterocolitis, with septicemia in a proportion of cases.
T45885 605581-605836 Sentence denotes Bovine herpesvirus 1 (infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus) in calves <2 weeks of age causes multifocal necrotizing lesions throughout the gastrointestinal tract; these are often seen together with lesions in other organs because of systemic infection.
T5398 605837-606126 Sentence denotes Bovine viral diarrhea virus can be implicated in enteritis of calves as young as 1 week of age, on the basis of microscopic lesions in the small intestine and colon similar to those found in older animals, with confirmation by virus isolation or detection of viral antigen or nucleic acid.
T8450 606127-606311 Sentence denotes Bovine torovirus (formerly Breda virus), in genus Torovirus and family Coronaviridae, has been documented as the sole pathogen from diarrheic calves, usually in calves <3 weeks of age.
T25721 606312-606397 Sentence denotes Although disease is uncommon, serologic surveys suggests that exposure is widespread.
T67468 606398-606656 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis and lesions caused by this virus are similar to other coronavirus infections, although epithelial cells from the lower half of the villi of small intestine and crypt cells of the ileum, colon, and cecum appear to be the first cells infected.
T22149 606657-606776 Sentence denotes Astrovirus infections usually appear to be subclinical, and their implication as a cause of diarrhea in calves is rare.
T37342 606777-606918 Sentence denotes Astrovirus infects dome enterocytes overlying the Peyer's patches causing mild transient villus atrophy. clotted milk or mucus ( Fig. 1-77) .
T89020 606919-607100 Sentence denotes Sometimes the content is more homogeneous and creamy in texture; however, in animals examined sometime after death, this appearance is due to postmortem autolysis of the epithelium.
T57986 607101-607191 Sentence denotes The large intestine also contains fluid, creamy or pasty content, usually white or yellow.
T96472 607192-607322 Sentence denotes The mucosa of the small intestine may appear glistening and mildly congested; that in the large intestine is usually unremarkable.
T57091 607323-607535 Sentence denotes The forestomachs in ruminants that have been tube fed or in which the ruminoreticular groove has apparently failed to close, may contain sour fermented milk or milk replacer and the mucosa may be mildly reddened.
T57485 607536-607629 Sentence denotes The abomasal mucosa of some calves may contain scattered focal stress-associated hemorrhages.
T78481 607630-607726 Sentence denotes In piglets, urates may precipitate in the renal medulla and pelvis as the result of dehydration.
T68774 607727-607839 Sentence denotes The spectrum of agents associated with diarrhea in neonates of each species is considered later in this chapter.
T9944 607840-608046 Sentence denotes Several infectious agents have been associated with undifferentiated diarrhea in calves less than ∼3 weeks of age, some of which can be distinguished on the basis of gross lesions at postmortem examination.
T10539 608047-608229 Sentence denotes Frequently combinations of these agents occur together, or in sequence; compared with single agent infections, the consequences of combined infections often appear to be more severe.
T98781 608230-608393 Sentence denotes The diagnosis of these infectious problems in a herd can be complex, and examination of more than one untreated animal early in the course of disease is desirable.
T49348 608394-608521 Sentence denotes Causes of noninfectious diarrhea should be considered and eliminated; usually these involve nutritional or management problems.
T64080 608522-608644 Sentence denotes Enterotoxigenic E. coli is probably the most common single cause of undifferentiated neonatal diarrhea in neonatal calves.
T22394 608645-608786 Sentence denotes Little or no morphologic change may be evident in tissue section, although bacteria are seen attached to the surface of enterocytes on villi.
T60672 608787-608951 Sentence denotes The disease usually occurs within the first 4 days of life, and is confirmed using culture along with molecular techniques to identify virulence factors and toxins.
T95932 608952-609223 Sentence denotes Enterotoxigenic colibacillosis is distinct from the less-common enteropathogenic colibacillosis, which occurs in older calves and is caused by attaching and effacing E. coli, and from septicemic colibacillosis or other gram-negative infections seen and possibly diarrhea.
T37207 609224-609328 Sentence denotes Enterotoxin-producing Bacteroides fragilis has been implicated as a cause of diarrhea in neonatal lambs.
T64782 609329-609401 Sentence denotes Astrovirus has been found in lambs and experimentally produces diarrhea.
T89914 609402-609509 Sentence denotes An adenovirus antigenically related to ovine adenovirus-2 is reported as a cause of enteritis in goat kids.
T50982 609510-609590 Sentence denotes Strongyloides may be associated with diarrhea in ruminants only a few weeks old.
T83782 609591-609756 Sentence denotes Agents commonly implicated in undifferentiated diarrhea in piglets <3 weeks of age include enterotoxigenic E. coli, coronaviruses, rotavirus, and Cystoisospora suis.
T90610 609757-609996 Sentence denotes Enterotoxigenic E. coli is a significant cause of diarrhea in piglets <1 week of age, and the organisms use F4 (formerly K88) fimbriae to adhere to the brush border of enterocytes, but induce no other specific gross or microscopic lesions.
T69124 609997-610139 Sentence denotes Rotavirus and transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV, coronavirus) infections cause villus atrophy, in contrast with most types of E. coli.
T91739 610140-610264 Sentence denotes Cystoisospora suis tends to occur in piglets >5-6 days of age, and the severity of clinical signs wanes with increasing age.
T30223 610265-610369 Sentence denotes It also causes villus atrophy, and in heavy infections necrotic enteritis in the distal small intestine.
T14558 610370-610457 Sentence denotes Meronts or gamonts may be found in mucosal smears and histologically within epithelium.
T64344 610458-610560 Sentence denotes A number of other agents are less commonly associated with undifferentiated neonatal diarrhea in pigs.
T6052 610561-610727 Sentence denotes Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV, family Coronaviridae) infection is clinically and pathologically indistinguishable from epidemic transmissible gastroenteritis.
T22326 610728-610879 Sentence denotes PEDV, which is endemic in Europe and China, has emerged recently as a significant cause of diarrhea and mortality of suckling piglets in North America.
T388 610880-610992 Sentence denotes Porcine deltacoronavirus (PDCoV, SDCV) also has emerged as a cause of neonatal piglet diarrhea in North America.
T19900 610993-611065 Sentence denotes Non-group A rotaviruses may be more prevalent than once thought in pigs.
T17599 611066-611161 Sentence denotes They may act as primary pathogen or co-pathogen and cause lesions similar to group A rotavirus.
T94945 611162-611331 Sentence denotes Adenovirus infection can be seen as intranuclear inclusion bodies in epithelium on the dome over Peyer's patch in tissue sections, and is a rare cause of villus atrophy.
T70549 611332-611504 Sentence denotes Enteroviruses, astroviruses, and calicivirus have poorly defined significance as pathogens in piglets, though a calici-like virus causes villus atrophy in gnotobiotic pigs.
T60141 611505-611619 Sentence denotes Cryptosporidium and Giardia are described in pigs of all ages; these seem to play minor role as enteric pathogens.
T93491 611620-611777 Sentence denotes Salmonella and Klebsiella, Bacteroides fragilis, and some strains of E. coli can cause villus atrophy and diarrhea in neonatal pigs, although these are rare.
T13092 611778-611923 Sentence denotes Strongyloides ransomi is transmitted in the milk and may infect young piglets, causing villus atrophy, malabsorption, protein loss, and diarrhea.
T96746 611924-612094 Sentence denotes Hemorrhagic and necrotizing enteritis caused by beta toxin-producing Clostridium perfringens type C in piglets in the first week of life is readily recognized at autopsy.
T3395 612095-612302 Sentence denotes Clostridium perfringens type A has been associated with nonhemorrhagic mucoid diarrhea with mucosal necrosis in suckling piglets, although the role of this microorganism in the disease remains controversial.
T18951 612303-612431 Sentence denotes C. difficile also causes diarrhea in 1-7-day old piglets; lesions include edema of the mesocolon and fibrinonecrotizing colitis.
T95851 612432-612541 Sentence denotes In the young foal, nonspecific diarrhea may be associated with rotavirus, Cryptosporidium, and Strongyloides.
T66962 612542-612786 Sentence denotes Enterotoxigenic E. coli and coronaviruses are not proven pathogens in Several caliciviruses (family Caliciviridae, genus Norovirus; formerly Norwalk-like viruses, and genus Nebovirus) are considered emerging pathogens in calf neonatal diarrhea.
T18990 612787-612977 Sentence denotes Both viruses have been significantly associated with diarrhea in neonatal calves; however, their role in disease remains unclear as they also have been detected in clinically healthy calves.
T63901 612978-613104 Sentence denotes Enteroviruses are commonly isolated from the feces of clinically normal animals with highest prevalence on high-density farms.
T33602 613105-613306 Sentence denotes They have been thought to be not associated with significant disease; however, bovine enterovirus 1 has been correlated with enteritis and typhlocolitis in naturally and experimentally infected calves.
T39862 613307-613412 Sentence denotes Birnavirus also has been isolated from the feces of diarrheic calves, but with no proof of pathogenicity.
T61317 613413-613537 Sentence denotes A bovine enteric group B rotavirus, or bovine enteric syncytial virus, was identified as a cause of diarrhea in beef calves.
T81208 613538-613635 Sentence denotes Experimentally, this virus causes diarrhea and syncytia of enterocytes on small intestinal villi.
T33129 613636-613777 Sentence denotes Bovine parvovirus (family Parvoviridae, genus Bocavirus) is associated with gastrointestinal, respiratory and reproductive disease in cattle.
T71032 613778-613901 Sentence denotes In neonatal calves, lesions include small intestinal crypt cell necrosis, villus atrophy, and fusion and lymphoid necrosis.
T1346 613902-614095 Sentence denotes Chlamydophila infection is described as a cause of acute enteritis in young calves; however, current epidemiologic data suggest widespread distribution and a limited role as a primary pathogen.
T27452 614096-614249 Sentence denotes Chlamydiae are more likely significant as causes of economic loss caused by chronic low-grade infections, but the pathogenesis remains poorly understood.
T64001 614250-614391 Sentence denotes Heavy infestation of Strongyloides papillosus may result in villus atrophy, diarrhea and sudden death in calves as young as 2-3 weeks of age.
T14056 614392-614513 Sentence denotes Enterotoxigenic Bacillus fragilis has been suggested as a cause of diarrhea in neonatal calves, but its role is unproved.
T13387 614514-614695 Sentence denotes Giardia, a flagellate protist, has been implicated in diarrhea of calves and other young ruminants; however, its role as a primary etiologic agent of calf diarrhea is controversial.
T77807 614696-614786 Sentence denotes Probably in some circumstances, Giardia may cause intestinal lesions and lead to diarrhea.
T97585 614787-614930 Sentence denotes Undifferentiated diarrhea in neonatal lambs and goats is mainly associated with enterotoxigenic E. coli, rotavirus, and Cryptosporidium parvum.
T90349 614931-615104 Sentence denotes Lamb dysentery is due to Clostridium perfringens type B in lambs and kids <8-10 days of age is usually recognized at autopsy as severe hemorrhagic and necrotizing enteritis.
T40837 615105-615375 Sentence denotes Clostridium perfringens type A has been identified as a significant cause of ovine and caprine enterotoxemia in some parts of the world; however, this type is commonly isolated from the intestine of healthy goats and sheep, so its role as a primary pathogen is unproved.
T47760 615376-615519 Sentence denotes Beta 2 toxin-producing Clostridium perfringens type D has been reported to cause fibrinonecrotic enterocolitis and enterotoxemia in a goat kid.
T46624 615520-615621 Sentence denotes Coccidiosis caused by Eimeria spp. in lambs and kids may occur in animals as young as 3 weeks of age.
T97857 615622-615783 Sentence denotes Raised white plaques of coccidia-infected proliferative epithelial cells are found in the terminal ileum; there may be some degree of hemorrhage in severe cases.
T14736 615784-615876 Sentence denotes A variety of other pathogens have been associated with diarrhea in neonatal small ruminants.
T2073 615877-616009 Sentence denotes Giardia is prevalent on some farms and in certain conditions may contribute to clinical disease; its significance is poorly defined.
T28318 616010-616056 Sentence denotes Salmonellosis may occur rarely in young lambs.
T65024 616057-616355 Sentence denotes Certain serotypes of E. coli or other bacterial species may be the cause of watery mouth disease in lambs, which is characterized by drooling, sepsis, Stevenson GW, et al Gastrointestinal parasitism may be associated with acute or chronic diarrhea and wasting in calves and young cattle at pasture.
T39177 616356-616473 Sentence denotes Coccidiosis in calves >3 weeks of age and older cattle usually causes dysentery and fibrinohemorrhagic typhlocolitis.
T98380 616474-616598 Sentence denotes The nematode fauna is usually mixed, but certain genera of helminths may dominate in particular epidemiologic circumstances.
T37118 616599-616692 Sentence denotes Most important is Ostertagia, which causes abomasitis with mucous metaplasia and hyperplasia.
T8192 616693-616814 Sentence denotes Intestinal nematodes such as Strongyloides and Nematodirus may cause diarrhea in calves at pasture or in semiconfinement.
T80982 616815-616910 Sentence denotes Trichostrongylus and Cooperia in adequate numbers are commonly pathogenic for pastured animals.
T96965 616911-616974 Sentence denotes Toxocara vitulorum may have some significance in warm climates.
T4322 616975-617088 Sentence denotes Enteritis is often not grossly recognized in the small bowel at necropsy of animals with intestinal helminthosis.
T28506 617089-617184 Sentence denotes Therefore the pathologist needs a high index of suspicion to come to a diagnosis in some cases.
T25253 617185-617433 Sentence denotes To make a firm diagnosis of intestinal helminthosis, it is necessary to demonstrate substantial populations of nematodes by worm count in intestinal content or digests, and ideally to observe villus atrophy in tissue sections of infected intestine.
T48165 617434-617633 Sentence denotes These findings should be associated with a compatible syndrome-in the case of Ostertagia, Strongyloides, and the intestinal trichostrongyles, inefficient weight gain or wasting, and usually diarrhea.
T42339 617634-617767 Sentence denotes The hematophagous genera Haemonchus and Bunostomum cause anemia and hypoproteinemia, and associated poor growth but without diarrhea.
T21959 617768-617897 Sentence denotes Oesophagostomum radiatum, in the colon, may result in foals, although their role in diarrhea of foals has not been ruled out yet.
T57451 617898-618035 Sentence denotes Actinobacillus equuli may cause severe diarrhea and hemorrhagic enteritis, with lesions of bacteremia evident in other organs at autopsy.
T63109 618036-618196 Sentence denotes Salmonellosis in foals may be seen as fatal diarrhea with few gross lesions, or as fibrinous enterocolitis and septicemia, similar to that seen in older horses.
T47076 618197-618408 Sentence denotes Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae, with occasional gram-positive infections, are common causes of neonatal septicemia and possibly diarrhea, predisposed by failure of passive transfer of immunoglobulin.
T60758 618409-618553 Sentence denotes Fibrinonecrotic enterocolitis in foals <1 week of age may be due to C. perfringens type C, C. difficile, or co-infection by both microorganisms.
T70458 618554-618673 Sentence denotes C. perfringens type B infection has been reported rarely in foals; the disease has not been diagnosed in North America.
T28582 618674-618739 Sentence denotes Rhodococcus equi may cause chronic diarrhea and wasting in foals.
T30908 618740-618942 Sentence denotes Pyogranulomatous ulcerative lesions of the large bowel, and purulent mesenteric lymphadenitis, often associated with chronic purulent bronchopneumonia, are characteristically found in R. equi infection.
T72483 618943-619050 Sentence denotes Enterococcus (Streptococcus) durans, an enteroadherent coccus, has been associated with diarrhea in a foal.
T34225 619051-619175 Sentence denotes Moderate atrophy of villi covered with adherent gram-positive cocci was characteristic; the large bowel not being colonized.
T10849 619176-619257 Sentence denotes Strongyloides westeri is capable of causing diarrhea in young foals occasionally.
T6711 619258-619426 Sentence denotes Tyzzer's disease-caused by Clostridium piliforme (formerly Bacillus piliformis)-which is restricted to foals less than ∼6 weeks of age, may be associated with diarrhea.
T92558 619427-619486 Sentence denotes However, the liver lesion dominates the pathologic picture.
T10307 619487-619496 Sentence denotes diarrhea.
T7500 619497-619589 Sentence denotes Intestinal lesions and/or diarrhea are uncommonly observed in type D enterotoxemia of sheep.
T18306 619590-619606 Sentence denotes Where it occurs,
T33166 619607-619752 Sentence denotes Johne's disease causes a syndrome of wasting, usually without diarrhea, in sheep and goats; in goats, caseous mesenteric lymphadenitis may occur.
T60909 619753-619817 Sentence denotes Schistosomiasis may cause ill-thrift in sheep in enzootic areas.
T12456 619818-619999 Sentence denotes Terminal (regional) ileitis of lambs is a syndrome of unknown etiology characterized by reduced weight gain, diarrhea, and apparent abdominal pain, usually in 1-4 month-old animals.
T12589 620000-620078 Sentence denotes It is reported from the United Kingdom, continental Europe, and North America.
T97019 620079-620163 Sentence denotes At autopsy, animals are typically in poor body condition, with evidence of diarrhea.
T41735 620164-620245 Sentence denotes There is marked enlargement of the caudal small intestinal mesenteric lymph node.
T36623 620246-620362 Sentence denotes The terminal small intestine is thickened, with transmural edema, and a corrugated appearance on the serosal aspect.
T23202 620363-620434 Sentence denotes The mucosa is reddened, and thrown into thick transverse nodular folds.
T47506 620435-620489 Sentence denotes There may be superficial erosion and fibrin exudation.
T75236 620490-620561 Sentence denotes The mucosa of the cecum and spiral colon also may be grossly thickened.
T16441 620562-620790 Sentence denotes Microscopic lesions are always evident in the ileum, and consist of moderate to severe villus atrophy, hypertrophy of crypts, hyperplasia of crypt epithelium, and a heavy mixed inflammatory cell infiltrate in the lamina propria.
T56517 620791-620863 Sentence denotes Microerosions or ulcers may be present, through which neutrophils exude.
T39934 620864-621082 Sentence denotes In the large intestine, the crypt epithelium is hyperplastic, causing thickening of the mucosa, which is infiltrated by a mixed, mainly mononuclear, inflammatory cell population, and is thrown into folds superficially.
T99550 621083-621178 Sentence denotes Peyer's patches and submucosal lymphoid aggregates are hypertrophic, with lymphoid hyperplasia.
T92826 621180-621449 Sentence denotes Rotavirus and coronaviruses (transmissible gastroenteritis virus and porcine epidemic diarrhea virus) may be responsible for villus atrophy and diarrhea in susceptible pigs of any age, although significant mortality is generally restricted to neonates and nursing pigs.
T87590 621450-621553 Sentence denotes Considerable morbidity but low mortality occurs in the later suckling, weanling, and feeder age groups.
T46848 621554-621727 Sentence denotes Postweaning diarrhea is associated with villus atrophy of uncertain etiology; it is discussed with villus atrophy in the section on epithelial renewal in health and disease.
T3535 621728-621932 Sentence denotes Escherichia coli causes postweaning enterocolitis, and Shiga toxinproducing strains of E. coli produce gut edema, as part of edema disease, causing sudden death or nervous signs in weaner and feeder pigs.
T19798 621933-622048 Sentence denotes No mucosal lesions are evident, but edema of the gastric submucosa and mesocolon may be found, among other lesions.
T36253 622049-622377 Sentence denotes Enterocolitis resulting from Salmonella, Lawsonia intracellularis, Brachyspira hyodysenteriae, and intestinal spirochetosis generally occurs in weaner and feeder swine, although proliferative hemorrhagic enteropathy, swine dysentery, and anemia, hypoproteinemia, and diarrhea as well as causing nodule formation in the gut wall.
T69446 622378-622471 Sentence denotes Trichuris may also cause occasional significant hemorrhagic typhlitis, wasting, and diarrhea.
T41802 622472-622728 Sentence denotes Subacute-to-chronic diarrhea and poor growth or emaciation in cattle also may result from copper deficiency, chronic bovine viral diarrhea, salmonellosis, yersiniosis, chronic coccidiosis, and, in cattle >2 years of age, Johne's disease (paratuberculosis).
T8143 622729-622892 Sentence denotes Congestive heart failure and other causes of portal hypertension may also cause chronic diarrhea associated with alimentary tract congestion in individual animals.
T18836 622894-622982 Sentence denotes The major causes of diarrhea and ill-thrift in sheep and goats at pasture are parasitic.
T44224 622983-623081 Sentence denotes The main helminth species causing this syndrome are Ostertagia, Nematodirus, and Trichostrongylus.
T87188 623082-623249 Sentence denotes The genera and species involved vary with the geographic area and climate, and perhaps seasonally, as well as with the age group and other local epidemiologic factors.
T87185 623250-623325 Sentence denotes Larval paramphistomes will also cause enteritis in lambs in enzootic areas.
T73707 623326-623417 Sentence denotes Strongyloides may affect lambs up to several months of age, even those held in confinement.
T91046 623418-623495 Sentence denotes Where it occurs, Nematodirus is usually a disease of lambs 1-3 months of age.
T99757 623496-623562 Sentence denotes Trichostrongylosis usually affects lambs 3 months to yearling age.
T84576 623563-623695 Sentence denotes Oesophagostomum columbianum may cause significant disease in sheep, as well as causing nodule formation in the intestinal submucosa.
T57386 623696-623788 Sentence denotes Trichuris typhlitis is an uncommon problem in sheep, as is Chabertia infection of the colon.
T86334 623789-623883 Sentence denotes Bunostomum and especially Haemonchus cause marked anemia and hypoproteinemia without diarrhea.
T32601 623884-623999 Sentence denotes Hemonchosis is a particular problem in lambs and kids at pasture or held in semiconfinement in warm humid climates.
T30085 624000-624162 Sentence denotes It is also important in ewes and does during the postparturient period, or spring, when retarded larvae emerge synchronously from the abomasal mucosa, and mature.
T54258 624163-624277 Sentence denotes Coccidiosis is a problem mainly in lambs and kids reared in confinement, on feedlot or heavily stocked on pasture.
T12897 624278-624334 Sentence denotes The disease is most severe between 2 and 8 weeks of age.
T88517 624335-624597 Sentence denotes Villus atrophy caused by mixed-species infections may be responsible for ill-thrift and diarrhea in older animals, whereas Eimeria arloingi and E. christenseni or E. ovina and E. ahsata may be responsible for mortality in very young kids and lambs, respectively.
T73692 624598-624702 Sentence denotes Acute enterocolitis and septicemia caused by Salmonella Arizonae infection may occur in lambs and sheep.
T61254 624703-624799 Sentence denotes Yersiniosis causes fibrinous enterocolitis and caseous mesenteric lymphadenitis in both species.
T17840 624800-624896 Sentence denotes Grain overload may cause acute diarrhea in feedlot lambs and in sheep offered supplemental feed.
T2615 624897-625067 Sentence denotes Diarrhea and enterocolitis also may be associated with C. perfringens type D enterotoxemia in goats, although animals may die very acutely without the opportunity to show
T68021 625068-625097 Sentence denotes Further reading Kasari TR, et
T59557 625099-625118 Sentence denotes Ulvund MJ, Teige J.
T17126 625119-625145 Sentence denotes Regional ileitis in lambs.
T40990 625146-625174 Sentence denotes Res Vet Sci 1990;48:338-343.
T39975 625175-625242 Sentence denotes We do so here, on the grounds of similar lesions in advanced cases.
T3599 625243-625382 Sentence denotes At surgery or autopsy, there is fibrinous enteritis or ulceration involving the duodenum, and a variable amount of more distal small bowel.
T67396 625383-625540 Sentence denotes The lesions may be segmental and circumferential, only a few centimeters long, or more diffuse, involving much of the small intestine, but sparing the ileum.
T11476 625541-625710 Sentence denotes The affected segment of bowel may be thickened, congested, or hemorrhagic on the serosal aspect, and there may be fibrinous peritonitis with adhesions, and pancreatitis.
T31505 625711-625733 Sentence denotes Perforation may occur.
T70787 625734-625816 Sentence denotes If the lesion is of some standing, there may be significant stricture at the site.
T30307 625817-625952 Sentence denotes Affected animals often have a distended stomach, with abnormally fluid content, and gastric ulcers, particularly of the pars esophagea.
T28158 625953-626001 Sentence denotes Perforation or rupture of the stomach may occur.
T34610 626002-626085 Sentence denotes Duodenal lesions always should be sought in foals with gastroesophageal ulceration.
T57874 626086-626377 Sentence denotes Microscopically, there is edema and congestion, with progressive necrosis from the tips of villi in early lesions, advancing to mucosal or transmural acute fibrinonecrotic enteritis, grading to the development of granulation tissue and fibrosis in the bed of more chronic ulcerative lesions.
T23467 626378-626407 Sentence denotes The etiology is undetermined.
T15256 626408-626551 Sentence denotes Clostridium difficile, Salmonella, mycotoxicosis, and ischemia associated with the use of NSAIDs have been proposed, but not firmly implicated.
T81081 626552-626683 Sentence denotes The segmental, often circumferential, nature of the lesions is compatible with ischemia, perhaps complicated by secondary bacteria.
T14638 626684-626769 Sentence denotes Fibrinous enteritis in the small bowel may also occur in blister beetle intoxication.
T45617 626770-626877 Sentence denotes Enterocolitis associated with use of NSAIDs is discussed in the section Intestinal ischemia and infarction.
T57210 626878-626891 Sentence denotes Arroyo LG, et
T90940 626893-627012 Sentence denotes Rotavirus and canine coronavirus infection appear to be causes of uncommon, generally nonfatal, diarrhea in young dogs.
T39517 627013-627172 Sentence denotes Various other viral agents have been associated with diarrhea in dogs, usually on the basis of electron microscopic observations or virus isolation from feces.
T93396 627173-627338 Sentence denotes These include astroviruses, adenovirus, and paramyxovirus, as well as calicivirus and herpesvirus antigenically related to feline calicivirus and feline herpesvirus.
T9689 627339-627394 Sentence denotes The pathogenic significance of these agents is unclear.
T53681 627395-627530 Sentence denotes Circoviruses have been incriminated recently as being involved in canine gastroenteritis, and may be a co-factor with other etiologies.
T72186 627531-627618 Sentence denotes Canine parvovirus 2 is by far the most significant cause of gastroenteritis in the dog.
T4805 627619-627815 Sentence denotes It is distinguished by severe fibrinohemorrhagic enteritis usually evident at autopsy, and the radiomimetic microscopic lesions in the gastrointestinal mucosa, lymphoid, and hematopoietic tissues.
T86300 627816-627947 Sentence denotes Dogs with canine distemper often develop diarrhea; canine distemper virus apparently does infect the intestinal cryptal epithelium.
T5833 627948-628038 Sentence denotes intestinal spirochetosis occasionally involve suckling animals older than ∼3 weeks of age.
T26213 628039-628158 Sentence denotes The differential diagnosis of these conditions and trichuriasis was discussed in the section on typhlocolitis in swine.
T92861 628159-628247 Sentence denotes Coccidiosis, other than that in neonates caused by Cystoisospora suis, is rare in swine.
T23459 628248-628351 Sentence denotes Occasional ileitis or, less commonly, typhlitis is caused by infection with several species of Eimeria.
T81780 628352-628570 Sentence denotes Porcine circovirus 2 (PCV-2) has been associated with watery diarrhea and weight loss, often accompanied by pneumonia, and occasionally inflammatory changes in liver, kidney, pancreas, and/or myocardium in weaned pigs.
T73356 628571-628681 Sentence denotes Grossly, the mucosa of the distal small intestine and colon is thickened and mesocolonic edema may be present.
T62151 628682-628828 Sentence denotes Microscopically, a prominent lymphoplasmacytic/histiocytic infiltrate is evident in the lamina propria and submucosa of these intestinal segments.
T84715 628829-629065 Sentence denotes There is lymphocytolysis and atrophy of follicles in gutassociated lymphoid tissue, and irregular basophilic intracytoplasmic inclusions characteristic of PCV-2 infection are evident in macrophages in lamina propria and lymphoid tissue.
T97665 629066-629226 Sentence denotes Immunohistochemical staining for circoviral antigen stains these inclusions, which are presumably phagocytosed viral inclusions from lytic/infected lymphocytes.
T18167 629227-629362 Sentence denotes Similar inclusions are evident in bronchiolar epithelium and alveolar macrophages in lungs affected with bronchointerstitial pneumonia.
T25823 629363-629494 Sentence denotes Other lesions characteristic of PCV2 infection, including lymphadenopathy, hepatitis, and interstitial nephritis, are also present.
T6774 629495-629688 Sentence denotes Hemorrhage into the intestine may occur in proliferative hemorrhagic enteropathy and volvulus, and should be differentiated from the melenic content found in animals with esophagogastric ulcer.
T2478 629689-629770 Sentence denotes Ascaris suum may contribute to diarrhea and ill-thrift in weaner and feeder pigs.
T83150 629771-629901 Sentence denotes The thorny-headed worm Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus may, under rare circumstances, cause ill-thrift or intestinal perforation.
T22835 629902-630053 Sentence denotes Submucosal nodules in the intestinal wall may be caused by Oesophagostomum infections, which are otherwise usually relatively inconsequential in swine.
T75798 630054-630119 Sentence denotes Thin-sow syndrome has been attributed to gastric hyostrongylosis.
T89659 630120-630396 Sentence denotes Most of the significant gastrointestinal diseases of horses are discussed elsewhere, including salmonellosis, Lawsoniaassociated proliferative enteropathy, clostridial enterocolitis, antibiotic-associated diarrhea, Potomac horse fever, granulomatous enteritis, and parasitism.
T73307 630397-630678 Sentence denotes The reader should consult portions of the chapter dealing with displacements, obstruction, ischemic disease of the bowel, syndromes associated with malassimilation and protein-losing enteropathy, and typhlocolitis for discussions putting these conditions into a diagnostic context.
T38557 630679-630874 Sentence denotes The capacity of the equine large intestine probably compensates for the additional fluid load posed by diseases of the small intestine that in other species might be expected to produce diarrhea.
T50066 630875-631100 Sentence denotes Horses presented with a syndrome reflecting hypoproteinemia, usually without diarrhea, may have Lawsonia infection, chronic salmonellosis, chronic inflammatory bowel disease, granulomatous enteritis, or enteric lymphosarcoma.
T24187 631101-631294 Sentence denotes Duodenitis-proximal jejunitis, also known as proximal enteritis or ulcerative duodenitis, is characterized by signs of upper small intestinal ileus, including depression and nasogastric reflux.
T85918 631295-631454 Sentence denotes There is debate about including ulcerative duodenitis of foals, associated with gastric ulcers, in the syndrome. but without lymphoid or bone marrow depletion.
T78586 631455-631664 Sentence denotes Astrovirus, enteric coronavirus, calicivirus, rotavirus, and other viruses are reported from the feces of cats, but are only rarely associated with diarrhea, and even less frequently associated with mortality.
T95960 631665-631790 Sentence denotes A torovirus has a questionable association with a syndrome of diarrhea and bilateral protrusion of the nictitating membranes.
T84304 631791-631930 Sentence denotes Diarrhea is a common sign in cats with feline immunodeficiency virus infection, and may occur in cats with feline leukemia virus infection.
T93580 631931-632173 Sentence denotes Bacterial infections such as salmonellosis, shigellosis, yersiniosis, helicobacteriosis, and Tyzzer's disease are unusual, as is significant parasitic enteritis resulting from helminths, Cystoisospora, Toxoplasma, Giardia, or Cryptosporidium.
T30979 632174-632309 Sentence denotes Chronic inflammatory small bowel disease and the forms of colitis occasionally encountered in cats are considered in previous sections.
T64784 632310-632320 Sentence denotes Hoskins JD
T72219 632322-632419 Sentence denotes Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious viral infection of all cloven-hoofed animals.
T40259 632420-632543 Sentence denotes It is a problem of worldwide concern, being enzootic in large areas of Africa, Asia, and parts of Europe and South America.
T59775 632544-632679 Sentence denotes The presence of the virus imposes serious trade restrictions that effectively thwart the development of a healthy agricultural economy.
T57645 632680-632821 Sentence denotes FMD is an acute febrile condition characterized by the formation of vesicles in and around the mouth, on the feet, teats, and mammary glands.
T33525 632822-632967 Sentence denotes The disease is not notable for high mortality, except in sucklings, but morbidity is very high, with a concomitant loss of productive efficiency.
T21222 632968-633064 Sentence denotes Species FMD virus (FMDV) belongs to genus Aphthovirus (aphtha = ulcer) in family Picornaviridae.
T10913 633065-633241 Sentence denotes The virus is highly resistant under many circumstances, but is inactivated by direct sunlight, because of drying and increase in temperature, and by moderate acidity (pH <5.0).
T72895 633242-633336 Sentence denotes The acid production that accompanies rigor mortis in carcasses and meat inactivates the virus.
T82824 633337-633494 Sentence denotes However, the alteration in pH is not dependable and the virus survives in viscera, lymph nodes, and bone marrow for an indefinite period under refrigeration.
T93903 633495-633613 Sentence denotes Next to the movement of infected animals, contaminated animal products are likely the most common mechanism of spread.
T54140 633614-633674 Sentence denotes FMDV may survive on hay and other fomites for several weeks.
T48604 633675-633808 Sentence denotes The resistance of FMDV is of epidemiologic significance, especially where control policies involve slaughter rather than vaccination.
T18483 633809-633883 Sentence denotes The importance of a carrier state in the epidemiology of FMD is uncertain.
T24467 633884-633998 Sentence denotes The carrier state has been observed However, the enteric lesions of canine distemper have not been well described.
T69105 633999-634071 Sentence denotes Salmonella infection occurs, especially in dogs that eat raw food diets.
T19281 634072-634181 Sentence denotes However, salmonellosis and enteritis caused by other gram-negative bacteria such as Yersinia is rare in dogs.
T12328 634182-634364 Sentence denotes Likewise, Campylobacter infection has been detected in both healthy dogs and those with diarrheal disease, and the role of Campylobacter in causing disease remains to be established.
T8573 634365-634473 Sentence denotes Histiocytic colitis in Boxer dogs and French bulldogs may have a bacterial etiology, with E. coli suspected.
T20886 634474-634598 Sentence denotes These dogs have been shown to improve with appropriate antimicrobial therapy, which supports an underlying infectious cause.
T47984 634599-634811 Sentence denotes Enterococcus durans has been associated with diarrhea in dogs. "Salmon poisoning" in the Pacific Northwest of the United States is due to Neorickettsia helminthoeca infection transmitted by the fluke Nanophyetus.
T70649 634812-635069 Sentence denotes Hemorrhagic enteritis is associated with clostridial overgrowth, and also may be due to reduced perfusion, and coagulation defects, which may be congenital, part of disseminated intravascular coagulation, or caused by anticoagulant rodenticide intoxication.
T34170 635070-635207 Sentence denotes Castor beans (Ricinus communis) contain ricin, a glycoprotein known to cause gastroenteritis, vomiting, diarrhea, and occasionally death.
T8773 635208-635333 Sentence denotes Ascarid infection in puppies may be associated with illthrift, diarrhea, and, in heavy infestations, occasionally with death.
T44570 635334-635455 Sentence denotes Hookworms may cause anemia, hypoproteinemia, and ill-thrift, or, in neonatal puppies, occasional acutely fatal infection.
T76324 635456-635531 Sentence denotes Isospora infection may cause diarrhea in puppies, and occasional mortality.
T36106 635532-635592 Sentence denotes Giardiasis is associated with chronic diarrhea in some dogs.
T76026 635593-635761 Sentence denotes Syndromes of malabsorption and protein loss associated with granulomatous or eosinophilic enteritis, "filled villi," and lymphangiectasia have been discussed elsewhere.
T1216 635762-635974 Sentence denotes The differential diagnosis of colitis, including idiopathic colitis, parasitic colitis, protothecosis, histoplasmosis, Campylobacter, and spirochetal colitis, is discussed in the section on typhlocolitis in dogs.
T33215 635975-636059 Sentence denotes Ulcerating or widely infiltrating colonic neoplasms may be associated with diarrhea.
T93606 636060-636077 Sentence denotes Castro TX, et al.
T81641 636078-636118 Sentence denotes Clinical, hematological, and biochemical
T76441 636120-636242 Sentence denotes Feline panleukopenia virus causes necrotizing enteritis in the small intestine with features similar to canine parvovirus.
T70543 636243-636373 Sentence denotes Feline leukemia virus has been associated with a syndrome of cryptal necrosis in the intestine, resembling panleukopenia, illness.
T35161 636374-636581 Sentence denotes It is believed that FMDV is localized in epithelial cells of the oropharynx during persistent infection of ruminants, so that virus may be found in esophagopharyngeal fluid for a considerable period of time.
T65692 636582-636680 Sentence denotes Within a week of development of neutralizing antibody, the titer of virus in circulation declines.
T52849 636681-636756 Sentence denotes Ordinarily, serum antibody titers decline progressively and fairly rapidly.
T51483 636757-636834 Sentence denotes The duration of persistence of antibody is correlated with the initial titer.
T21135 636835-637000 Sentence denotes In general, animals are resistant to reinfection with homologous strains by natural exposure for ∼2-4 years; susceptibility increases as the antibody titer declines.
T71878 637001-637109 Sentence denotes The characteristic lesions of FMD are only seen in those animals that are examined at the height of disease.
T68752 637110-637200 Sentence denotes As the infection progresses lesions heal or are obscured by secondary bacterial infection.
T51972 637201-637351 Sentence denotes Lesions develop mainly in areas subject to trauma: the oral mucosa, especially the tongue; the interdigital cleft; and the teats in lactating animals.
T58484 637352-637445 Sentence denotes In cattle, there is appreciable loss of weight and the buccal cavity may contain much saliva.
T3487 637446-637571 Sentence denotes In the living animal, there is diffuse buccal hyperemia and mild catarrhal stomatitis, but the hyperemia disappears at death.
T45528 637572-637742 Sentence denotes Vesicles form on the inner aspects of the lips and cheeks, the gums, hard palate, dental pad, and especially on the sides and rostral portion of the dorsum of the tongue.
T78922 637743-637796 Sentence denotes Sometimes they form on the muzzle and exterior nares.
T55343 637797-638032 Sentence denotes The primary vesicles are small, but coalesce to produce bullae which may be 5-6 cm across; these bullae rupture in 12-14 hours, leaving an intensely red, raw, and moist base to which shreds of epithelium may still adhere ( Fig. 1-78) .
T1527 638033-638116 Sentence denotes The eroded to ulcerated area may be replaced by regenerated epithelium in <2 weeks.
T98598 638117-638164 Sentence denotes Secondary infection may complicate this course.
T17268 638165-638209 Sentence denotes Foot lesions occur in the majority of cases.
T46343 638210-638380 Sentence denotes There is inflammatory swelling with blanching of skin of the interdigital space in ruminants, coronet in swine, and heels in all species a day or so before vesicles form.
T46237 638381-638511 Sentence denotes The swellings persist until the vesicles rupture and the resultant erosions heal; healing may be considerably delayed on the feet.
T24603 638512-638581 Sentence denotes Vesicles may also occur in the other sites, but much less frequently.
T40505 638582-638787 Sentence denotes in cattle, sheep, goats, and African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), but not in pigs, although the latter play a significant role in transmission because of the high number of viral particles that they produce.
T23019 638788-638934 Sentence denotes The carrier state may persist for up to 2 years post infection in cattle, even in animals with a significant level of serum-neutralizing antibody.
T66028 638935-639093 Sentence denotes Sheep and goats are considered to be a frequent inapparent source of dissemination of the virus because disease can be mild and lesions difficult to identify.
T26920 639094-639148 Sentence denotes Infection in wild ruminants is an obstacle to control.
T82021 639149-639201 Sentence denotes African buffalo can carry FMDV for at least 5 years.
T98120 639202-639306 Sentence denotes Field outbreaks have been associated with buffalo-cattle contact in Africa, but these appear to be rare.
T98155 639307-639433 Sentence denotes Although Asian water buffaloes (Bubalus arnee) may be affected in FMD outbreaks, it is not known whether they remain carriers.
T3011 639434-639533 Sentence denotes Of equal importance to the persistence of the virus is its antigenic heterogeneity and instability.
T15890 639534-639654 Sentence denotes There are 7 principal antigenic serotypes, namely, the classical A, O, and C types, and SAT-1, SAT-2, SAT-3, and Asia-1.
T72249 639655-639701 Sentence denotes These can be distinguished by serologic tests.
T83065 639702-639929 Sentence denotes Six of the 7 serotypes (O, A, C, SAT-1, SAT-2, SAT-3) are known to occur in Africa, 4 (O, A, C, Asia 1) in Asia, and 3 (O, A, C) in Europe and South America, although recent pandemics are blurring these geographic distinctions.
T43619 639930-640062 Sentence denotes These serotypes are sufficiently different immunologically that infection with one type does not confer resistance to the other six.
T73205 640063-640178 Sentence denotes Within these 7 major types there are antigenic subtypes, each different, to variable degrees, from the parent type.
T15527 640179-640321 Sentence denotes Generally, the subtypes cross-immunize to a useful degree, but exceptions do arise and become recognizable, especially when vaccination fails.
T86891 640322-640533 Sentence denotes Antigenic drift also can be demonstrated experimentally; new subtypes can be produced by passing the virus in immune or partially immune animals, or by growing the virus in vitro in the presence of immune serum.
T62718 640534-640616 Sentence denotes There are presently >70 distinct antigenic strains of the virus of natural origin.
T26644 640617-640780 Sentence denotes As well as differences and variability in antigenic characters, strains of the virus differ in virulence, and a given strain is probably able to vary in virulence.
T80507 640781-640919 Sentence denotes Certainly, comparing different outbreaks, there is considerable variation in the severity of the disease produced in a given host species.
T37666 640920-640956 Sentence denotes Virulence also varies among species.
T16936 640957-641112 Sentence denotes Although the vast majority of strains affect a wide range of species, there have been occasional viruses that show a distinct predilection for one species.
T93229 641113-641253 Sentence denotes An example is the porcinophilic strain that originated in China in the late 1990s and spread to Taiwan, destroying the swine industry there.
T11255 641254-641362 Sentence denotes The main portal of entry and primary site of viral multiplication are the epithelia of the pharynx and lung.
T17953 641363-641444 Sentence denotes In the pharynx, this is often associated with mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue.
T13712 641445-641706 Sentence denotes Subsequent to the first round of replication, there is widespread viremic dissemination to surface epithelium, with subsequent development of lesions in sites of mechanical or physiologic stress, such as oral and pedal epithelium, or teats in lactating animals.
T10576 641707-641842 Sentence denotes FMDV probably gains entry to these areas via Langerhans cells, with replication in a contiguous group of cells in the stratum spinosum.
T27264 641843-641958 Sentence denotes The resulting cellular degeneration and lysis result in an epidermal vesicle, which is the hallmark of the disease.
T14835 641959-642190 Sentence denotes Virus is present at high titer in the vesicular fluid, and is present in large amounts in expired air from acutely infected animals, which is the main source of spread-pigs in particular liberate large quantities of airborne virus.
T63519 642191-642477 Sentence denotes Virus persists in lesions for 3-8 days after the appearance of significant neutralizing titers in serum, but seldom beyond day 11 of clinical swine vesicular disease in susceptible species, and in the latter stages, from diseases producing erosive/ulcerative lesions of the oral cavity.
T60949 642478-642534 Sentence denotes Gross lesions alone cannot differentiate these entities.
T54938 642535-642730 Sentence denotes The disease must be considered in the differential diagnosis in cases of vesicular lesions in the oral cavity, teats, and feet, and sudden death among cloven-footed animals, especially the young.
T77751 642731-642947 Sentence denotes Definitive diagnosis requires virus isolation and characterization, demonstration of viral antigen by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, or detection of viral genome by polymerase chain reaction in lesional material.
T53145 642948-643043 Sentence denotes The regulatory status of FMD dictates that this must be carried out in accredited laboratories.
T29549 643044-643152 Sentence denotes In areas where vaccination is performed, vaccinated animals need to be differentiated from infected animals.
T99410 643154-643318 Sentence denotes Vesicular stomatitis (VS) affects horses, cattle, and pigs, and may also affect wildlife species such as white-tailed deer, raccoons, feral swine, and some rodents.
T37274 643319-643424 Sentence denotes Experimentally, various rodent species are susceptible and persistence has been demonstrated in hamsters.
T29354 643425-643567 Sentence denotes Also, persistence of viral RNA has been shown in both experimentally and naturally infected cattle, but the reservoir of the virus is unknown.
T52182 643568-643737 Sentence denotes The disease is important because it causes a loss in production, especially in dairy herds, and it must be differentiated from foot-and-mouth disease in cattle and pigs.
T94287 643738-643815 Sentence denotes VS is the only vesicular disease naturally occurring in horses ( Fig. 1-80 ).
T46715 643816-643966 Sentence denotes Sheep and goats do not appear to be susceptible to the disease, but a severe, although nonfatal, influenza-like syndrome may occur in infected humans.
T12658 643967-644101 Sentence denotes Species Vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) belongs to family Rhabdoviridae, genus Vesiculovirus (type species: VS Indiana virus (VSIV)).
T92350 644102-644179 Sentence denotes It is an enveloped single-stranded RNA virus, bullet-shaped and ∼80 × 120 nm.
T2082 644180-644298 Sentence denotes Apart from being inactivated by pasteurization temperatures, it shares qualities of resistance with the aphthoviruses.
T78850 644299-644484 Sentence denotes There are several serologically and immunologically distinct types of virus based on epitopes of the surface glycoproteins, including New Jersey, Indiana, Piry, Isfahan, and Chandipura.
T53045 644485-644590 Sentence denotes The 2 most common serotypes of VSV infecting domestic animals in the Americas are New Jersey and Indiana.
T55656 644591-644697 Sentence denotes VS is enzootic in Central and South America and occurs sporadically elsewhere in the rest of the Americas.
T40111 644698-644876 Sentence denotes It has a seasonal occurrence; outbreaks occur in the warmer seasons A malignant form of the disease, without vesiculation, does occur in young animals and occasionally in adults.
T76609 644877-644931 Sentence denotes In these, death is common, as a result of myocarditis.
T69380 644932-645022 Sentence denotes Poorly defined pale foci of variable size are seen anywhere within the ventricular muscle.
T35315 645023-645229 Sentence denotes Although historically referred to as "tigerheart," these gross lesions are no different from those generated in any other syndrome of severe, acute myocardial damage, but necrosis of fibers may be striking.
T11560 645230-645379 Sentence denotes Animals that survive the acute phase of FMDV infection (or are not slaughtered during depopulation) can progress to develop a set of chronic lesions.
T79319 645380-645508 Sentence denotes Chronic lesions include myocardial necrosis and scarring, heat intolerance, pancreatitis with acinar necrosis, and regeneration.
T32796 645509-645685 Sentence denotes Diabetes mellitus occurs in experimental cases, as does hypophysitis, leading to a constellation of endocrinopathies because of a range of expressions of pituitary dysfunction.
T45495 645686-645765 Sentence denotes In sheep, the infection runs a milder course, although there may be exceptions.
T81506 645766-645803 Sentence denotes Lesions may be subtle or not develop.
T2421 645804-645885 Sentence denotes When lesions do develop, the dental pad is the preferred site in the oral cavity.
T32756 645886-646001 Sentence denotes Lingual lesions tend to occur on the caudal dorsal portion as under-running necrotic erosions rather than vesicles.
T25990 646002-646069 Sentence denotes These are small and easily missed, and they heal within a few days.
T62699 646070-646115 Sentence denotes Lameness may be prominent in acute outbreaks.
T32829 646116-646204 Sentence denotes Typical vesicles develop in the interdigital cleft, on the coronet and bulb of the heel.
T70531 646205-646296 Sentence denotes Occasionally they may involve the entire coronet and lead to eventual shedding of the hoof.
T76926 646297-646392 Sentence denotes Vesicles also occasionally occur on the teats, vulva, prepuce, and on the pillars of the rumen.
T43395 646393-646455 Sentence denotes The peracute form with myocardial necrosis may occur in lambs.
T86643 646456-646516 Sentence denotes The disease in goats is similar to that described for sheep.
T53924 646517-646655 Sentence denotes Both species may be inapparent carriers, and many outbreaks worldwide have been due to transport of inapparently infected small ruminants.
T68641 646656-646752 Sentence denotes In pigs, lesions occur in the usual sites, although more commonly on the feet than in the mouth.
T52265 646753-646802 Sentence denotes Sloughing of the hooves leads to severe lameness.
T38957 646803-646913 Sentence denotes Lesions also may be present on the snout and behind its rim ( Fig. 1-79) , and on the teats of lactating sows.
T18562 646914-646971 Sentence denotes Abortion and stillbirth of infected piglets are recorded.
T38364 646972-647105 Sentence denotes The peracute form, with high mortality caused by myocarditis, occurs in sucklings, often before vesicle formation is noticed in sows.
T38254 647106-647311 Sentence denotes FMD must be differentiated from other viral vesicular diseases such as vesicular stomatitis, vesicular exanthema, and Specific serum neutralizing antibodies persist for months in swine and years in cattle.
T62190 647312-647420 Sentence denotes There is no evidence that animals with persistent antibodies may act as a source of infection to herd mates.
T57793 647421-647509 Sentence denotes Animals are immune against the homologous but not the heterologous strains of the virus.
T94461 647510-647586 Sentence denotes The lesions of VS are indistinguishable from those of footand-mouth disease.
T28551 647587-647717 Sentence denotes Initially, in cattle, there is a raised flattened pale pink to blanched papule a few millimeters in diameter in or near the mouth.
T91651 647718-647770 Sentence denotes These papules rapidly become inflamed and hyperemic.
T29578 647771-647889 Sentence denotes In the course of a day or so they develop into vesicles 2-3 cm in diameter and by coalescence may involve large areas.
T1199 647890-648036 Sentence denotes The shallow erosions that follow rupture of vesicles heal within 1-2 weeks unless secondary infections occur; in the mouth, the latter are common.
T86670 648037-648185 Sentence denotes Oral lesions heal rapidly in swine, but coronary band lesions often become secondarily infected to the point where the claw may separate and slough.
T12659 648186-648304 Sentence denotes Serous rhinitis, with the development of tags of necrotic mucosa, has been described in experimentally infected swine.
T66763 648305-648417 Sentence denotes The first microscopic changes are seen in the deeper layers of the stratum spinosum, where the virus replicates.
T83591 648418-648564 Sentence denotes Increasing prominence of the intercellular spaces and stretching of the desmosomes are accompanied by a reduction in volume of the cell cytoplasm.
T14738 648565-648822 Sentence denotes This dissociation of cells proceeds to distinct intercellular edema (spongiosis) followed by further cytoplasmic retraction until the affected epithelial cells float freely in enlarging vacuoles, which in turn are loculated by strands of cytoplasmic debris.
T75329 648823-648920 Sentence denotes There is no hydropic degeneration of the epithelial cells and the nuclei until now remain normal.
T85359 648921-648951 Sentence denotes There are no inclusion bodies.
T51625 648952-649086 Sentence denotes With the onset of epithelial cell necrosis, there is a pleocellular inflammatory reaction in the mucosa and underlying lamina propria.
T2414 649087-649256 Sentence denotes Electron microscopic examination of epithelial cells adjacent to the vesicles confirms the intercellular edema and keratinocyte necrosis seen under the light microscope.
T38172 649257-649317 Sentence denotes The microscopic appearance of the lesions is not diagnostic.
T48916 649318-649421 Sentence denotes In light of the similarity of VS to foot-and-mouth disease, laboratory confirmation of VS is essential.
T20594 649422-649495 Sentence denotes Vesicular fluid and mucosa from the tongue are good sources of the virus.
T83334 649496-649725 Sentence denotes Diagnosis is accomplished through virus isolation in tissue culture or embryonated eggs, fluorescent antibody techniques, complement fixation to identify viral antigen, polymerase chain reaction, and inoculation of suckling mice.
T91528 649726-649731 Sentence denotes Green
T21055 649733-649898 Sentence denotes Vesicular exanthema (VE) of swine is an acute, febrile disease of swine that is characterized by formation of vesicles on the snout, mouth, nonhaired skin, and feet.
T83172 649899-650021 Sentence denotes The lesions are indistinguishable from those of foot-and-mouth disease, vesicular stomatitis, and swine vesicular disease.
T98334 650022-650093 Sentence denotes VE of swine was first and usually cease with the onset of cold weather.
T94474 650094-650275 Sentence denotes The seasonal nature of the disease suggests that it is transmitted by insects; however, insect transmission is not essential and contact transmission has been proved experimentally.
T66679 650276-650388 Sentence denotes VSV has been isolated from both biting and nonbiting insects and black flies have transmitted the virus to pigs.
T57630 650389-650516 Sentence denotes Biting insects most likely become infected from feeding on lesions rather than blood, because viremia is transient, if present.
T1328 650517-650575 Sentence denotes Nonbiting insects act as mechanical carriers of the virus.
T58195 650576-650650 Sentence denotes It is not known how the virus spreads from one geographic area to another.
T65038 650651-650803 Sentence denotes There is some indication that VSVs adapt to specific regions, developing distinct genotypes based on specific vectors or reservoirs in an ecologic area.
T30485 650804-650968 Sentence denotes The intact mucosa is resistant to infection, but abrasions in a susceptible site readily result in infection when contaminated with saliva or exudate from a lesion.
T17653 650969-651100 Sentence denotes Environmental factors that increase the chance of causing abrasions to the skin, teats, or oral mucosa may predispose to infection.
T2900 651101-651234 Sentence denotes Morbidity in lactating dairy cows may be as high as 100%, although only ∼60% of the affected animals drool or froth around the mouth.
T95863 651235-651385 Sentence denotes The lesions of VS occur mainly on the oral mucosa; occasionally they do occur elsewhere, including on the feet, and in swine, foot lesions are common.
T3976 651386-651540 Sentence denotes This is by no means a dependable feature, and outbreaks of the disease in cattle have been described in which the lesions were predominantly on the teats.
T34477 651541-651609 Sentence denotes The incubation period following exposure by abrasion is 24-72 hours.
T80565 651610-651792 Sentence denotes Experimentally, VS New Jersey virus inoculation in cattle led to viral replication at the inoculation site from 24-48 hours and in the draining lymph nodes within the first 24 hours.
T68963 651793-651956 Sentence denotes In horses, experimental inoculation in the oral cavity and lips also led to local viral infection of the inoculation site, tonsil, and retropharyngeal lymph nodes.
T19531 651957-652048 Sentence denotes The viremic phase seems to be short-lived, because the virus cannot be cultured from blood.
T18697 652049-652076 Sentence denotes Secondary lesions are rare.
T87312 652077-652197 Sentence denotes In cattle, intramuscular injections will not initiate the disease, a distinguishing feature from foot-and-mouth disease.
T18061 652198-652406 Sentence denotes After experimental infection of swine, infectious viral particles can be recovered from a wide variety of tissues within 6 hours postinfection, including salivary gland, tonsils, snout, skin, and lymph nodes.
T29463 652407-652604 Sentence denotes However, infective virus, viral antigens, and nucleic acids cannot be demonstrated 6 days postinfection. is a porcine variant of human coxsackievirus B5, which is a serotype of human enterovirus B.
T38128 652605-652655 Sentence denotes SVDV is highly resistant to environmental factors.
T85906 652656-652753 Sentence denotes Unlike FMDV, it is not inactivated at the low pH in muscle commonly associated with rigor mortis.
T94764 652754-652844 Sentence denotes Many outbreaks of SVD appear to originate by feeding raw garbage containing pork products.
T42750 652845-653039 Sentence denotes Transmission within and among affected herds is by direct contact, especially during the early stages of the disease, or by exposure to the virus in the environment, where it is very persistent.
T75123 653040-653114 Sentence denotes The portal of entry is most likely oral or by exposure of excoriated skin.
T65473 653115-653252 Sentence denotes Following contact with infected pigs, vesicles develop within 2 days and consistent virus isolation from tonsil is possible for 1-7 days.
T96478 653253-653280 Sentence denotes Viremia lasts for 2-3 days.
T91330 653281-653439 Sentence denotes SVDV has a strong affinity for the epithelial cells of the coronary band, tongue, snout, lips, lymphoid follicles of the tonsils, myocardial cells, and brain.
T4008 653440-653579 Sentence denotes Virus titers in tissue decrease with the appearance of circulating antibodies, which peak after 2-3 weeks and apparently persist for years.
T62674 653580-653656 Sentence denotes Secretions and excretions have high viral titers for a period of 12-14 days.
T52390 653657-653700 Sentence denotes Feces may contain virus for up to 3 months.
T27600 653701-653824 Sentence denotes There is some evidence that pigs may become carriers, with stress reactivating viral shedding several months postinfection.
T69272 653825-653874 Sentence denotes Clinically, vesicles are most common on the feet.
T59095 653875-653924 Sentence denotes Oral lesions occur in only ∼10% of affected pigs.
T52380 653925-654010 Sentence denotes The foot lesions appear first at the junction between the heel and the coronary band.
T53646 654011-654088 Sentence denotes Initially, there is a 5-mm wide, pale, swollen area that encircles the digit.
T726 654089-654168 Sentence denotes In later stages a 1-cm wide band of necrotic skin is located along the coronet.
T6278 654169-654284 Sentence denotes Vesicles on the mouth, lips, and tongue occur in clusters and they are small, ∼2 mm in diameter, white, and opaque.
T73558 654285-654425 Sentence denotes They coalesce and rupture within 36 hours and may be covered by a pseudodiphtheritic membrane resulting from secondary bacterial infections.
T4569 654426-654469 Sentence denotes Affected pigs usually recover in 2-3 weeks.
T5803 654470-654556 Sentence denotes The development of vesicles tends to follow a similar course as that reported for FMD.
T43250 654557-654706 Sentence denotes The virus infects individual epithelial cells in the stratum spinosum, which leads to focal areas of keratinocyte degeneration and vesicle formation.
T65469 654707-654799 Sentence denotes There is an intense leukocytic reaction in the necrotic areas, which is mainly neutrophilic.
T50368 654800-654900 Sentence denotes As with the other vesicular diseases, after 1 week there are indications of epithelial regeneration.
T97834 654901-655045 Sentence denotes Nervous signs and lesions of nonsuppurative meningoencephalomyelitis have been reported in field outbreaks and reproduced experimentally in SVD.
T81393 655046-655164 Sentence denotes Lesions involve most areas in the brain and sometimes spinal cord, and are centered on ganglia and spinal nerve roots.
T91895 655165-655257 Sentence denotes Clinically, the severe lameness tends to overshadow any nervous signs that might be present.
T11656 655258-655594 Sentence denotes Laboratory diagnosis depends on demonstration of the agent by virus isolation, antigen capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, or polymerase chain reaction, in accredited laboratories, on account of its regulatory status. diagnosed in California in the 1930s and eventually spread to most swine-producing states in the United States.
T21016 655595-655697 Sentence denotes An eradication campaign was undertaken and the last reported outbreak of VE was in New Jersey in 1956.
T33462 655698-655813 Sentence denotes Species Vesicular exanthema of swine virus (VESV) is the type species of the genus Vesivirus, family Caliciviridae.
T84186 655814-655885 Sentence denotes It has a single-stranded RNA genome and has only one major polypeptide.
T18457 655886-656012 Sentence denotes It is 35-40 nm in diameter and characteristic cupshaped structures (calyces) are evident in electron microscopic preparations.
T77865 656013-656086 Sentence denotes There are 13 immunologically distinct serotypes, which vary in virulence.
T54958 656087-656300 Sentence denotes In 1973, a virus that is biophysically and morphologically similar to VESV was recovered from sea lions (Zalophus californianus) with vesicles on their flippers, off the coast of California near San Miguel Island.
T74920 656301-656525 Sentence denotes Several strains of this virus, called San Miguel sea lion virus (SMSV), produce milder but otherwise identical lesions to those of vesicular exanthema when inoculated into swine, and SMSV is classified as a serotype of VESV.
T22374 656526-656563 Sentence denotes The host range of SMSV is very broad.
T59404 656564-656756 Sentence denotes One serotype, SMSV-7, has been isolated from opaleye fish (Girella nigricans) and it produces lesions identical to VE when inoculated into swine, with horizontal transmission to contact swine.
T20612 656757-656838 Sentence denotes Evidence of SMSV infection continues to be identified in fish and marine mammals.
T61480 656839-657003 Sentence denotes It is thought that VE of swine arose through the feeding of ocean fish to swine, with some adaptation of the virus allowing for very efficient spread through swine.
T45058 657004-657166 Sentence denotes Most outbreaks of VE were associated with feeding of raw garbage containing pork waste, indicating that the disease was transmitted by direct contact and fomites.
T4436 657167-657292 Sentence denotes VESV now exists only as viral stocks archived in freezers and should be considered a disease of historical significance only.
T20847 657293-657418 Sentence denotes The possibility of a recurrence remains, however, if swine are fed uncooked tissues from ocean-origin fish or marine mammals.
T38499 657420-657654 Sentence denotes Swine vesicular disease (SVD) is a highly contagious viral disease of pigs that is characterized by formation of vesicles around the coronary bands and heels of the feet, and, to a lesser extent, on the mouth, lips, tongue, and teats.
T690 657655-657833 Sentence denotes Clinically, the disease is indistinguishable from the other vesicular diseases of swine, including foot-and-mouth disease, vesicular stomatitis, and vesicular exanthema of swine.
T42185 657834-657980 Sentence denotes The disease was first recognized in Italy in 1966 and it has since been reported from Hong Kong, the United Kingdom, continental Europe, and Asia.
T28135 657981-658186 Sentence denotes The economic importance of SVD is related less to the rather limited losses in production and more to the fact that it is difficult to differentiate from other vesicular diseases and hence restricts trade.
T96243 658187-658301 Sentence denotes Species Swine vesicular disease virus (SVDV) is a small RNA virus in the family Picornaviridae, genus Enterovirus.
T73688 658302-658304 Sentence denotes It
T27104 658305-658352 Sentence denotes Further reading Edwards JF, et BVDV infections.
T71501 658353-658534 Sentence denotes In a few situations, animals, mainly those >6 months of age, develop a more obvious clinical syndrome, with a high morbidity and low mortality-classical bovine viral diarrhea (BVD).
T62913 658535-658578 Sentence denotes The infecting agent is usually an NCP BVDV.
T69508 658579-658710 Sentence denotes After an incubation period of 5-7 days, the affected animals develop fever, leukopenia, and viremia that may persist up to 15 days.
T22081 658711-658812 Sentence denotes The virus is present in leukocytes (buffy coat), especially lymphocytes and monocytes, and in plasma.
T50207 658813-658935 Sentence denotes There is a transient decrease in the number of B and T lymphocytes and a decline in responsiveness to mitogen stimulation.
T70943 658936-659080 Sentence denotes Clinically, the disease is characterized by lethargy, anorexia, mild oculonasal discharge, and occasional mild oral erosions and shallow ulcers.
T77798 659081-659100 Sentence denotes Diarrhea may occur.
T10595 659101-659161 Sentence denotes In dairy herds there is a transient drop in milk production.
T12363 659162-659270 Sentence denotes Affected animals develop neutralizing antibodies that peak in 10-12 weeks, and probably are immune for life.
T57665 659271-659433 Sentence denotes A syndrome of severe acute BVD, characterized by high morbidity and mortality in all age groups of susceptible animals, has been recognized since the early 1990s.
T42890 659434-659656 Sentence denotes Sometimes termed BVD type 2, because it is caused mainly, although not exclusively, by primary infections with BVDV-2, this syndrome usually has a peracute to acute course, with fever, sudden death, diarrhea, or pneumonia.
T39087 659657-659725 Sentence denotes It should be noted that not all BVDV-2 isolates are highly virulent.
T54691 659726-659973 Sentence denotes In some cases a thrombocytopenic syndrome, characterized clinically by epistaxis, hyphema, mucosal hemorrhages, bleeding at injection sites, and bloody diarrhea, is superimposed on the alimentary syndrome caused by BVDV-2, or occurs independently.
T2084 659974-660061 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis of BVD type 2 is most frequently linked to increased strain virulence.
T50622 660062-660247 Sentence denotes However, production of inflammatory cytokines, in response to widespread infection of mononuclear phagocytes, has also been postulated as a cause for the severe disease seen clinically.
T27744 660248-660378 Sentence denotes The mechanism of thrombocytopenia is not completely defined, although infected megakaryocytes in the bone marrow undergo necrosis.
T68332 660379-660515 Sentence denotes Fetal infections may occur in pregnant immunocompetent seronegative acutely infected females, and in persistently infected counterparts.
T11245 660516-660596 Sentence denotes The outcome of fetal infection is primarily dependent on the stage of gestation.
T68507 660597-660717 Sentence denotes The most serious consequences occur if an NCP BVDV crosses the placental barrier during the first 4 months of gestation.
T98733 660718-660860 Sentence denotes It may result in fetal resorption, mummification, abortion, congenital anomalies, or, if the calf survives, a persistently infected (PI) calf.
T48758 660861-661057 Sentence denotes PI calves remain viremic for life, and are immunotolerant to homologous NCP BVD viruses because of failure of the immature fetal immune system to recognize the infecting viral antigens as foreign.
T74182 661058-661123 Sentence denotes PI calves may be clinically normal, weak, or undersized at birth.
T62285 661124-661213 Sentence denotes They may appear normal, but are often unthrifty, and may have a rough or curly hair coat.
T27242 661214-661398 Sentence denotes The prevalence of these calves in a herd is usually <2%, but may be as high as 25-30% in herds in which a large number of naïve cows, early in pregnancy, have been exposed to NCP BVDV.
T75167 661399-661503 Sentence denotes Most PI calves succumb to mucosal disease (see later), usually between the ages of 6 months and 2 years.
T24392 661504-661688 Sentence denotes The offspring of the few animals that reach sexual maturity and become pregnant are also persistently infected, which can result in families of animals persistently infected with BVDV.
T2548 661689-661890 Sentence denotes PI animals are viremic, and lack antibody to the infecting virus (are antigen-positive but seronegative), which they shed constantly, acting as the most important source of infection in the population.
T87969 661891-662008 Sentence denotes In PI animals, virus is present in a wide variety of tissues, and antigen can be demonstrated by immunohistochemistry
T16961 662009-662050 Sentence denotes in genus Pestivirus, family Flaviviridae.
T93181 662051-662218 Sentence denotes Pestivirus is composed of 4 recognized species, BVDV-1 and BVDV-2 (previously referred to as genotypes 1 and 2), Classical swine fever virus, and Border disease virus.
T45860 662219-662346 Sentence denotes It is widespread in cattle populations and this or closely related viruses can infect most eventoed ungulates, including swine.
T81434 662347-662533 Sentence denotes Although evidence for BVDV infection has been found in farmed and free-ranging wildlife in North America, the risk of transmission of the disease from wildlife to cattle remains unknown.
T9167 662534-662672 Sentence denotes As an RNA virus, BVDV is highly mutable because of the error-prone nature of the RNA polymerases responsible for replication of viral RNA.
T58093 662673-662815 Sentence denotes As a result, "swarms" of viral mutants form "quasispecies" that circulate within an infected individual and among individuals in a population.
T61505 662816-663095 Sentence denotes Although most quasispecies lack a selective advantage, or suffer deleterious point mutations, preventing them from becoming dominant, the ability to generate mutants enables BVDV to adapt to host responses, and to establish chronic or persistent infections in some circumstances.
T95328 663096-663308 Sentence denotes Although low virulence would seem to promote prolonged viral shedding, there may be advantages in high virulence that favor the emergence of quasispecies capable of causing severe disease and high virus shedding.
T74618 663309-663467 Sentence denotes Viral genotype may be linked to specific manifestations of BVDV infection; noncytopathic (NCP) BVDV-2 has been associated with thrombocytopenia, for instance.
T52727 663468-663633 Sentence denotes However, there is a range of virulence among both BVDV-1 and BVDV-2 isolates, varying from subclinical infections or mild clinical disease to severe fatal syndromes.
T91340 663634-664105 Sentence denotes Recombination of RNA from homologous (BVDV) or heterologous (other viral or host) sources, usually involving the region encoding the nonstructural protein NS2-3 of noncytopathic virus, results in a shift in biotype of either genotype of virus, from the more common NCP biotype, in which inapparent persistent infection is produced in cultured cells, to a cytopathic (CP) biotype, capable of inducing cytoplasmic vacuolation and apoptotic death of cells in tissue culture.
T90244 664106-664228 Sentence denotes Recombination splits NS2-3, resulting in a small NS3 protein, which induces apoptosis, and is a marker for CP BVD viruses.
T10386 664229-664396 Sentence denotes A new pestivirus species, tentatively called HoBi-like, BVDV-3, or atypical pestivirus, was recently identified in fetal bovine serum imported from Brazil into Europe.
T15081 664397-664540 Sentence denotes These viruses are genetically and antigenically related to BVDV and cause disease similar to that traditionally associated with BVDV infection.
T98175 664541-664622 Sentence denotes HoBi-like viruses may not be detected by conventional BVDV diagnostic techniques.
T80201 664623-664714 Sentence denotes Current BVDV vaccines confer limited protection cross-protection against HoBi-like viruses.
T8331 664715-664788 Sentence denotes These viruses have been identified in Brazil, Southeast Asia, and Europe.
T3496 664789-664943 Sentence denotes BVDV gains access to the oropharyngeal mucosa by ingestion or inhalation, and primary replication is in oropharyngeal lymphoid tissues, including tonsils.
T70706 664944-665140 Sentence denotes The outcome of the ensuing viremia is a product of the genotype and virulence of the virus, the immune status of the host, whether or not the animal is pregnant, and if so, the stage of pregnancy.
T70955 665141-665271 Sentence denotes Infection of immunocompetent, seronegative, nonpregnant animals usually results in subclinical infection or mild clinical disease.
T36445 665272-665438 Sentence denotes Affected animals develop slight fever, leukopenia, and specific neutralizing antibodies, the outcome in 70-90% of chronically affected animals, resulting in lameness.
T83503 665439-665655 Sentence denotes In these too, the skin is dry and scurfy, especially over the neck, withers, back, perineal and preputial areas, and vulva, whereas that on the medial aspect of the thighs and forelegs becomes moist and dirty yellow.
T79878 665656-665963 Sentence denotes At autopsy, the gross lesions vary considerably, especially in acute cases, in which either upper alimentary or intestinal lesions rarely may be absent, and less so in the chronic disease, in which a broader pathologic picture often is present, perhaps partially obscured by healing or evolution of lesions.
T83058 665964-666061 Sentence denotes Crusts, erosions, and shallow ulcers are present on the muzzle and nares of many affected cattle.
T90846 666062-666119 Sentence denotes There is loss of epithelium from much of the oral cavity.
T16382 666120-666238 Sentence denotes The most conspicuous oral erosions are on the palate, the tips of the buccal papillae ( Fig. 1-81B) , and the gingiva.
T13383 666239-666397 Sentence denotes Many, especially on the papillae, the hard palate, and in the pharynx, are sharp punched-out ulcers, and expose a denuded, intensely hyperemic lamina propria.
T24235 666398-666484 Sentence denotes In more chronic cases, ulcers may have a margin of thickened proliferative epithelium.
T47850 666485-666616 Sentence denotes The tongue is in skin biopsies-in keratinocytes, hair follicle epithelium, hair matrix cells of the hair bulb, and dermal papillae.
T39081 666617-666951 Sentence denotes Use of skin biopsies for diagnosis of persistent infections by immunohistochemistry or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay has been exploited diagnostically, but it should be recognized that acutely infected animals may have virus in skin biopsies as well, and detection of BVDV antigen in skin is therefore not specific for PI animals.
T21936 666952-667065 Sentence denotes Lesions in PI animals are minimal and subclinical, in spite of the widespread infection of virtually all tissues.
T83832 667066-667340 Sentence denotes Mucosal disease is a clinicopathologic syndrome occurring in PI animals that subsequently become infected with a closely related CP strain, or probably more commonly, when the virus causing persistent congenital infection spontaneously develops a recombination encoding NS3.
T48589 667341-667453 Sentence denotes The result is an overwhelming infection that destroys cells, and to which the animal is incapable of responding.
T75061 667454-667593 Sentence denotes Characterized by low morbidity but very high mortality, mucosal disease most commonly occurs in cattle that are 6 months to 2 years of age.
T52752 667594-667718 Sentence denotes Although deaths may occur within a few days of illness, and almost always within 2 weeks, some cases may survive for months.
T67664 667719-667892 Sentence denotes The incubation period after experimental infection with a CP strain in an animal persistently infected with an NCP BVDV is usually 7-14 days, but may be considerably longer.
T14336 667893-668020 Sentence denotes Mucosal disease occurred in yearling steers shortly after vaccination with a multivalent vaccine containing modified-live BVDV.
T31117 668021-668224 Sentence denotes Genetic studies of the BVDV isolate obtained from the affected animals, combined with the epidemiologic evidence, was considered as strong evidence that the BVDV vaccine was the cause of mucosal disease.
T88731 668225-668464 Sentence denotes Basically, there are 2 forms of clinically severe BVDV infection: mucosal disease in persistently infected animals, and the more recently recognized severe acute form of BVD caused by primary infections with very virulent strains of virus.
T71928 668465-668735 Sentence denotes At autopsy, one cannot confidently differentiate spontaneous cases of severe acute BVD caused by BVDV-1 or BVDV-2 from each other, or from cases of mucosal disease, other than by the more hemorrhagic character of some cases of severe acute BVD caused by BVDV-2 isolates.
T74082 668736-668965 Sentence denotes Tentative differentiation of mucosal disease from severe acute BVD rests on the epidemiologic picture; antigenic or molecular characterization of the involved viruses is required for definitive diagnosis of the various syndromes.
T37121 668966-669064 Sentence denotes Fulminant severe acute BVD or mucosal disease closely resembles rinderpest clinically and grossly.
T71658 669065-669139 Sentence denotes At the onset the animal is febrile, with serous to mucoid nasal discharge.
T21243 669140-669302 Sentence denotes Discrete oral lesions are preceded by acute stomatitis and pharyngitis, the mucosae being hyperemic and pink and covered by a thin gray film of catarrhal exudate.
T38288 669303-669391 Sentence denotes There is severe diarrhea and tenesmus with feces containing little or no blood or mucus.
T64966 669392-669520 Sentence denotes Affected animals become lethargic, anorexic, and dehydrated; they have ptyalism, polypnea, and tachycardia, and may die quickly.
T12737 669521-669687 Sentence denotes In more chronic cases, the development of the oral lesions is like that found in acute cases; however, by the time they die there is usually some evidence of healing.
T75561 669688-669864 Sentence denotes The watery diarrhea of the early phase gradually gives way to feces that are passed frequently, are scant in volume, and contain a large proportion of mucus flecked with blood.
T37209 669865-670008 Sentence denotes Late in the clinical course, there is lethargy, emaciation, ruminal stasis, and frequent attempts at defecation accompanied by severe tenesmus.
T35981 670009-670224 Sentence denotes Interdigital dermatitis, dermatitis of pastern ( Fig. 1-81A) , coronitis, and laminitis affecting all 4 feet may be present in not always affected; when present, lesions may be evident on all surfaces (Fig. 1-82A) .
T79920 670225-670298 Sentence denotes Esophageal lesions are usually present, most commonly in the upper third.
T5543 670299-670373 Sentence denotes In some acute cases, the lesions are shallow erosions, rather than ulcers.
T16168 670374-670597 Sentence denotes The erosions are more or less linear but otherwise irregular, have a dirty brown base, and little or no hyperemia, and may be covered by shreds of necrotic epithelium in animals that have not been swallowing ( Fig. 1-82B ).
T19682 670598-670649 Sentence denotes In more advanced cases, discrete ulcerations occur.
T15812 670650-670835 Sentence denotes In many chronically affected animals the ulcers are beginning to heal and have yellow-white slightly elevated plaques of proliferative epithelium at the periphery of the mucosal defect.
T62734 670836-670928 Sentence denotes Lesions are found in the reticulorumen and omasum, but usually not in the esophageal groove.
T6987 670929-671030 Sentence denotes The ruminal content in chronically affected animals with prolonged anorexia is usually scant and dry.
T2157 671031-671103 Sentence denotes In most acute cases, the ruminal content is unusually liquid and putrid.
T97188 671104-671339 Sentence denotes The lesions on the wall of the rumen resemble those present elsewhere in the upper alimentary tract and, although they occur anywhere, they are best seen on the pillars and other smooth or nonvillus portions of the mucosa (Fig. 1-83) .
T32203 671340-671460 Sentence denotes The omasal lesions are most numerous along the edges of the leaves, sometimes causing a scalloped margin or perforation.
T46493 671461-671600 Sentence denotes The morphogenesis of the lesions in the squamous mucosa of the upper alimentary tract begins with necrosis of the epithelium ( Fig. 1-84) .
T49670 671601-671712 Sentence denotes Individual cells and groups of cells deep in the epithelium are eosinophilic and swollen, with pyknotic nuclei.
T40578 671713-671822 Sentence denotes These foci enlarge progressively and form areas of necrosis that extend to, and may involve, the basal layer.
T46828 671823-671951 Sentence denotes In the early stages there is little or no inflammation of the lamina propria, but leukocytes infiltrate the necrotic epithelium.
T82124 671952-672176 Sentence denotes These necrotic foci enlarge progressively tending to coalesce, and may form small cleavage vesicles along the proprial-epithelial junction ( Fig. 1-85A ), leading to erosions or ulcers as necrotic epithelium is abraded away.
T55940 672177-672357 Sentence denotes The ulcerations of the squamous epithelium of the upper alimentary tract are accompanied by inflammation in the lamina propria, especially where this forms papillae ( Fig. 1-85B) .
T7130 672358-672404 Sentence denotes Changes are regularly present in the abomasum.
T73384 672405-672502 Sentence denotes The sides of the rugae bear ulcers that may be punctate to 1 cm or more in diameter (Fig. 1-86) .
T57939 672503-672691 Sentence denotes The histologic changes in the glandular epithelium of the abomasum are characterized by epithelial necrosis, mainly in the depths of the glands, and accompanying interstitial inflammation.
T74093 672692-672771 Sentence denotes The mucosa of the small intestine often appears normal over much of its length.
T56237 672772-672867 Sentence denotes However, in some cases the mucosa of the small intestine may have patchy or diffuse congestion.
T87327 672868-672935 Sentence denotes In rare cases, fibrin casts may be in the lumen of the small bowel.
T6228 672936-673073 Sentence denotes In acute cases, it is usual to find coagulated blood and fibrin overlying and outlining Peyer's patches, the covering of which is eroded.
T49131 673074-673161 Sentence denotes This, when present, is a very distinctive lesion that is only paralleled in rinderpest.
T30865 673162-673331 Sentence denotes Severely affected Peyer's patches are often obvious through the serosa as red-black oval areas up to 10-12 cm long on the antimesenteric border of the gut (Fig. 1-87A ).
T18525 673332-673514 Sentence denotes Less acutely affected Peyer's patches may be overlain by a diphtheritic membrane, whereas in milder or more chronic cases the patches may be depressed and covered by tenacious mucus.
T74884 673515-673565 Sentence denotes Mesenteric lymph nodes may or may not be enlarged.
T76445 673566-673613 Sentence denotes Lesions in the large bowel are highly variable.
T72529 673614-673731 Sentence denotes The mucosa may be congested, often in a "tiger-stripe" pattern following the colonic folds, a reflection of tenesmus.
T63605 673732-673808 Sentence denotes In acute cases there may be fibrinohemorrhagic typhlocolitis ( Fig. 1-87B) .
T88930 673809-673992 Sentence denotes In more chronic cases, fibrinous or fibrinonecrotic lesions and focal or extensive ulceration may be present at any level of the large bowel, but particularly in the cecum and rectum.
T66107 673993-674124 Sentence denotes The characteristic microscopic lesion in the intestinal mucosa is destruction of the epithelial lining of the crypts of Lieberkühn.
T76394 674125-674288 Sentence denotes In the duodenum, only a few crypts are affected, but more crypts are affected more severely in the lower reaches of the small intestine and in the cecum and colon.
T50673 674289-674374 Sentence denotes Affected crypts are dilated and filled with mucus, epithelial debris, and leukocytes.
T70972 674375-674464 Sentence denotes Remaining crypt-lining cells are attenuated in an attempt to cover the basement membrane.
T18677 674465-674526 Sentence denotes Reparative hyperplasia of crypt lining is rarely encountered.
T62853 674527-674573 Sentence denotes Crypt drop-out may be evident microscopically.
T90684 674574-674785 Sentence denotes In the cecum and colon, extensive damage to crypts and associated collapse of An important microscopic lesion is hyaline degeneration and fibrinoid necrosis of submucosal and mesenteric arterioles ( Fig. 1-89) .
T65574 674786-674920 Sentence denotes A mild-to-moderate mononuclear inflammatory cell reaction is frequently present in the walls of the vessels and in perivascular areas.
T23045 674921-675128 Sentence denotes The vascular lesions also may be present in a variety of other organs, such as the heart, brain, and adrenal cortices, which may make it difficult to differentiate the disease from malignant catarrhal fever.
T38521 675129-675365 Sentence denotes The vascular lesions in acute mucosal disease are less consistently present and are usually milder, and there is involution of lymphoid tissue in BVD, in contrast with the lymphoproliferation characteristic of malignant catarrhal fever.
T78519 675366-675518 Sentence denotes Coronitis may extend completely around the coronary band, with some separation of the skin-horn junction causing disturbance and overgrowth of the horn.
T20164 675519-675585 Sentence denotes Dermatitis may extend from the coronet up the back of the pastern.
T43355 675586-675677 Sentence denotes Milder dermatitis is generalized, with scurfiness, especially from the ears to the withers.
T48458 675678-675891 Sentence denotes In sections of the skin of animals with chronic mucosal disease, there is hyperkeratosis and parakeratosis with focal accumulations of necrotic epithelium with intense hyperemia of the adjacent superficial dermis.
T58835 675892-675999 Sentence denotes The epithelial lesions are basically similar to those in the squamous mucosa of the upper alimentary tract.
T41598 676000-676107 Sentence denotes Necrosis often extends deeply to or through the basal layers; it results in minute erosions or ulcerations.
T69170 676108-676199 Sentence denotes There is massive infiltration of macrophages and some lymphocytes in the underlying dermis.
T31289 676200-676325 Sentence denotes These deeper lesions occur in the inner aspects of the legs and the perineum, and there is exudation of serum in these areas.
T32524 676326-676410 Sentence denotes The overlying degenerate epithelium becomes disorderly and eventually is lifted off.
T63408 676411-676544 Sentence denotes Some animals with chronic disease develop mycotic infections secondary to lesions in the forestomachs, abomasum, and Peyer's patches.
T84234 676545-676664 Sentence denotes The lesions are areas of hemorrhagic necrosis involving the mucosa, submucosa, and sometimes deeper layers of the wall.
T75978 676665-676743 Sentence denotes Fungal hyphae are found invading the stroma and causing thrombosis in venules.
T30869 676744-676939 Sentence denotes Infection of oocytes and cumulus cells in the ovaries has been well-documented, causing speculation concerning the lamina propria are the probable cause of ulceration seen grossly ( Fig. 1-88A) .
T60661 676940-677083 Sentence denotes Congestion of mucosal capillaries, and in acute or ulcerated cases, effusion of fibrin and neutrophils from the mucosal surface may be evident.
T53594 677084-677202 Sentence denotes The microscopic lesions of Peyer's patches are distinctive in BVD, comparable lesions being caused only by rinderpest.
T20810 677203-677458 Sentence denotes In the acute phase of the disease, severe acute inflammation in the mucosa over Peyer's patches accompanies almost complete destruction of the underlying glands, collapse of the lamina propria, and lysis of the follicular lymphoid tissues ( Fig. 1-88B) .
T79561 677459-677728 Sentence denotes Later in the course of the disease, dilated crypts, lined at least in part by cuboidal epithelium and filled with necrotic epithelial cells, mucus, and inflammatory cells, appear to herniate into the submucosal space previously occupied by involuted lymphoid follicles.
T14471 677729-677957 Sentence denotes Peyer's patches should be sought assiduously at autopsy because their gross and microscopic appearance may provide useful evidence for diagnosis. part the apparent susceptibility of such cattle to secondary bacterial infections.
T20255 677958-678007 Sentence denotes Fetal infection with bovine viral diarrhea virus.
T84119 678008-678403 Sentence denotes In addition to the early embryonic death and abortions that can be ascribed to BVDV, infections of seronegative immunocompetent dams, usually between 90 and 120 days of gestation, may result in a wide spectrum of teratogenic lesions, including microencephaly, hypomyelinogenesis, cerebellar hypoplasia and dysgenesis, hydranencephaly, hydrocephalus, and defective myelination of the spinal cord.
T84587 678404-678584 Sentence denotes Ocular lesions, such as microphthalmia, cataracts, retinal degeneration, atrophy and dysplasia, and optic neuritis, have all been associated with fetal infections by BVDV (see Vol.
T21424 678585-678631 Sentence denotes 1, Nervous system; Vol.1, Special senses; Vol.
T15781 678632-678658 Sentence denotes 3, Female genital system).
T60284 678659-678836 Sentence denotes Infections of the immunocompetent fetus, usually after 135 days of gestation, result in antibody production that is detectable in precolostral serum samples of the newborn calf.
T40461 678837-678968 Sentence denotes Fetal infection later in gestation may produce lesions unrelated to teratogenesis in the fetus, including alimentary tract lesions.
T7558 678969-679157 Sentence denotes Punctate hemorrhages with ulcers 1-3 mm in diameter may be profuse in the oral cavity, excepting the dorsum of the tongue, and in the esophagus, larynx, trachea, conjunctiva, and abomasum.
T6821 679158-679360 Sentence denotes The fetal lesions of squamous epithelium evolve in somewhat the same manner as those described earlier, with focal hemorrhages in the lamina propria and epithelial necrosis beginning in the basal layer.
T59204 679362-679630 Sentence denotes The prevalence of naturally occurring antibodies to BVDV in swine has increased dramatically in the last several years with seroconversion in different countries varying between 2% and 43%. ovarian dysfunction and reduced fertility in animals surviving BVDV infection.
T32321 679631-679729 Sentence denotes After experimental inoculation with virulent BVDV-2, animals are febrile by 7 days post infection.
T91663 679730-679903 Sentence denotes Prominent clinical signs are anorexia, depression, and episodes of profuse watery and bloody diarrhea that persist until the animal is moribund at 13-14 days post infection.
T72116 679904-679931 Sentence denotes Pregnant animals may abort.
T17421 679932-679981 Sentence denotes Leukopenia and thrombocytopenia are often marked.
T51241 679982-680058 Sentence denotes In cases with severe thrombocytopenia, hemorrhage may be evident clinically.
T96164 680059-680118 Sentence denotes Lesions are found in the digestive and respiratory systems.
T45221 680119-680228 Sentence denotes There is mild tracheitis, bronchitis, and bronchiolitis, which can progress to secondary bacterial pneumonia.
T50018 680229-680314 Sentence denotes Strains may vary in their ability to infect the pulmonary tree and result in disease.
T47780 680315-680447 Sentence denotes Intestinal lesions strongly resemble those seen in mucosal disease, with severe lymphoid depletion and necrosis of epithelial cells.
T20632 680448-680690 Sentence denotes However, with these BVDV-2 infections, there is often also a significant amount of hemorrhage evident externally, as described previously, and there may be extensive subserosal hemorrhages in the thoracic and abdominal cavities ( Fig. 1-90) .
T7035 680691-680768 Sentence denotes Similarly, edema may be more noteworthy in this form than in mucosal disease.
T80583 680769-680902 Sentence denotes Severe necrotizing vasculitis, especially arteritis, is noted in multiple organs but is most readily identifiable in lymphoid tissue.
T96077 680903-680986 Sentence denotes Meningoencephalitis associated with neuronal infection by BVDV-2 has been reported.
T62883 680987-681252 Sentence denotes By immunohistochemistry, there is widespread viral antigen within epithelial cells (including oral and esophageal epithelium), smooth-muscle cells, and mononuclear phagocytes in multiple organs, although lesions often do not correspond to sites of antigen staining.
T4768 681253-681306 Sentence denotes Bovine viral diarrhea virus and secondary infections.
T75409 681307-681501 Sentence denotes BVDV infection suppresses interferon production and impairs lymphocyte function, monocyte proliferation and chemotaxis, humoral antibody production, neutrophil function, and bacterial clearance.
T20943 681502-681604 Sentence denotes These changes are fairly persistent in chronically infected animals and in those with mucosal disease.
T34154 681605-681756 Sentence denotes The failure of immunogenic response may be associated with immunotolerance, or destruction of immunocompetent cells, which is reflected in lymphopenia.
T1734 681757-681948 Sentence denotes In addition to a lack of humoral antibody response, there is also depression of cell-mediated immunity, as indicated by a poor response of cultured peripheral lymphocytes to various mitogens.
T36108 681949-682093 Sentence denotes The impairment of neutrophil function in cattle infected with BVDV may explain in BVDV should be considered as possible causes of that syndrome.
T31999 682094-682302 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis of fetal infections, resultant border disease, and related enteric lesions in sheep appear to be similar to the multitude of conditions associated with NCP BVDV prenatal infections in cattle.
T96763 682303-682435 Sentence denotes Seronegative ewes infected before 80 days of gestation may produce persistently infected, immunotolerant, chronically viremic lambs.
T18174 682436-682447 Sentence denotes Braun U, et
T89829 682449-682776 Sentence denotes Otherwise known as "cattle plague," rinderpest was an acute or subacute highly contagious disease of cattle, domestic buffalo, and some other species of even-toed ungulates, including buffaloes, large antelopes, deer, giraffes, wildebeests, and warthogs, characterized by erosive or hemorrhagic lesions of all mucous membranes.
T90368 682777-683109 Sentence denotes After a global eradication campaign, including limitations on animal movement and the use of highly efficacious vaccine, the disease was eradicated from the planet, with the virus last detected in 2001 in wild buffaloes in Meru National Park in Kenya, located on the edge of the Somali ecosystem, the last known remaining reservoir.
T92855 683110-683272 Sentence denotes For several years after that, studies in the region detected antibodies to the rinderpest virus in cattle, but it is thought that they came from old vaccinations.
T31887 683273-683347 Sentence denotes More recent surveillance confirmed the absence of the virus in the region.
T69911 683348-683419 Sentence denotes Vaccination against rinderpest is no longer used anywhere in the world.
T32841 683420-683530 Sentence denotes Before eradication, pandemics of rinderpest occurred in the Middle East and sub-Saharan and equatorial Africa.
T80414 683531-683545 Sentence denotes Morbillivirus.
T1414 683546-683655 Sentence denotes It is a highly pleomorphic singlestranded RNA virus with a core diameter of 120-300 nm and a spiked envelope.
T48926 683656-683827 Sentence denotes The virus is highly fragile under ordinary environmental conditions; it is incapable of surviving more than a few hours outside the animal body under normal circumstances.
T684 683828-683955 Sentence denotes Probably all cloven-hoofed animals are naturally susceptible to infection, but the expression of infection varies considerably.
T53176 683956-684040 Sentence denotes Goats and sheep do respond, but inconsistently, to experimental inoculations of RPV.
T29967 684041-684176 Sentence denotes Infection in Asiatic pigs may be severe but it tends to be mild in European breeds, which are considered dead end hosts for rinderpest.
T59254 684177-684303 Sentence denotes Rinderpest strains that are responsible for mild disease in cattle might cause severe disease in susceptible wildlife species.
T67294 684304-684471 Sentence denotes Although different strains of RPV vary considerably in their pathogenicity, they are grouped in a single serotype and, when suitably modified, make effective vaccines.
T29194 684472-684600 Sentence denotes The infection impacted heavily on wildlife populations in close contact with cattle, and wildlife was important in virus spread.
T37585 684601-684719 Sentence denotes The disease in cattle could be mild, especially in endemic areas, but it was acute or peracute and severe in new foci.
T36301 684720-684937 Sentence denotes The different degrees of severity were due in part to real The presence of antibodies to BVDV may complicate the diagnosis of classical swine fever, especially in those countries considered to be free of this disease.
T14803 684938-685082 Sentence denotes Cattle, and modified live virus vaccines containing contaminated fetal bovine serum, are considered to be common sources of infection for swine.
T98806 685083-685216 Sentence denotes Infection of pigs with BVDV usually occurs without clinical signs, allowing an opportunity for the virus to spread without detection.
T52957 685217-685365 Sentence denotes There are sporadic reports of disease in pigs associated with BVDV infection, including stillbirth, and poorly viable piglets, some showing tremors.
T2438 685366-685486 Sentence denotes A few 2-4-week-old pigs in infected herds are anemic, have a rough hair coat, growth retardation, wasting, and diarrhea.
T82338 685487-685574 Sentence denotes Affected pigs fail to develop neutralizing antibodies to the infecting homologous BVDV.
T58271 685575-685638 Sentence denotes Littermates that remain normal develop neutralizing antibodies.
T21426 685639-685692 Sentence denotes The suggestion is that the infections are congenital.
T13552 685693-685788 Sentence denotes In pigs infected postnatally with BVDV, usually no lesions, or very mild lesions, are observed.
T60595 685789-685931 Sentence denotes Experimental in utero BVDV infection of sows may result in prenatal and perinatal deaths, persistently infected immunotolerant or normal pigs.
T61482 685932-686024 Sentence denotes Many of these conditions resemble the effects of in utero infection with NCP BVDV in cattle.
T75346 686025-686044 Sentence denotes Tao Border disease.
T33970 686045-686300 Sentence denotes Border disease is a congenital infection of sheep and goats, usually with one of several NCP genotypes of border disease virus (BDV), a pestivirus antigenically related to BVDV and classical swine fever virus, but apparently also with some BVDV-2 strains.
T87585 686301-686385 Sentence denotes The disease was first reported in lambs from border areas between England and Wales.
T5333 686386-686493 Sentence denotes It is characterized by embryonic and fetal death, abortion, mummification, and birth of weak lambs or kids.
T85203 686494-686656 Sentence denotes The affected animals have an abnormal body conformation, long hairy fleece, clonic rhythmic tremors ("hairy shakers"), unthriftiness, and poor viability (see Vol.
T29668 686657-686680 Sentence denotes 1, Nervous system; Vol.
T71168 686681-686710 Sentence denotes 1, Integumentary system; Vol.
T75019 686711-686737 Sentence denotes 3, Female genital system).
T66651 686738-686894 Sentence denotes A syndrome resembling mucosal disease has been reported in lambs that survived the initial border disease; they were persistently infected with an NCP BVDV.
T34456 686895-687138 Sentence denotes Immunohistochemical examination of tissues from persistently infected sheep reveals viral antigen in smooth muscle cells of hollow organs and blood vessels, epithelial cells in the gastrointestinal tract, lymphocytes, neurons, and glial cells.
T61225 687139-687280 Sentence denotes When cytopathic BDV is superimposed on persistent infection, affected sheep develop chronic diarrhea, wasting, nasal discharge, and polypnea.
T67458 687281-687392 Sentence denotes Macroscopic lesions are particularly present in the cecum and colon and in a few sheep also the terminal ileum.
T35106 687393-687566 Sentence denotes There is marked thickening of the gut wall caused by subserosal and mucosal edema and diffuse polypoid hyperplasia of the mucosa, which is hemorrhagic and focally ulcerated.
T97173 687567-687663 Sentence denotes The microscopic lesions in the gut are similar to those described for mucosal disease in cattle.
T52534 687664-687812 Sentence denotes Lymphoid cell reactions are evident in the choroid plexus, portal triads of the liver, kidney, myocardium, thyroids, lungs, spleen, and lymph nodes.
T86554 687813-687911 Sentence denotes In addition, some lambs have marked hypertrophy and edema of the muscularis of the terminal ileum.
T19464 687912-688012 Sentence denotes The lesions in the terminal ileum resemble "terminal ileitis," and BDV and with lymphoid aggregates.
T72260 688013-688089 Sentence denotes Consequently, the caudal part of the oral cavity is affected preferentially.
T35772 688090-688162 Sentence denotes There is some strain variation with respect to presence of oral lesions.
T30449 688163-688237 Sentence denotes In nonfatal cases there is rapid regeneration of the oral mucosal lesions.
T48752 688238-688307 Sentence denotes Esophageal erosions are usually mild and affect the proximal portion.
T80522 688308-688352 Sentence denotes The forestomachs rarely exhibit any lesions.
T92222 688353-688444 Sentence denotes The histologic lesions of stratified squamous epithelium originate in the stratum spinosum.
T2590 688445-688556 Sentence denotes Entrance into the epithelium may be via infected Langerhans cells that then pass virus along to adjacent cells.
T41366 688557-688659 Sentence denotes Irregularly shaped rafts of acanthocytes are infected with virus as evidenced by immunohistochemistry.
T25849 688660-688716 Sentence denotes These same cells then undergo degeneration and necrosis.
T7838 688717-688831 Sentence denotes Multinucleated syncytia form in the epithelium (Fig. 1-92 ) and these may have cytoplasmic and nuclear inclusions.
T90756 688832-688919 Sentence denotes Abrasion causes the necrotic tissue to lift off and produce shallow erosions or ulcers.
T23956 688920-688992 Sentence denotes This occurs so readily that they are usually the first lesions observed.
T41703 688993-689085 Sentence denotes Their margins are sharp, and the bases are reddened by the underlying congested capillaries.
T83359 689086-689161 Sentence denotes The initial minute erosions enlarge and coalesce to form extensive defects.
T85707 689162-689551 Sentence denotes The abomasum is often severely reddened, which may just be a reflection of generalized stress for, although immunohistochemically abomasal epithelium is infected with virus, the extent of infection and resulting necrosis is far less than that seen in intestinal mucosa. differences in virulence of strains, and largely because of differences in susceptibility of breeds or races of cattle.
T45091 689552-689816 Sentence denotes Rinderpest could also persist for prolonged periods as a very mild disease in endemically infected cattle and wild ungulate herds and it was thought to remain stable for years before the emergence of more pathogenic strains that induced the characteristic disease.
T46079 689817-689896 Sentence denotes The nasopharyngeal mucosa appears to be the main portal of entry in rinderpest.
T70338 689897-690092 Sentence denotes The virus uses glycoproteins expressed on activate lymphocytes and monocytes and on dendritic cells as receptors, and destruction of such cells may be a means by which it causes immunocompromise.
T15088 690093-690180 Sentence denotes It localizes and replicates initially in the palatine tonsils and regional lymph nodes.
T59663 690181-690304 Sentence denotes This is followed after an 8-11 day incubation by a 2-3 day period of viremia that coincides with the fever seen clinically.
T26871 690305-690368 Sentence denotes In circulation, the virus is associated with mononuclear cells.
T12117 690369-690530 Sentence denotes After the viremic stage, the virus replicates in all lymphoid tissues, the bone marrow, and the mucosa of the upper respiratory tract and gastrointestinal tract.
T32898 690531-690618 Sentence denotes Nasal, oral, and ocular secretions, as well as feces, contain high titers of the virus.
T8258 690619-690739 Sentence denotes In general, excretion of virus ceases by about day 9 of the clinical disease, with the onset of neutralizing antibodies.
T35934 690740-690831 Sentence denotes Recovered animals do not appear to be carriers, although there are reports to the contrary.
T57558 690832-690916 Sentence denotes Fever and its attendant signs usher in the clinical syndrome, with early leukopenia.
T60153 690917-691009 Sentence denotes Fever reaches its peak in ∼3 days and falls with the onset of diarrhea, which may be bloody.
T10840 691010-691184 Sentence denotes There is severe abdominal pain, anorexia, ocular and nasal discharge, tachypnea, fetid breath, occasional cough, lethargy, severe dehydration and emaciation, and prostration.
T23474 691185-691210 Sentence denotes Death occurs in 5-8 days.
T88509 691211-691312 Sentence denotes Explosive outbreaks with high morbidity and mortality were more likely to occur in naïve populations.
T24199 691313-691375 Sentence denotes Vaccinated or recovered animals usually had lifelong immunity.
T78486 691376-691454 Sentence denotes Secondary bacterial, viral, protozoal, and rickettsial infections were common.
T93656 691455-691528 Sentence denotes The gross changes in rinderpest are characteristic but not pathognomonic.
T62111 691529-691674 Sentence denotes They are similar to bovine viral diarrhea and mucosal disease ( Fig. 1-91) , and they also bear some similarities with malignant catarrhal fever.
T68415 691675-691756 Sentence denotes The lesions in the upper alimentary tract are necrotizing and erosive-ulcerative.
T20008 691757-691807 Sentence denotes RPV has an affinity for the alimentary epithelium.
T52410 691808-691876 Sentence denotes Most severely affected areas in the oral cavity are those contiguous
T4699 691878-691988 Sentence denotes Multinucleated cells, similar to those in the oral mucosa, occasionally form in the lymph and hemolymph nodes.
T37793 691989-692098 Sentence denotes All or only some follicles may be involved and there is often an increase of other leukocytes in the sinuses.
T52913 692099-692191 Sentence denotes Similar lesions occur in the spleen, tonsils, and, as already noted, in the Peyer's patches.
T55803 692192-692304 Sentence denotes Acute congestion and edema of the conjunctiva may be followed by purulent conjunctivitis and corneal ulceration.
T27454 692305-692423 Sentence denotes Petechiae are common in the mucosa of the upper respiratory tract, which is usually covered with mucopurulent exudate.
T84276 692424-692673 Sentence denotes Although the gross lesions of rinderpest resemble those of severe acute bovine viral diarrhea, mucosal disease, and malignant catarrhal fever, rinderpest is distinguished microscopically most readily by the presence of syncytia and inclusion bodies.
T33587 692675-692896 Sentence denotes Peste des petits ruminants is an acute viral disease of sheep and goats that closely resembles rinderpest and is also known as kata, stomatitis-pneumoenteritis complex, goat plague, ovine rinderpest, and pseudorinderpest.
T99773 692897-693102 Sentence denotes The disease was first recognized in West Africa, and is now distributed in north and sub-Saharan Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, Anatolia, the Indian subcontinent, including Nepal and Bangladesh, and China.
T98872 693103-693296 Sentence denotes Species Peste-des-petits-ruminants virus (PPRV), genus Morbillivirus, family Paramyxoviridae, is closely related to species Rinderpest virus, with which it shares common antigenic determinants.
T11860 693297-693378 Sentence denotes The virus cross-reacts with RPV in immunodiffusion and complement fixation tests.
T76793 693379-693466 Sentence denotes It may be differentiated from RPV using monoclonal antibody techniques and cDNA probes.
T66843 693467-693547 Sentence denotes Peste des petits ruminants is currently being considered for global eradication.
T83737 693548-693665 Sentence denotes 1-94 and 1-95), except that the disease is more acute in onset, especially in goats, and follows a more rapid course.
T72695 693666-693743 Sentence denotes Goats have been reported to be more susceptible than sheep in some outbreaks.
T68210 693744-693882 Sentence denotes West African goats appear to be more susceptible than European varieties, and, among the former, the dwarf varieties are most susceptible.
T57315 693883-694006 Sentence denotes Another difference is the marked involvement of the respiratory tract; affected animals have dyspnea, hyperpnea, and cough.
T58493 694007-694080 Sentence denotes There is also a marked serous to mucopurulent nasal and ocular discharge.
T53225 694081-694243 Sentence denotes Erosion/ ulceration of the oral and pharyngeal epithelium may be diffuse and pseudomembranes are characteristically observed in the oral cavity (see Fig. 1-95A) .
T76400 694244-694285 Sentence denotes The erosions can spread into the pharynx.
T68453 694286-694443 Sentence denotes The pulmonary lesions of peste des petits ruminants are similar to pneumonia caused by canine distemper virus in dogs and measles virus infections in humans.
T90703 694444-694615 Sentence denotes The gross respiratory tract lesions include fibrinonecrotic tracheitis, and consolidation, atelectasis, and dark-red discoloration of the cranioventral lobes of the lungs.
T60354 694616-694764 Sentence denotes Some animals have fibrinous pleuritis Lesions in the intestine are severe and severity correlates with amount of lymphoid tissue in subjacent areas.
T92607 694765-694851 Sentence denotes Consequently, greatest mucosal damage is seen in ileum and the proximal colonic patch.
T46697 694852-694900 Sentence denotes Peyer's patches are almost universally involved.
T38383 694901-695040 Sentence denotes These areas become hemorrhagic and necrotic ( Fig. 1-93A) , and are associated with necrosis of the overlying mucosa, leaving deep ulcers.
T55952 695041-695146 Sentence denotes There is replication of virus at all levels of intestine, with both crypt and villus epithelium involved.
T33302 695147-695357 Sentence denotes Replication is associated with formation of inclusion bodies, both nuclear and cytoplasmic, degeneration, necrosis, denuding of epithelium, formation of crypt abscesses and, if prolonged enough, villus atrophy.
T6730 695358-695503 Sentence denotes The formation of syncytia within gut epithelium is a rare event, in contrast with the oral cavity lesions, where it is seen with some regularity.
T53828 695504-695572 Sentence denotes Receptor affinity dictates that RPV is trophic for lymphoid tissues.
T5805 695573-695656 Sentence denotes Infection and replication have been documented in both lymphocytes and macrophages.
T39684 695657-695797 Sentence denotes Necrosis of follicular lymphocytes is extreme (Fig. 1-93B) , and gross inspection, which reveals little abnormality of nodes, is misleading.
T97063 695799-695916 Sentence denotes Further reading include diffuse colitis, multifocal hepatic necrosis, and severe lymphocytolysis in lymphoid tissues.
T63136 695917-696030 Sentence denotes Syncytial cells are conspicuous, particularly in the oral mucosa, pulmonary alveoli, liver, and lymphoid tissues.
T41396 696031-696208 Sentence denotes Eosinophilic cytoplasmic and nuclear inclusions are present in the epithelial cells of the renal pelvis, abomasal mucosa, air passages, type II pneumocytes, and syncytial cells.
T69169 696209-696374 Sentence denotes Viral antigen may be demonstrated in the same cells and in brain, rumen, abomasum, heart, and myocytes of the tongue with appropriate immunohistochemical techniques.
T6060 696375-696457 Sentence denotes The primary viral lesions often are complicated by secondary bacterial infections.
T22133 696458-696730 Sentence denotes Concurrent infection with PPRV and pestivirus was diagnosed in stillborn twin lambs that grossly showed several anomalies typical of border disease, including scoliosis, brachygnathism, prognathism, arthrogryposis, hydranencephaly, cerebellar hypoplasia, and hairy fleece.
T91556 696731-696920 Sentence denotes Microscopically these lambs had epidermal syncytial cells and necrotizing bronchitis/bronchiolitis with PPRV detected by immunohistochemistry in the skin, lungs, kidneys, rumen, and thymus.
T82105 696921-697082 Sentence denotes Experimental inoculation of PPRV into cattle or pigs does not produce clinical disease, but these animals will resist subsequent challenge with rinderpest virus.
T5540 697083-697199 Sentence denotes These species are considered to be dead end hosts because they do not seem to spread the infection to other species.
T78371 697200-697301 Sentence denotes Natural infection or vaccination of sheep and goats with rinderpest virus protects them against PPRV.
T97501 697302-697453 Sentence denotes A zoo outbreak of peste-des-petits-ruminants that involved several species of wild ungulates has been reported and Indian buffalo are also susceptible.
T43806 697454-697541 Sentence denotes The distribution of the virus in free-ranging wild ungulates has not been investigated.
T11391 697542-697554 Sentence denotes Baron MD, et
T1015 697556-697732 Sentence denotes Malignant catarrhal fever (MCF) is an infectious disease primarily of ungulate species in the order Artiodactyla, principally in the families Bovidae, Cervidae, and Giraffidae.
T791 697733-697793 Sentence denotes MCF is also known as malignant head catarrh, and snotsiekte.
T34470 697794-697912 Sentence denotes The disease is characterized by lymphoproliferation, vasculitis, and erosive-ulcerative mucosal and cutaneous lesions.
T31765 697913-697942 Sentence denotes MCF is distributed worldwide.
T22034 697943-698094 Sentence denotes It is generally sporadic, although severe herd outbreaks have been reported in feedlot, dairy, and range cattle, in farmed bison and deer, and in zoos.
T64677 698095-698166 Sentence denotes Among cervids, all species except fallow deer are probably susceptible.
T56092 698167-698254 Sentence denotes Other susceptible species of ruminants include banteng, Cape buffalo, and greater kudu.
T2180 698255-698458 Sentence denotes Lethality in susceptible species approaches 100%, although there are rare recorded cases of chronic infection and also of recovery from the disease, especially in infected goats, bison, cattle, and pigs.
T22914 698459-698587 Sentence denotes Although the agent is transmissible, the disease is apparently not contagious among cattle or bison by direct contact. (see Vol.
T95799 698588-698611 Sentence denotes 2, Respiratory system).
T11468 698612-698675 Sentence denotes Hemorrhagic colitis is almost always present (see Fig. 1-95B) .
T72320 698676-698864 Sentence denotes Microscopically, there is mild to severe tracheitis, bronchitis and necrotizing bronchiolitis, and diffuse proliferative interstitial pneumonia, with formation of alveolar syncytial cells.
T11111 698865-698962 Sentence denotes Other microscopic lesions hamsters, rats, and guinea pigs, in which it produces MCF-like lesions.
T11219 698963-699106 Sentence denotes The etiologic agent of SA-MCF has never been isolated from sheep; however, polymerase chain reaction probes have permitted its differentiation.
T91994 699107-699265 Sentence denotes Most sheep have polymerase chain reaction-detectable specific OHV-2 sequences in cells, and identical sequences are detectable in spontaneous cases of SA-MCF.
T52112 699266-699569 Sentence denotes Experimental transmission of OHV-2 between sheep has been accomplished using an aerosol of virus-infected nasal secretions, and natural transmission from adults to offspring probably takes that route, producing very high rates of infection in the sheep population, where it can be considered ubiquitous.
T36532 699570-699697 Sentence denotes The other 2 gammaherpesviruses associated with MCF have also been identified and implicated by molecular diagnostic techniques.
T22724 699698-699815 Sentence denotes MCF has been reproduced by infecting bison via intranasal nebulization with sheep nasal secretions containing OvHV-2.
T99539 699816-699983 Sentence denotes MCF-like disease can be induced in rabbits, hamsters, and guinea pigs by transfer of lymphocytes or T lymphoblast cell lines derived from MCF-affected cattle and deer.
T38266 699984-700083 Sentence denotes The domestic rabbit is the most commonly used model to study the pathogenesis of both forms of MCF.
T67292 700084-700298 Sentence denotes MCF caused by OHV-2 occurs spontaneously and experimentally in pigs, and the relative rarity of the disease in swine may be due to lack of exposure to ruminant gammaherpesviruses under most conditions of husbandry.
T19767 700299-700353 Sentence denotes Most sheep are presumed to be carriers of OHV-2 virus.
T33350 700354-700559 Sentence denotes However, spontaneous disease does not appear to occur in this species, although clinical signs and lesions resembling MCF were produced in sheep experimentally exposed to a high dose of aerosolized OvHV-2.
T10557 700560-700623 Sentence denotes SA-MCF occurs where bovids and deer come in contact with sheep.
T11057 700624-700716 Sentence denotes There is considerable variation in the susceptibility of various ruminant species to SA-MCF.
T88738 700717-700821 Sentence denotes Domestic cattle (Bos taurus and B. indicus) appear to require high levels of exposure to induce disease.
T37912 700822-701039 Sentence denotes Bali cattle or banteng (B. javanicus), the domestic water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis), American bison (Bison bison) and most species of deer, with the exception of fallow deer (Dama dama), seem to be highly susceptible.
T39874 701040-701145 Sentence denotes MCF is one of the most serious diseases of farmed deer in New Zealand, Australia, and the United Kingdom.
T97055 701146-701228 Sentence denotes Multiple case outbreaks have also been reported in captive North American cervids.
T61060 701229-701353 Sentence denotes The mucosa of the upper respiratory tract and/or the tonsil is the most likely natural route of entry for the agents of MCF.
T63032 701354-701605 Sentence denotes Both WA-MCF and SA-MCF can be transmitted to susceptible hosts with large volumes of whole blood or lymphoid tissues administered intravenously, but not by cell-free filtrates, indicating that the agents are cell-associated, probably with lymphocytes.
T50602 701606-701710 Sentence denotes The incubation period of MCF is usually 2-10 weeks, but may, on occasion, be very much longer than this.
T9518 701711-701852 Sentence denotes Antibodies against the gammaherpesvirus involved can be detected in animals with MCF, and often in herdmates, implying subclinical infection.
T40444 701853-701912 Sentence denotes Development of antibodies does not prevent a fatal outcome.
T24517 701913-702004 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis, clinical signs, and lesions are similar, whatever the agent inducing MCF.
T55816 702005-702123 Sentence denotes Viremia in WA-MCF usually starts ∼7 days before the onset of fever, and persists throughout the course of the disease.
T86138 702124-702180 Sentence denotes MCF is characterized by marked T-lymphocyte hyperplasia.
T47130 702181-702559 Sentence denotes A population of large granular lymphocytes appears to be infected and transformed by gammaherpesviral infection, and OHV-2 genome has been detected in CD8+ T cells, the predominant cell infiltrating MCF is caused by cross-species infections with members of the MCF virus group of ruminant gammaherpesviruses (genus Macavirus, subfamily Gammaherpesvirinae, family Herpesviridae).
T15223 702560-702841 Sentence denotes At least 10 members of the MCF virus group have been identified, 6 of which are associated with clinical MCF under natural conditions: (1) Alcelaphine herpesvirus 1 (AlHV-1), carried by wildebeest (Connochaetes sp.); (2) Ovine herpesvirus 2 (OvHV-2), endemic in domestic sheep; (3)
T16806 702842-703182 Sentence denotes (4) Caprine herpesvirus 3 (CpHV-3) causing MCF in whitetailed deer and red brocket deer; (5) Alcelaphine herpesvirus 2 (AlHV-2), carried by hartebeest (Alcelaphus sp.) and topi (Damaliscus sp.) and causing MCF in Barbary red deer and bison; and (6) Ibex MCF virus (Ibex-MCFV), carried by the Nubian ibex and producing MCF in bongo and anoa.
T31217 703183-703282 Sentence denotes Related gammaherpesviruses, as yet unassociated with MCF, have been detected in a number of bovids.
T74907 703283-703549 Sentence denotes Gammaherpesviruses of ruminants are highly cell-associated lymphotropic herpesviruses, difficult or impossible to isolate, which are typically transmitted from adults to offspring within the first 2-3 months of life, probably via free virus shed in nasal secretions.
T97247 703550-703745 Sentence denotes In the natural host, infection is latent or inapparent, with intermittent virus shedding, although disease has been incited in sheep by experimental aerosol inoculation of a large dose of OvHV-2.
T29251 703746-703837 Sentence denotes Most natural outbreaks of MCF are due to 2 agents originally incriminated in MCF outbreaks:
T68414 703838-703856 Sentence denotes AlHV-1 and OvHV-2.
T65885 703857-703935 Sentence denotes AlHV-1 is responsible for the "African" or wildebeestassociated (WA-MCF) form.
T82210 703936-703976 Sentence denotes OvHV-2 causes sheep-associated (SA-MCF).
T11014 703977-704167 Sentence denotes Each member of the MCFV group has an asymptomatic reservoir host species and, for those known to be pathogenic, one or more clinically susceptible host species that develop clinical disease.
T18817 704168-704310 Sentence denotes The division is not absolute and lesions and/or disease can be induced in some reservoir species when the challenge dose is sufficiently high.
T52498 704311-704544 Sentence denotes Nevertheless, as a general rule, reservoir species are well adapted to subclinical infection and efficiently shed cell-free virus, whereas MCFsusceptible species are poorly adapted and shed little or more commonly no cell-free virus.
T99116 704545-704605 Sentence denotes This absence of viral shedding accounts for end-stage hosts.
T4585 704606-704714 Sentence denotes The classical form of MCF resulting from AlHV-1 and OvHV-2 are identical in clinical and pathological terms.
T30544 704715-704783 Sentence denotes However, the epidemiology of the 2 agents has important differences.
T81388 704784-704871 Sentence denotes The blue, brindled, or white-bearded wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) carries AlHV-1.
T95237 704872-705027 Sentence denotes Wildebeest calves become infected during the first 2-3 months of life, when they are also viremic and shed cell-free AlHV-1 in nasal and ocular secretions.
T96870 705028-705102 Sentence denotes Most wildebeest older than 7 months are serologically positive for AlHV-1.
T7235 705103-705147 Sentence denotes In utero infections have also been reported.
T65100 705148-705248 Sentence denotes Wildebeest are infected for life and transmit AlHV-1 to their calves without showing clinical signs.
T43168 705249-705343 Sentence denotes Wildebeest calves are considered to be the main source of infection for cattle in East Africa.
T49802 705344-705425 Sentence denotes They may shed virus in nasal and ocular secretions until they are 3-4 months old.
T52299 705426-705516 Sentence denotes Transmission to cattle may occur even without intimate contact, suggesting aerosol spread.
T28448 705517-705623 Sentence denotes Viremia apparently ceases with the development of active neutralizing antibodies in animals >6 months old.
T80336 705624-705713 Sentence denotes It may be reactivated during late pregnancy or periods of stress, such as transportation.
T74476 705714-705876 Sentence denotes Although AlHV-1 produces MCF in many captive exotic species of ruminants, apparently most species that are exposed in their native habitat do not develop disease.
T98328 705877-705950 Sentence denotes AlHV-1 has been transmitted and adapted to domestic rabbits, generalized.
T144 705951-706000 Sentence denotes In severe cases, the horns and hooves may slough.
T55882 706001-706175 Sentence denotes Caprine herpesvirus-2 has been associated with syndromes in deer that include dermatitis and alopecia, alone, or in combination with gastrointestinal or neurological disease.
T31645 706176-706246 Sentence denotes The respiratory system may have minor or severe lesions ( Fig. 1-96) .
T34524 706247-706343 Sentence denotes When the course is short, the nasal mucosa may only have congestion and slight serous exudation.
T15493 706344-706380 Sentence denotes Later, there is a copious discharge.
T96272 706381-706507 Sentence denotes Lesions are most severe in the rostral third of the nasal cavity, corresponding to the zone of stratified squamous epithelium.
T51054 706508-706578 Sentence denotes In some cases, fibrinous tracheobronchitis may occur (see Fig. 1-96) .
T65641 706579-706734 Sentence denotes The lower alimentary mucosae may have no significant lesions in the peracute disease, although oral lesions are present in most cases of MCF ( Fig. 1-97 ).
T60973 706735-706820 Sentence denotes Minor erosions are first observed on the lips adjacent to the mucocutaneous junction.
T12518 706821-706909 Sentence denotes Sometimes apparently normal epithelium on the surface of the tongue peels off in sheets.
T59044 706910-707141 Sentence denotes Later, erosive and ulcerative lesions may involve a large area of oral mucosa, frequently occurring on all surfaces of the tongue, the dental pad, the tips of the buccal papillae, gingivae, both areas of the palate, and the cheeks.
T19967 707142-707245 Sentence denotes In some areas the cheesy or tattered necrotic epithelium may not be sloughed at the time of inspection.
T39553 707246-707438 Sentence denotes Esophageal erosions or ulcers, similar to those that occur in the other diseases causing ulcerative stomatitis, occur in MCF, and, as in rinderpest, are most consistent in the cranial portion.
T33247 707439-707499 Sentence denotes Lesions of the same sort may be present in the forestomachs.
T43844 707500-707580 Sentence denotes Focal ulceration or generalized hyperemia may be evident in the abomasal mucosa.
T93989 707581-707677 Sentence denotes In deer, especially, hemorrhagic or fibrinohemorrhagic typhlocolitis may be a prominent finding.
T87096 707678-707713 Sentence denotes The liver may be slightly enlarged.
T93337 707714-707862 Sentence denotes Close inspection will reveal, in some cases, diffuse mottling with white foci, which are periportal accumulations of mononuclear cells (Fig. 1-98 ).
T10111 707863-707956 Sentence denotes There may be numerous petechiae and a few erosions of the mucous membrane of the gallbladder.
T46640 707957-708012 Sentence denotes Characteristic lesions may occur in the urinary system.
T68719 708013-708050 Sentence denotes Renal changes are not always present.
T50597 708051-708140 Sentence denotes They are infarcts or 2-4 mm foci of nonsuppurative interstitial nephritis ( Fig. 1-99) .
T19425 708141-708227 Sentence denotes They may be numerous enough to produce a mottled around vessels in the brains studied.
T71126 708228-708370 Sentence denotes These cells are probably cytotoxic T lymphocytes or T-suppressor cells, but the mechanism by which they mediate the lesions of MCF is unclear.
T75030 708371-708495 Sentence denotes Dysfunction of this cell population may result in de-repression of T-lymphocyte replication, permitting lymphoproliferation.
T52828 708496-708753 Sentence denotes Deranged cytotoxic T-cell activity may then create the epithelial and vascular lesions, through a type of graft-versus-host response, attacking epithelium of the respiratory and gastrointestinal systems, as well as medium-sized arteries throughout the body.
T75797 708754-708896 Sentence denotes This is a unifying, but unproved, hypothesis explaining the lymphadenopathy, mucosal epithelial lesions, and vasculitis characteristic of MCF.
T84220 708897-708977 Sentence denotes Vascular lesions may mediate infarction of some affected tissue fields, as well.
T563 708978-709074 Sentence denotes There is wide variation in the presenting clinical syndromes, which are potentially pansystemic.
T25270 709075-709270 Sentence denotes Quite consistently, affected animals have enlarged lymph nodes, although this may be less the case in bison, and there is usually some degree of ocular and oral disease, and exudative dermatitis.
T90664 709271-709375 Sentence denotes There is edema of the eyelids and palpebral conjunctivae and congestion of the nasal and buccal mucosae.
T43350 709376-709426 Sentence denotes Photophobia is accompanied by copious lacrimation.
T76882 709427-709546 Sentence denotes There is conjunctivitis and an increasing rim of corneal opacity, starting at the limbus and progressing centripetally.
T78526 709547-709715 Sentence denotes Corneal ulceration occurs in some cases, but in those that die quickly, the infiltration of the filtration angle may be all that is seen, and this is easily overlooked.
T20285 709716-709737 Sentence denotes Hypopyon may be seen.
T22874 709738-709876 Sentence denotes In some cases there are nervous signs, such as hyperesthesia, head pressing, trembling, nystagmus, incoordination, and behavioral changes.
T8006 709877-709966 Sentence denotes Other animals may have gastroenteritis with diarrhea, which may be bloody in acute cases.
T91044 709967-710002 Sentence denotes This is most commonly seen in deer.
T30978 710003-710105 Sentence denotes The disease may take an acute course of ∼1-3 days, particularly in animals with hemorrhagic enteritis.
T11178 710106-710228 Sentence denotes Those with less severe gastroenteritis, central nervous signs, or generalized disease may linger for as long as 9-10 days.
T54509 710229-710381 Sentence denotes Mortality in MCF has been considered to approach 100% of clinical cases, but recovery may occur, although chronic ocular lesions and vasculitis persist.
T90619 710382-710580 Sentence denotes Clinical signs in bison are more subtle than in cattle, with a high percentage of animals dying without clinical signs being observed or with animals dying very soon after onset of clinical disease.
T52880 710581-710873 Sentence denotes Gross changes involve multiple organs and are the consequence of 3 basic microscopic lesions: widespread arteritisphlebitis of medium caliber vessels, lymphoid proliferation and production of atypical lymphoblastoid cells, and mucosal ulceration in digestive, urinary, and respiratory tracts.
T22601 710874-711127 Sentence denotes Gross changes may not be present in occasional animals that die of peracute MCF, and in these the diagnosis must rest on the detection of the characteristic histologic changes, and demonstration of the genome of an implicated gammaherpesvirus in tissue.
T89608 711128-711209 Sentence denotes The carcass is dehydrated, and may be emaciated if the course has been prolonged.
T91445 711210-711240 Sentence denotes Conjunctivitis may be evident.
T8518 711241-711419 Sentence denotes The muzzle and nares are heavily encrusted and, if wiped, often reveal irregular eroded or ulcerated surfaces, although in some cases there may be only a slight serous discharge.
T70716 711420-711494 Sentence denotes Cutaneous lesions, especially in SA-MCF, are common, but often overlooked.
T54661 711495-711600 Sentence denotes Affected areas include the thorax, abdomen, inguinal regions, perineum, udder, and occasionally the head.
T57298 711601-711788 Sentence denotes There may be, acutely, more or less generalized exanthema with sufficient exudation to wet and mat the hair, and to form detachable crusts; in unpigmented skin there is obvious hyperemia.
T31706 711789-711871 Sentence denotes The crusts may become several millimeters thick, and there is patchy loss of hair.
T18533 711872-712088 Sentence denotes Sometimes these cutaneous changes begin locally about the base of the hooves and horns, the loin, and perineum; they may remain localized or become and is one of the most consistent histologic lesions of the disease.
T10055 712089-712341 Sentence denotes The histologic changes usually must be relied on for the diagnosis of MCF, and its differentiation from similar diseases, although access to molecular diagnosis of specific appearance, and may form slight rounded projections from the capsular surfaces.
T82152 712342-712425 Sentence denotes The pelvic and ureteral mucosa frequently has petechial and ecchymotic hemorrhages.
T94501 712426-712618 Sentence denotes Similar lesions are present on the mucosa of the urinary bladder, or there may be more severe hemorrhage associated with erosion and ulceration of the epithelium, and hematuria ( Fig. 1-100) .
T3193 712619-712719 Sentence denotes Superficial lesions may occur in the vagina and vulva, similar to those of the oral cavity and skin.
T25656 712720-712902 Sentence denotes Enlargement of lymph nodes is a characteristic lesion of MCF in most species, perhaps except in bison, where lymphadenopathy has been found, in one large study, in only 62% of cases.
T86502 712903-712954 Sentence denotes This lesion is almost invariably present in cattle.
T44088 712955-713016 Sentence denotes All nodes may be involved, or some may appear grossly normal.
T53928 713017-713171 Sentence denotes Affected nodes may be many times the normal size, and some, including hemolymph nodes, which are usually too small to recognize, may become quite obvious.
T51145 713172-713248 Sentence denotes There is edema of the affected nodes and the pericapsular connective tissue.
T22697 713249-713351 Sentence denotes On microscopic examination it is apparent that the increase in size is due to lymphocytic hyperplasia.
T98777 713352-713399 Sentence denotes Some of the nodes are congested or hemorrhagic.
T65663 713400-713474 Sentence denotes The spleen is slightly enlarged, and the lymphoid follicles are prominent.
T40162 713475-713832 Sentence denotes Most animals may have meningoencephalitis as a result of vasculitis that may be accompanied by meningeal edema cecum and colon in deer, may similarly be heavily infiltrated by lymphocytes, often with fibrin and blood exuding into the lumen where surface and glandular epithelium has undergone necrosis and collapsed, sometimes over wide areas (Fig. 1-102) .
T15853 713833-713944 Sentence denotes Submucosal arterioles in affected areas of abomasum and intestine are affected by the characteristic arteritis.
T34439 713945-714150 Sentence denotes The mottling of liver and the focal nephritis seen grossly are due to the perivascular accumulation of mononuclear cells in the portal triads of the liver (see Fig. 1-98) and in the cortices of the kidney.
T48421 714151-714279 Sentence denotes In the liver, these cuffs may be very large and invest the branches of the hepatic artery, which may undergo fibrinoid necrosis.
T63430 714280-714365 Sentence denotes Microscopic lesions are frequently present gammaherpesvirus infections is increasing.
T43013 714366-714574 Sentence denotes The characteristic histologic changes are found in lymphoid tissues and in the adventitia and walls of medium-sized vessels, especially arteries in any organ, and these will be described before other lesions.
T9421 714575-714711 Sentence denotes They are characterized by perivascular accumulation of mainly mononuclear cells, and fibrinoid necrotizing vasculitis (see Fig. 1-99B) .
T9984 714712-714850 Sentence denotes These changes may be focal or segmental, and may involve the full thickness of the wall, or be confined more or less to one of the layers.
T81126 714851-714916 Sentence denotes When the intima is involved, there is often endothelial swelling.
T90705 714917-714973 Sentence denotes Thrombi are difficult to demonstrate in damaged vessels.
T33756 714974-715051 Sentence denotes The media may be selectively affected, or occasionally, the adventitia alone.
T89855 715052-715201 Sentence denotes Severely affected segments of vessel are replaced by a coagulum of homogeneous, eosinophilic material, in which fragmented nuclear remnants are seen.
T39317 715202-715272 Sentence denotes The perivascular accumulation of cells is particularly characteristic.
T13521 715273-715414 Sentence denotes They are mainly lymphoid cells with large open nuclei and prominent nucleoli; small lymphocytes and plasma cells may be present occasionally.
T91230 715415-715603 Sentence denotes The vascular lesions may be more subtle in other species (especially bison, deer and elk) than in cattle, and in bison this lesion tends to be less widely disseminated than that in cattle.
T68811 715604-715704 Sentence denotes Cattle that recover from SA-MCF also have distinctive vascular lesions 90 days after clinical onset.
T93410 715705-715871 Sentence denotes Concentric fibrointimal plaques, disrupted inner elastic lamina, focally atrophic tunica media, and vasculitis of variable severity are evident in many organ systems.
T87249 715872-716074 Sentence denotes In lymph nodes, there is active proliferation of lymphoblasts, which form extensive homogeneous populations of cells in the T-cell-dependent areas of the interfollicular cortical and paracortical zones.
T31748 716075-716170 Sentence denotes In bison, lymphoid hyperplasia is either absent or subtle in paracortical areas of lymph nodes.
T79266 716171-716274 Sentence denotes Focal areas of hemorrhage and necrosis associated with arteritis may be seen in all areas of the nodes.
T83552 716275-716428 Sentence denotes The lymphoid reaction in the spleen varies from marked lymphoid cell hyperplasia, in the periarteriolar sheaths, to atrophy and depletion of lymphocytes.
T96295 716429-716589 Sentence denotes In addition, there is marked proliferation and infiltration of lymphocytic and lymphoblastic cells, mainly perivascular in distribution, in a variety of organs.
T7464 716590-716735 Sentence denotes The lymphoreticular proliferation may become so severe in some organs that it is difficult to determine whether it is hyperplastic or neoplastic.
T74813 716736-716841 Sentence denotes Microscopic arteritis similar to that present in other organs occurs in the nervous system of many cases.
T36773 716842-717098 Sentence denotes Necrotizing arteritis, plasma exudation into the meninges or Virchow-Robin space, and the predominantly adventitial lymphocytic response are, in the brain of cattle, unique to MCF, and allow it to be differentiated from other nonsuppurative encephalitides.
T6934 717099-717196 Sentence denotes Degenerative changes in nervous parenchyma can be explained on the basis of the vascular changes.
T27447 717197-717415 Sentence denotes The lesions in skin and squamous mucosae of the alimentary tract consist of a lichenoid infiltrate, as the altered and proliferating lymphoid population moves into the upper dermis and then the epidermis (Fig. 1-101) .
T20205 717416-717516 Sentence denotes Often typical arteritis, involving small- and medium-sized vessels, is present in underlying tissue.
T78172 717517-717702 Sentence denotes Groups of epithelial cells become necrotic, with swollen, strongly acidophilic cytoplasm; ultimately the full thickness of epithelium in affected areas undergoes necrosis and ulcerates.
T59984 717703-717817 Sentence denotes Granulomatous mural folliculitis was the prominent microscopic finding in alopecic sika deer infected with CpHV-2.
T10511 717818-717930 Sentence denotes The mucosa of the abomasum may be infiltrated by lymphocytes, and undergo mucous metaplasia or focal ulceration.
T57467 717931-718006 Sentence denotes The mucosa of the lower alimentary tract, especially the Sumatra, and Java.
T14110 718007-718082 Sentence denotes Jembrana disease is characterized by a severe lymphoproliferative response.
T37795 718083-718184 Sentence denotes Gross changes include lymphadenopathy, splenomegaly, and hemorrhages associated with vascular damage.
T44076 718185-718272 Sentence denotes Microscopically, lymphoid tissues of all organs show proliferating lymphoblastic cells.
T75679 718273-718483 Sentence denotes This is particularly marked in the enlarged peripheral lymph nodes and spleen, where proliferating lymphoblastic cells are present throughout the parafollicular T-cell areas; and B-cell follicles are atrophied.
T73743 718484-718666 Sentence denotes Proliferation of T lymphocytes and atrophy of follicles in lymph nodes and spleen, with lymphoid infiltrates in multiple organs in Jembrana disease, appear similar to lesions of MCF.
T13417 718668-718770 Sentence denotes Bluetongue is caused by a reovirus-species Bluetongue virus (BTV), genus Orbivirus, family Reoviridae.
T87505 718771-718960 Sentence denotes There are at least 26 recognized serotypes of BTV, distinguished initially by serum neutralization tests and more recently by RT-PCR amplification of the serotype-specific genome segment 2.
T95657 718961-719124 Sentence denotes Immunity to one serotype does not confer resistance against another, and may cause sensitization, with a more severe syndrome following infection by a second type.
T45379 719125-719169 Sentence denotes Apparently not all serotypes are pathogenic.
T11360 719170-719322 Sentence denotes Epizootic hemorrhagic disease of deer and other ruminants, including cattle, is caused by a virus which represents another serogroup of genus Orbivirus.
T68481 719323-719569 Sentence denotes The virus causing Ibaraki disease, recognized in cattle in Japan, is a variant of Epizootic hemorrhage disease virus (EHDV); seropositive animals also have been found in Taiwan and Indonesia, and an identical virus has been isolated in Australia.
T53073 719570-719678 Sentence denotes BTV, EHDV, and related viruses are spread by vectorcompetent Culicoides spp., also known as midges or gnats.
T94187 719679-719908 Sentence denotes The virus multiplies by a factor of 10 3 -10 4 in the Culicoides within a week of the infected blood meal being ingested, and transmission can occur after infection of the salivary glands, 10-15 days after the initial blood meal.
T64084 719909-719973 Sentence denotes Transovarial transmission of virus in Culicoides does not occur.
T5654 719974-720125 Sentence denotes in the kidneys, even though gross lesions are not; they consist of vasculitis involving the smaller arteries and afferent arterioles (see Fig. 1-99B ).
T68484 720126-720311 Sentence denotes Extensive diffuse lymphocytic infiltrates disrupt the normal renal cortical architecture, and in some cases, infarcts appear to be associated with vasculitis involving arcuate arteries.
T68083 720312-720446 Sentence denotes Ophthalmitis often occurs, and its presence is a useful differential criterion from other ulcerative diseases of the alimentary tract.
T30388 720447-720542 Sentence denotes Corneal edema, secondary to vasculitis, is responsible initially for the opacity (Fig. 1-103) .
T56891 720543-720626 Sentence denotes Later there may be lymphocytic infiltration of various structures within the globe.
T25839 720627-720743 Sentence denotes There is retinal vasculitis and, in some cases, hemorrhagic or inflammatory detachment of the retina in focal areas.
T58229 720744-720807 Sentence denotes Lymphocytic optic neuritis and meningitis may be seen (see Vol.
T32950 720808-720824 Sentence denotes 1, Eye and ear).
T87559 720825-721193 Sentence denotes Differentiation of acute severe BVD and mucosal disease from MCF is sometimes difficult, but MCF usually affects one or more organ systems or tissues (liver, kidney, bladder, eye, brain, tracheobronchial tree) not involved in mucosal disease, and typically produces lymphoid hyperplasia in cattle, whereas lymphoid tissue in BVDV infections is expected to be atrophic.
T36014 721194-721303 Sentence denotes Arteritis may be seen in some cases of BVDV infection, mainly in the submucosa in the lower alimentary tract.
T12326 721304-721496 Sentence denotes Fortunately, arteritis is present in more than one tissue in all cases of MCF, whether peracute, acute, or mild with recovery, although it may be necessary to examine many sections to find it.
T61103 721497-721757 Sentence denotes The best organs to examine for vascular lesions are the brain and leptomeninges, carotid rete, kidney (renal arcuate vessels and rete mirabile), liver, adrenal capsule and medulla, salivary gland, and any area of skin or alimentary tract showing gross lesions.
T30308 721758-721924 Sentence denotes In bison, no single tissue can be relied on to establish a morphologic diagnosis of MCF, and a range of tissues should be examined to confirm or rule out the disease.
T18485 721925-722057 Sentence denotes A combination of arteritis, lymphoid hyperplasia, and lymphocytic infiltrates into affected epithelia is very characteristic of MCF.
T82509 722058-722234 Sentence denotes Bali cattle as well as other species of cattle and buffalo are affected with a disease that closely resembles MCF, and both diseases occur geographically together in Indonesia.
T47261 722235-722596 Sentence denotes Jembrana disease is caused by a lentivirus distinct from but genetically related to bovine immunodeficiency virus, which initially was described in Bali, where it is endemic, and that has now spread to other islands in Indonesia, including Kalimantan, West as reservoirs in that the virus will be associated with the erythrocytes for the life-span of that cell.
T86171 722597-722652 Sentence denotes Detectable viremia in cattle is thought to be <9 weeks.
T99335 722653-722801 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis of bluetongue, epizootic hemorrhagic disease, and Ibaraki disease is fundamentally similar in all species in which disease is seen.
T43739 722802-722892 Sentence denotes Primary viral replication following insect bite occurs in regional lymph nodes and spleen.
T17838 722893-723085 Sentence denotes Viremia ∼4-6 days after inoculation results in secondary infection of endothelium in arterioles, capillaries, and venules throughout the body, but especially in lung microvascular endothelium.
T28613 723086-723186 Sentence denotes Microscopic lesions, fever, and lymphopenia begin a day or so later, about a week after inoculation.
T36453 723187-723322 Sentence denotes BTV in the blood appears to be closely associated with, or in, both leukocytes and erythrocytes, and it may co-circulate with antibody.
T46106 723323-723426 Sentence denotes Endothelial damage caused by viral infection initiates local microvascular thrombosis and permeability.
T3959 723427-723599 Sentence denotes This is reflected microscopically by the presence of swollen endothelium, and fibrin and platelet thrombi in small vessels, with edema and hemorrhage in surrounding tissue.
T23350 723600-723666 Sentence denotes These lesions in turn mediate the full spectrum of gross findings.
T79731 723667-723956 Sentence denotes These are fundamentally ischemic necrosis of many tissues; edema caused by vascular permeability; and hemorrhage resulting from vascular damage compounded ( Fig. 1-104A, B) , in severe cases, by consumption coagulopathy caused by thrombocytopenia and depletion of soluble clotting factors.
T32005 723957-724178 Sentence denotes Differences in the expression and activity of vasoactive and procoagulant and anticoagulant mediators by infected pulmonary endothelium may explain the greater propensity of sheep to show signs, in comparison with cattle.
T12386 724179-724423 Sentence denotes BTV circulates in a broad belt across the tropics and warm temperate areas, from about latitude 49° N to 35° S, with incursions or recrudescence during the Culicoides season, annually, or at irregular longer intervals in cooler temperate areas.
T42375 724424-724625 Sentence denotes The condition is enzootic or seasonally epizootic in most of Africa, the Middle East, the eastern Mediterranean basin, the Indian subcontinent, the Caribbean, northern Australia, and the United States.
T28517 724626-724691 Sentence denotes It appears sporadically in the Okanagan valley of western Canada.
T43465 724692-724891 Sentence denotes It also has made persistent incursions into the Iberian peninsula, Corsica and Sardinia, Italy, the Balkans, and northern Europe, including the United Kingdom, perhaps associated with climate change.
T93541 724892-725152 Sentence denotes Seasonality of infection toward the periphery of its distribution probably reflects the unavailability of vectors because the virus may be able to overwinter in latently infected cells in the skin of sheep, which express virus once vector feeding occurs again.
T20791 725153-725223 Sentence denotes Sheep, goats, and cattle are the primary susceptible domestic species.
T5259 725224-725309 Sentence denotes Severe disease has been described in numerous species of wild and domestic ruminants.
T84263 725310-725551 Sentence denotes South American camelids traditionally have been considered resistant to bluetongue, but serological surveys have identified apparently subclinical infection of alpacas, and lethal cases of bluetongue have been reported in llamas and alpacas.
T9417 725552-725832 Sentence denotes Sheep are the domestic species most highly susceptible to bluetongue, but there is considerable variation in expression of the disease, depending on the breed, age, and immune status of the sheep, the environmental circumstances under which they are held, and the strain of virus.
T80259 725833-725918 Sentence denotes Typically, indigenous breeds seem more resistant to clinical disease than do exotics.
T69293 725919-726048 Sentence denotes Goats, although susceptible to infection, rarely show signs; however, disease has occurred in goats in the Middle East and India.
T18402 726049-726137 Sentence denotes Infection in cattle usually produces only inapparent infection or mild clinical disease.
T39928 726138-726334 Sentence denotes In Africa, a wide variety of nondomestic ungulates and some small mammals may be infected inapparently; mortality has occurred in naturally or experimentally infected topi, Cape buffalo, and kudu.
T75624 726335-726498 Sentence denotes In North America, wildlife species, particularly white-tailed deer, black-tailed or mule deer, elk, bighorn sheep, bison, and pronghorn antelope are also infected.
T42492 726499-726712 Sentence denotes Bluetongue is responsible for significant mortality in all these species except elk, which usually develop mild or inapparent infection, and bison, which are infrequently demonstrated to be serologically positive.
T66001 726713-726805 Sentence denotes Clinical cases of bluetongue have been described only in individual South American camelids.
T596 726806-726959 Sentence denotes Vaccine inadvertently contaminated with BTV and administered to dogs caused significant mortality, but BTV is not normally considered a pathogen in dogs.
T40190 726960-727040 Sentence denotes Epizootic hemorrhagic disease occurs in North America, Europe, Africa, and Asia.
T17502 727041-727186 Sentence denotes In North America the white-tailed deer is extremely susceptible, and widespread epizootics have occurred among this species in the United States.
T74879 727187-727305 Sentence denotes The rate of survival is much higher among black-tailed deer and pronghorn antelope; elk are only very mildly affected.
T11007 727306-727518 Sentence denotes Although sheep are not considered to develop disease when infected with EHDV, occasional mild clinical signs and lesions resembling bluetongue have been reported in sheep inoculated with some Australian isolates.
T4823 727519-727641 Sentence denotes In Japan, the Ibaraki virus strain of EHDV produces a clinical syndrome resembling bluetongue in cattle, but not in sheep.
T33280 727642-727691 Sentence denotes BTV and EHDV circulate together in North America.
T10879 727692-727873 Sentence denotes Both viruses may be involved simultaneously in outbreaks of hemorrhagic disease in wild ruminants, and both have been isolated from Culicoides in a single locality at the same time.
T1616 727874-727927 Sentence denotes The role of cattle as reservoirs of BTV is uncertain.
T81576 727928-728050 Sentence denotes Cattle may act A B convalescent animals, stellate healing ulcers or scars on the wall of the forestomachs may be apparent.
T1743 728051-728194 Sentence denotes Microscopically, acute lesions are characterized by microvascular thrombosis, and edema and hemorrhage in affected sites recognized at autopsy.
T7832 728195-728348 Sentence denotes In squamous mucosa and skin, capillaries of the proprial and dermal papillae are involved, resulting in vacuolation and necrosis of overlying epithelium.
T47490 728349-728565 Sentence denotes In acute lesions there is a mild, local neutrophilic infiltrate, and a similarly mild mononuclear reaction in the dermis or propria in uncomplicated chronic lesions, which may granulate if widely or deeply ulcerated.
T82957 728566-728663 Sentence denotes Similar microvascular lesions are associated with necrosis and fragmentation of infarcted muscle.
T58545 728664-728839 Sentence denotes Muscle during the reparative phase follows the usual course of regeneration of fibers or fibrous replacement, depending on whether or not the sarcolemma retains its integrity.
T27656 728840-728932 Sentence denotes In cattle, clinical bluetongue is rarely apparent; in endemic areas it may never be evident.
T30014 728933-729000 Sentence denotes Mortality is low and it is often attributed to secondary infection.
T54267 729001-729152 Sentence denotes Clinical disease may be a function of hypersensitivity in previously exposed animals, and disease in experimentally infected animals is poorly defined.
T83745 729153-729309 Sentence denotes Fever, loss of appetite, and leukopenia are usually seen after an incubation period of 6-8 days, and there may be a drop in milk production in dairy cattle.
T66859 729310-729440 Sentence denotes There is reddening of the epithelium of the mucous membranes, and of thin exposed skin, especially notable on the udder and teats.
T41501 729441-729490 Sentence denotes Edema of the lips and conjunctiva may be present.
T19386 729491-729638 Sentence denotes Drooling may become profuse, and as the disease progresses over the next several days, hyperemia and congestion of the mucosae become more intense.
T22713 729639-729737 Sentence denotes Ulcerations of the gingival, lingual, or buccal mucosa occur, most consistently on the dental pad.
T35381 729738-729788 Sentence denotes There may be necrosis of epithelium on the muzzle.
T94029 729789-729850 Sentence denotes Muscle stiffness is a feature of the disease in some animals.
T69917 729851-730022 Sentence denotes Laminitis, characterized by hyperemia and edema of the sensitive laminae at the coronet, may be apparent, and in some cases, hooves on affected feet may eventually slough.
T39663 730023-730175 Sentence denotes Sloughing or cracking of crusts of necrotic epithelium may also occur on affected parts of the skin, but the ulcerative or erosive defects heal readily.
T7796 730176-730277 Sentence denotes Viral antigen and thrombosis are present in small vessels in affected tissues during the acute phase.
T83820 730278-730588 Sentence denotes Although traditionally South American camelids have been considered to be resistant to BTV, individual cases of the disease have been described in alpacas and llamas with lesions including hydrothorax, hydropericardium, pulmonary edema, myocardial hemorrhage, and pericarditis, but no alimentary tract lesions.
T84075 730589-730765 Sentence denotes Experimental inoculation of llamas and alpacas with BTV serotype 8 produced seroconversion, but minimal and mild clinical signs and no significant gross or microscopic lesions.
T14589 730766-730805 Sentence denotes EHDV can also induce disease in cattle.
T52514 730806-730876 Sentence denotes Clinically and pathologically, EHD in cattle is similar to bluetongue.
T65367 730877-730993 Sentence denotes Ibaraki disease has been described in Japan and it is produced by a virus that is now considered serotype 2 of EHDV.
T81145 730994-731122 Sentence denotes The signs and lesions of Ibaraki disease are similar to those of bluetongue and EHD in cattle, though more severe in some cases.
T18282 731123-731324 Sentence denotes As well as the signs and lesions described in cattle with bluetongue, there may be difficulty in swallowing in 20-30% of clinically affected animals, and the swollen tongue may protrude from the mouth.
T77062 731325-731516 Sentence denotes At autopsy, in addition to the lesions observable externally, there may be congestion, erosion, or ulceration of the mucosa of the abomasum, and less commonly, the esophagus and forestomachs.
T44361 731517-731698 Sentence denotes Ischemic necrosis and hemorrhage of the striated muscle in the tongue, pharynx, Bluetongue in sheep is highly variable; it may cause inapparent infection or acute fulminant disease.
T28462 731699-731789 Sentence denotes Typically, leukopenia and pyrexia occur, even in mild infections, coincident with viremia.
T41160 731790-731884 Sentence denotes The degree and duration of fever do not correlate with the severity of the syndrome otherwise.
T83076 731885-732025 Sentence denotes In the early phase there is hyperemia of the oral and nasal mucosa, drooling, and nasal discharge within a day or two of the onset of fever.
T86990 732026-732159 Sentence denotes Hyperemia and edema of the eyelids and conjunctiva may occur, and edema of lips, ears, and the intermandibular area becomes apparent.
T4982 732160-732273 Sentence denotes Hyperemia may extend over the muzzle and the skin of much of the body, including the axillary and inguinal areas.
T82086 732274-732419 Sentence denotes Focal hemorrhage may be present on the lips and gums, and the tongue may become edematous and congested or cyanotic, giving the disease its name.
T68615 732420-732608 Sentence denotes Infarcted epithelium thickens and becomes excoriated; erosions and ulcerations develop along the margins of the tongue opposite the molars, and the mucosa of much of the tongue may slough.
T79337 732609-732701 Sentence denotes Excoriation and ulceration also occur on the buccal mucosa, the hard palate, and dental pad.
T11490 732702-732864 Sentence denotes Affected areas of skin also may become encrusted and excoriated with time, and a break in the wool can result in parts or much of the fleece being tender or cast.
T73255 732865-732941 Sentence denotes The coronet, bulbs, and interdigital areas of the foot may become hyperemic.
T93062 732942-733074 Sentence denotes Coronary swelling and streaky hemorrhages in the periople may be evident as a result of lesions in the underlying sensitive laminae.
T53513 733075-733168 Sentence denotes These hemorrhages may persist in the hoof as brown lines that move down the hoof as it grows.
T66049 733169-733261 Sentence denotes A defect parallel to the coronet also may be evident in the growing hoof in recovered cases.
T69255 733262-733380 Sentence denotes Internally, in acute cases, there is subcutaneous and intermuscular edema, which may be serous or suffused with blood.
T57314 733381-733432 Sentence denotes Superficial lymph nodes are enlarged and edematous.
T1175 733433-733608 Sentence denotes Bruiselike gelatinous hemorrhages and contusions, which may be small and easily overlooked if not numerous, often are present in the subcutis and intermuscular fascial planes.
T15511 733609-733772 Sentence denotes Focal or multifocal pallid areas of streaky myodegeneration may be present throughout the carcass, sometimes partly obscured by petechial or ecchymotic hemorrhage.
T47406 733773-733828 Sentence denotes Resolving muscle lesions may be mineralized or fibrous.
T20339 733829-733923 Sentence denotes Stiffness, reluctance to move, and recumbency seen clinically are due to these muscle lesions.
T40692 733924-734032 Sentence denotes Necrosis may be present deep in the papillary muscle of the left ventricle, and elsewhere in the myocardium.
T43440 734033-734241 Sentence denotes The lesion that is perhaps most consistent and closest to pathognomonic for bluetongue is focal hemorrhage, petechial or up to 1 cm wide × 2-3 cm long, in the tunica media at the base of the pulmonary artery.
T78454 734242-734387 Sentence denotes These hemorrhages are visible from both the internal and adventitial surfaces and may be present in clinically mild cases with few other lesions.
T32424 734388-734519 Sentence denotes Petechial hemorrhage also may be present at the base of the aorta and in subendocardial and subepicardial locations over the heart.
T4218 734520-734620 Sentence denotes There also may be edema and petechial or ecchymotic hemorrhage in the pharyngeal and laryngeal area.
T44053 734621-734826 Sentence denotes In severe cases the lungs may assume a purple hue, with marked edematous separation of lobules, and froth in the tracheobronchial tree, probably because of pulmonary microvascular damage and heart failure.
T7788 734827-734960 Sentence denotes Animals with pharyngeal or esophageal myodegeneration suffer from dysphagia, or regurgitate, and may succumb to aspiration pneumonia.
T2624 734961-735131 Sentence denotes Hyperemia, occasionally marked hemorrhage, or in advanced cases, ulceration of the mucosa may occur on rumen papillae, the pillars of the rumen, and the reticular plicae.
T2399 735132-735287 Sentence denotes In genus Parapoxvirus, family Poxviridae, which is closely related to Pseudocowpox virus that causes pseudocowpox in cattle and milker's nodules in humans.
T58536 735288-735400 Sentence denotes The disease in humans is usually very mild although severe skin lesions have been reported in at least one case.
T40182 735401-735501 Sentence denotes BPSV is morphologically similar to, and shares antigens with, Orf virus of sheep and goats (see Vol.
T15244 735502-735527 Sentence denotes 1, Integumentary system).
T63712 735528-735602 Sentence denotes However, analysis of the genome indicates that these viruses are distinct.
T85564 735603-735636 Sentence denotes BPSV is relatively host-specific.
T61649 735637-735719 Sentence denotes As with many of the poxviruses, neutralizing antibody is not readily demonstrated.
T31528 735720-735826 Sentence denotes Infection does not confer significant immunity, and successive episodes of lesions and relapses can occur.
T73322 735827-736087 Sentence denotes The disease is more common in calves than in older animals, although the susceptibility of, or recrudescence in, the latter may be increased by intercurrent debility, disease such as bovine viral diarrhea, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, or other stressors.
T4906 736088-736457 Sentence denotes The papular lesions of this disease occur on the muzzle and in the rostral nares, on the gums, the buccal papillae, the dental pad, the inner aspect of the lips, the hard palate ( Fig. 1-105A) , the floor of the oral cavity behind the incisors, the ventral and lateral (not dorsal) surfaces of the tongue, occasionally in the esophagus ( Fig. 1-105B ) and forestomachs.
T55040 736458-736596 Sentence denotes The initial lesions, which are likely to be detected on the muzzle or lips, are erythematous roughly round macules, 2 mm-2 cm in diameter.
T69798 736597-736838 Sentence denotes Shortly, the central portion becomes elevated as a low papule, although the elevation is not easy to see, and by the second day a gray central zone of epithelial hyperplasia has developed on which there is superficial scaliness and necrosis.
T86269 736839-736952 Sentence denotes A central necrotic area may slough to form a shallow craterous defect surrounded by a slightly raised red margin.
T63855 736953-736974 Sentence denotes Lesions may coalesce.
T14942 736975-737024 Sentence denotes The course of individual lesions is about a week.
T90017 737025-737177 Sentence denotes Histologically, there is focal but intense hyperemia and edema in the papillae of the lamina propria, with accumulation of a few mononuclear leukocytes.
T62869 737178-737325 Sentence denotes The epithelium is thickened, sometimes to twice its normal depth, by hyperplasia and ballooning degeneration in the deeper layers ( Fig. 1-105C ).
T48002 737326-737400 Sentence denotes The cytoplasm of affected cells is clear, and the nucleus may be shrunken.
T35678 737401-737525 Sentence denotes Dense eosinophilic inclusion bodies lie in the vacuolated cytoplasm, especially in cells at the active margin of the lesion.
T55703 737526-737658 Sentence denotes These inclusion bodies are present during the initial period of the infection but are difficult to see in the more advanced lesions.
T49048 737659-737851 Sentence denotes In the central, more advanced part of the lesion, a mainly neutrophilic infiltrate into the superficial propria and epithelium is associated with erosion of the upper layers of necrotic cells.
T51718 737852-737919 Sentence denotes The basal layer survives and may be very flattened in eroded areas.
T18208 737920-737941 Sentence denotes Vesicles do not form.
T21632 737942-738174 Sentence denotes A chronic form has been reported, with necrotic and proliferative stomatitis, represented histologically by extensive parakeratotic hyperkeratosis, pseudoepitheliomatous hyperplasia, and occasional intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies.
T40842 738175-738255 Sentence denotes Papular stomatitis is probably more common and widespread than reports indicate.
T98770 738256-738422 Sentence denotes Variation in the extent and gross appearance of the lesions is to be expected, depending on the usual host-parasite factors and the nature of superimposed infections.
T66429 738423-738696 Sentence denotes They may predispose to the development of necrotic stomatitis, and must be differentiated from the lesions of bovine viral diarrhea, foot-and-mouth disease, alimentary infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, and other causes of ulcers and erosions in the upper alimentary tract.
T66562 738697-738978 Sentence denotes The infection can be transmitted to humans to produce small papules that may persist for several weeks on the skin, usually of the fingers or forearms. larynx, and esophagus cause the difficulty in swallowing seen clinically, and similar changes are seen in other skeletal muscles.
T1442 738979-739053 Sentence denotes Necrotizing aspiration pneumonia is a sequel to dysphagia in some animals.
T48369 739054-739210 Sentence denotes The hemorrhagic diseases in bighorn sheep, pronghorn antelope, and white-tailed and black-tailed or mule deer in North America resemble bluetongue in sheep.
T63308 739211-739332 Sentence denotes White-tailed deer and pronghorn may develop a particularly severe and fulminant hemorrhagic disease, with high mortality.
T93886 739333-739408 Sentence denotes There may be necrosis of velvet antler, and hooves may slough in survivors.
T59596 739409-739492 Sentence denotes Bluetongue in goats, although usually inapparent, can resemble bluetongue in sheep.
T51484 739493-739649 Sentence denotes Bluetongue in sheep must be differentiated from foot-andmouth disease, peste des petits ruminants, contagious ecthyma, and photosensitization in particular.
T49521 739650-739832 Sentence denotes In cattle, the condition must be differentiated from foot-and-mouth disease, vesicular stomatitis, bovine viral diarrhea, rinderpest, malignant catarrhal fever, and photosensitivity.
T78781 739833-739942 Sentence denotes In Japan, Ibaraki disease of cattle in addition must be differentiated clinically from ephemeral fever virus.
T84583 739943-740127 Sentence denotes In addition to the systemic disease described, abortion, perhaps unobserved, and birth of progeny with various congenital defects may follow BTV infection of pregnant sheep and cattle.
T40992 740128-740209 Sentence denotes In sheep, BTV infection of ewes early in gestation may result in hydranencephaly.
T1955 740210-740398 Sentence denotes Anomalous calves produced by BTV-infected cattle have excessive gingiva, an enlarged tongue, anomalous maxillae, dwarf-like build, and rotations and contractures of the distal extremities.
T57543 740399-740504 Sentence denotes Porencephaly, hydranencephaly, and arthrogryposis are also reported in calves infected in utero with BTV.
T88585 740505-740701 Sentence denotes Antibody may be sought in neonates that have not sucked, and attempts should be made to isolate virus, because some prenatally infected animals may have immune tolerance, and persistent infection.
T60165 740702-740755 Sentence denotes Anomalies of the brain are considered further in Vol.
T77163 740756-740774 Sentence denotes 1, Nervous system.
T2143 740776-740802 Sentence denotes Bovine papular stomatitis.
T37011 740803-740849 Sentence denotes Papular stomatitis of cattle occurs worldwide.
T14136 740850-741005 Sentence denotes It is generally not a clinically significant infection, but needs to be differentiated from other more serious diseases affecting the oral cavity and skin.
T63074 741006-741137 Sentence denotes Bovine papular stomatitis is usually an indicator of immunity problems associated in many cases with poor colostrum administration.
T11506 741138-741273 Sentence denotes It is caused by species Bovine papular stomatitis virus (BPSV), material from lesions examined under the electron microscope or by PCR.
T16054 741274-741358 Sentence denotes Histology is highly suggestive when the characteristic inclusion bodies are present.
T24757 741359-741390 Sentence denotes Contagious pustular dermatitis.
T72045 741391-741612 Sentence denotes Contagious pustular dermatitis, also called orf or contagious ecthyma, is a parapoxviral disease of sheep and goats that is characterized mainly by proliferative scabby lesions on the lips, face, udder, and feet (see Vol.
T66922 741613-741638 Sentence denotes 1, Integumentary system).
T94480 741639-741698 Sentence denotes The disease also has been reported in camels and a gazelle.
T19973 741699-741794 Sentence denotes Lesions may extend into the oral cavity, involving the tongue, gingiva, dental pad, and palate.
T74478 741795-741869 Sentence denotes Involvement of the esophagus and forestomachs occurs, but is very unusual.
T42341 741870-742034 Sentence denotes In general the evolution of the alimentary lesions is similar to papular stomatitis of cattle, although they are more exudative and usually much more proliferative.
T97353 742035-742184 Sentence denotes Intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies similar to those observed in bovine papular stomatitis also can be observed in the initial stages of the infection.
T59038 742185-742248 Sentence denotes Morbidity may be high, and death can occur in suckling animals.
T90045 742249-742380 Sentence denotes In the upper alimentary tract, lesions may consist of focal red, raised areas, which coalesce to form papules followed by pustules.
T33502 742381-742567 Sentence denotes The latter rupture, and on the muzzle and in the mouth they may become covered by a gray to brown scab, although scab formation may not occur in the mucosa of the upper alimentary tract.
T23364 742568-742794 Sentence denotes As with bovine papular stomatitis, rapid diagnosis is readily accomplished by demonstration of characteristic parapoxvirus particles in negatively stained material from lesions examined under the electron microscope or by PCR.
T12352 742795-742879 Sentence denotes Histology is highly suggestive when the characteristic inclusion bodies are present.
T86702 742881-743092 Sentence denotes Species Bovine herpesvirus 1 (Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus, BoHV-1), genus Varicellovirus, subfamily Alphaherpesvirinae, has been associated with a wide range of clinicopathologic syndromes in cattle.
T29696 743093-743338 Sentence denotes These include necrotizing rhinotracheitis, conjunctivitis, infectious pustular vulvovaginitis and balanoposthitis, vesicular lesions of the udder, abortions, systemic infections in neonatal calves and latent infection (see appropriate chapters).
T26377 743339-743458 Sentence denotes Clinical significance of BoHV-1 in other species such as bison that have serological evidence of exposure is not known.
T76726 743459-743666 Sentence denotes A systemic form of the disease, which usually involves the alimentary tract, may occur spontaneously in neonatal calves (in which it may be congenital, or acquired shortly after birth) and in feedlot cattle.
T39430 743667-743721 Sentence denotes It has been reproduced experimentally in young calves.
T89797 743722-743794 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis of systemic infection with BoHV-1 is poorly understood.
T67425 743795-743932 Sentence denotes Colostrum-deprived calves are especially susceptible, and the disease can be prevented by feeding colostrum from actively immunized dams.
T43526 743933-744174 Sentence denotes The virus probably Rapid diagnosis is readily accomplished by demonstration of characteristic parapoxvirus particles in negatively stained are milder and generally limited to the nasal mucosa, larynx, and upper third of the trachea (see Vol.
T74665 744175-744198 Sentence denotes 2, Respiratory system).
T31077 744199-744379 Sentence denotes Gray to yellow necrotic foci 2-5 mm diameter may be evident macroscopically on the capsular and cut surfaces of the liver, the adrenal cortices, the spleen, and in Peyer's patches.
T50980 744380-744502 Sentence denotes Microscopically, the lesions in the squamous mucosa are characterized by focal areas of necrosis, erosion, and ulceration.
T3994 744503-744575 Sentence denotes Severe necrosis may involve the entire papilla or mucosa more diffusely.
T68764 744576-744705 Sentence denotes Nuclear inclusions may be present in epithelial cells in the periphery of the lesion, although these are an inconsistent finding.
T96691 744706-744826 Sentence denotes They are more likely to be found if tissues are collected in the early stages of the disease and fixed in Bouin's fluid.
T8346 744827-744898 Sentence denotes The abomasal lesions consist of necrosis of glandular epithelial cells.
T5689 744899-744960 Sentence denotes Affected glands are dilated, and filled with necrotic debris.
T13927 744961-745093 Sentence denotes Focal necrotic lesions involving crypts and lamina propria may be present in both the small intestine and large bowel (Fig. 1-108) .
T48202 745094-745312 Sentence denotes Abomasal and intestinal lesions may predispose to the development of secondary mycosis, which is a common complication. spreads from the mucosa of the upper respiratory tract to other tissues by circulating leukocytes.
T15298 745313-745438 Sentence denotes Peripheral blood mononuclear leukocytes may exhibit apoptosis in response to BoHV-1, but the significance of this is unknown.
T31607 745439-745624 Sentence denotes Experimental infection of calves with noncytopathic bovine viral diarrhea virus (NCP-BVDV) followed by BoHV-1 inoculation results in dissemination of the latter to a variety of tissues.
T70172 745625-745758 Sentence denotes BVDV impairs cell-mediated immunity, and this may allow BoHV-1 to escape from the respiratory tract and lead to a systemic infection.
T60419 745759-745910 Sentence denotes Dual infections of BVDV and BoHV-1 occur under field conditions, but coinfection of these two viruses is not a prerequisite for the disease to develop.
T85949 745911-746145 Sentence denotes Clinically affected animals have hyperemic oral and nasal mucosae, and focal areas of necrosis, erosion, and ulceration on the nares, dental pad, gums, buccal mucosa, palate, and the caudal, ventral, and dorsal surfaces of the tongue.
T84658 746146-746351 Sentence denotes Characteristically, the lesions tend to be punctate with a slightly raised margin; the necrotic areas are covered by a gray-white layer of fibrinonecrotic exudate, which leaves a raw red base when removed.
T22630 746352-746480 Sentence denotes The lesions may be present in the oral cavity and extend into the esophagus, usually only the upper third, and the forestomachs.
T24547 746481-746662 Sentence denotes In the oral cavity and esophagus, the erosions and ulcers may be irregular, circular, or linear, and often they have a punched-out appearance and a hyperemic border ( Fig. 1-106) .
T50849 746663-746772 Sentence denotes The ruminal lesions, which are most commonly located in the dorsal and cranioventral sacs, vary considerably.
T5456 746773-746868 Sentence denotes The earliest lesions consist of foci of necrosis and hemorrhage, a few millimeters in diameter.
T46939 746869-747094 Sentence denotes In some cases the necrosis may involve almost the entire surface of the ruminal mucosa, which becomes covered by a thick, dirty gray layer of exudate, resembling curdled milk, which adheres tightly to the wall ( Fig. 1-107) .
T21037 747095-747143 Sentence denotes Similar lesions may be evident in the reticulum.
T60406 747144-747262 Sentence denotes Focal areas of necrosis result in the formation of holes, as large as 1.5 cm in diameter, in the leaves of the omasum.
T30145 747263-747417 Sentence denotes In addition, these calves may have focal areas of necrosis in the abomasal mucosal folds, which may coalesce to form areas of necrosis 2-3 cm in diameter.
T21874 747418-747530 Sentence denotes The intestines are red and dilated, and the serosal surface may be covered by a thin layer of fibrinous exudate.
T18910 747531-747612 Sentence denotes The enteric lesions may be accompanied by changes in the upper respiratory tract.
T70644 747613-747824 Sentence denotes When present the respiratory lesions are similar to those described for older cattle, although they contain focal to large areas of mucosal necrosis and ulceration, frequently covered by a diphtheritic membrane.
T23771 747825-747860 Sentence denotes The contents are yellow and mucoid.
T19597 747861-747915 Sentence denotes Hemorrhagic foci may be visible in the bladder mucosa.
T70925 747916-748046 Sentence denotes Microscopically, the lesions in the upper alimentary tract are typical areas of necrosis and erosion of squamous epithelial cells.
T56159 748047-748196 Sentence denotes The epithelial cells at the periphery of necrotic areas are swollen and vacuolated and these may contain typical intranuclear herpesviral inclusions.
T19093 748197-748268 Sentence denotes There is marked inflammatory reaction in the underlying lamina propria.
T71029 748269-748332 Sentence denotes The abomasal lesions consist of acute foci of mucosal necrosis.
T38537 748333-748382 Sentence denotes Inclusions are particularly evident in this area.
T84609 748383-748547 Sentence denotes Lesions in the cecum and colon are more extensive and consist of large areas of mucosal ulceration and necrosis, which may involve the entire thickness of the wall.
T33164 748548-748622 Sentence denotes The submucosa is edematous and markedly infiltrated by inflammatory cells.
T65833 748623-748710 Sentence denotes The mesenteric nodes are edematous and germinal centers are depleted of lymphoid cells.
T73883 748711-748832 Sentence denotes Focal areas of necrosis with a mild inflammatory cell reaction also may be present in liver, urinary bladder, and kidney.
T24997 748833-748852 Sentence denotes Montagnaro S, et al
T59817 748854-749045 Sentence denotes Canid herpesvirus 1 causes systemic disease of neonatal puppies characterized by foci of necrosis and hemorrhage in a wide variety of organs, especially the lungs and renal cortices (see Vol.
T52448 749046-749072 Sentence denotes 3, Female genital system).
T76343 749073-749157 Sentence denotes Focal areas of necrosis may occur in the intestine as part of the systemic syndrome.
T85640 749158-749217 Sentence denotes A similar syndrome also has been described in an adult dog.
T94317 749218-749325 Sentence denotes As with most other herpesvirus, the trigeminal ganglion is an important latency site for canid herpesvirus.
T74183 749326-749428 Sentence denotes However, latency of this virus also occurs in the lumbosacral ganglia and retropharyngeal lymph nodes.
T17332 749429-749533 Sentence denotes Latently infected dogs may or may not shed virus, and shedding may occur continuously or intermittently.
T13112 749534-749669 Sentence denotes Felid herpesvirus 1 (feline viral rhinotracheitis virus) causes oral lesions (see previous section on Inflammation of the oral cavity).
T90738 749670-749791 Sentence denotes Primary infection by felid herpesvirus 1 may be followed by viremia with the virus distributed to several distant organs.
T876 749792-749935 Sentence denotes Viruses antigenically related to felid herpesvirus 1 have been isolated from dogs with diarrhea, but descriptions of lesions are not available.
T54029 749936-750074 Sentence denotes Natural infections with Suid herpesvirus 1 (SuHV-1; pseudorabies virus, Aujeszky's disease virus) often result in necrotizing tonsillitis.
T47699 750075-750180 Sentence denotes Experimental infection of pigs with SuHV-1 may cause necrotizing enteritis of the distal small intestine.
T75402 750181-750420 Sentence denotes The enteric lesions are characterized by focal areas of necrosis of the cryptal mucosa, muscularis mucosae, and tunica Foci of coagulative necrosis may occur in the liver, lymph nodes, thymus, Peyer's patches, spleen, and adrenal cortices.
T38371 750421-750489 Sentence denotes Typically there is little inflammation associated with the necrosis.
T4228 750490-750584 Sentence denotes Herpesviral inclusions are inconsistently seen in cells at the periphery of the necrotic foci.
T85454 750585-750769 Sentence denotes In a study of systemic BoHV-1 infection in neonatal calves in California, a large proportion of affected calves had histologic lesions compatible with BoHV-1 only in the adrenal gland.
T86792 750770-750976 Sentence denotes Although most of those animals had enteritis and/or colitis, these lesions were considered to be due to other enteric pathogens (coronavirus, cryptosporidia, rotavirus, and attaching-and-effacing E. coli) .
T66036 750977-751169 Sentence denotes The lesions in the upper alimentary tract of cattle associated with BoHV-1 infection must be differentiated from those of calf diphtheria, bovine papular stomatitis, and bovine viral diarrhea.
T1886 751170-751318 Sentence denotes The ruminal lesions must be differentiated from those of bovine adenovirus infection and nonspecific rumenitis, described elsewhere in this chapter.
T788 751319-751453 Sentence denotes The liver lesions may be confused with focal necrosis associated with septicemias, for example, listeriosis or salmonellosis (see Vol.
T40011 751454-751483 Sentence denotes 2, Liver and biliary system).
T84719 751484-751505 Sentence denotes Moeller RB Jr, et al.
T69135 751506-751728 Sentence denotes The disease in neonatal kids is characterized clinically by fever, conjunctivitis, ocular and nasal discharges, dyspnea, anorexia, abdominal pain, weakness, and death, usually within 1-4 days after onset of clinical signs.
T37287 751729-751779 Sentence denotes Affected kids have leukopenia and hypoproteinemia.
T44832 751780-751856 Sentence denotes Macroscopic lesions are most obvious throughout the entire alimentary tract.
T58653 751857-751951 Sentence denotes Round or longitudinal erosions, which have a hyperemic border, are evident in the oral mucosa.
T72052 751952-752074 Sentence denotes These are particularly prominent on the gums around the incisor teeth and to a lesser extent in the pharynx and esophagus.
T22623 752075-752184 Sentence denotes Focal red areas of necrosis, which may be slightly elevated above the surrounding mucosa, occur in the rumen.
T63584 752185-752264 Sentence denotes In the abomasum, numerous longitudinal, red erosions are located in the mucosa.
T51137 752265-752479 Sentence denotes The most severe lesions occur in the cecum and spiral colon, which are dilated, with a thickened wall, and and are hence being renamed, such as bovine adenovirus serotype 1 (BAdV-1) becomes bovine mastadenovirus A.
T40385 752480-752567 Sentence denotes Infection has been mainly associated with keratoconjunctivitis and respiratory disease.
T96205 752568-752619 Sentence denotes Many strains have been isolated from normal cattle.
T24849 752620-752688 Sentence denotes Serotypes 3, 4, 7, and 10 have been associated with enteric disease.
T20392 752689-752890 Sentence denotes It appears that after an initial viremic stage, the virus localizes in the endothelial cells of vessels in a variety of organs, resulting in thrombosis with subsequent focal areas of ischemic necrosis.
T13246 752891-752997 Sentence denotes Clinically, enteric infections with BAdV occur sporadically in 1-8 week-old calves and in feedlot animals.
T95035 752998-753116 Sentence denotes Affected animals have fever, and diarrhea that may contain blood, and some animals will die peracutely from dysentery.
T54118 753117-753200 Sentence denotes They are dehydrated and the mucous membranes of the muzzle and mouth are congested.
T38574 753201-753313 Sentence denotes Dry, encrusted exudate may cover the muzzle and there may be serous to mucopurulent ocular and nasal discharges.
T27032 753314-753394 Sentence denotes Macroscopic lesions may be present in the forestomachs, abomasum, and intestine.
T80097 753395-753571 Sentence denotes Those in the forestomachs are characterized by irregular, raised, red-to-gray necrotic areas, 2-4 mm in diameter on the mucosa of both the dorsal and ventral sacs of the rumen.
T42290 753572-753664 Sentence denotes In some cases, the areas of necrosis coalesce to give rise to diffuse necrotizing rumenitis.
T71135 753665-753779 Sentence denotes Ulcers up to 1.5 cm in diameter may be located on the ruminal pillars and these may be visible through the serosa.
T122 753780-753825 Sentence denotes Similar lesions may be evident in the omasum.
T19191 753826-754007 Sentence denotes The abomasal mucosal folds are edematous and congested, with focal necrosis and ulceration in the mucosa that, like those in the forestomachs, may be visible on the serosal surface.
T6763 754008-754189 Sentence denotes The intestinal lesions vary from slight dilation and distention with excessive fluid to severe multifocal or diffuse necrosis, which may be covered by a pseudodiphtheritic membrane.
T50400 754190-754297 Sentence denotes In young calves, the lesions are most severe in the jejunum and ileum, especially over the Peyer's patches.
T12916 754298-754364 Sentence denotes In feedlot cattle, the lesions may be most prominent in the colon.
T79719 754365-754444 Sentence denotes The mucosa is dark red (Fig. 1-109) and there is marked edema of the mesocolon.
T54364 754445-754499 Sentence denotes The mesenteric lymph nodes are enlarged and edematous.
T83979 754500-754662 Sentence denotes Microscopically, foci of ischemic necrosis are evident in the intestinal mucosa, and in more advanced lesions, the necrosis extends across the muscularis mucosae.
T80863 754663-754720 Sentence denotes Fibrinocellular exudate often covers the mucosal surface.
T84356 754721-754836 Sentence denotes Intestinal crypts are dilated, lined by flat epithelial cells, and usually contain necrotic debris ( Fig. 1-110A ).
T89159 754837-754915 Sentence denotes There is usually marked submucosal edema, congestion, and fibrinous exudation.
T83764 754916-755034 Sentence denotes Foci of necrosis are evident in the lymphoid follicles of the Peyer's patches, which are also depleted of lymphocytes.
T8163 755035-755257 Sentence denotes Large basophilic to amphophilic inclusions completely or partially fill the nuclei of endothelium in the vessels of the lamina propria and submucosa of affected areas of the rumen, abomasum, and intestine ( Fig. 1-110B) .
T31963 755258-755321 Sentence denotes The endothelial cells are swollen and necrotic, and muscularis.
T46372 755322-755485 Sentence denotes Immunohistochemically, antigen is documented in the dome area, the lymphoid follicles of Peyer's patches, and ganglion cells of Meissner's and Auerbach's plexuses.
T47323 755486-755584 Sentence denotes Necrotizing enterocolitis in adult horses because of Equid herpesvirus 1 has been reported rarely.
T45714 755585-755669 Sentence denotes A single case with similar intestinal lesions was also reported in a yearling filly.
T75292 755670-755833 Sentence denotes At autopsy there are multiple areas of hemorrhage, necrosis, and ulceration, some several centimeters in diameter, of the mucosa in both small and large intestine.
T30352 755834-755975 Sentence denotes Microscopically, these lesions consist of erosions and ulcerations of the mucosa, and necrosis of cryptal epithelial cells in adjacent areas.
T83019 755976-756093 Sentence denotes Cryptal epithelial cells and some proprial mononuclear cells may have acidophilic and amphophilic nuclear inclusions.
T34663 756094-756109 Sentence denotes Del Piero F, et
T70680 756111-756143 Sentence denotes Further reading Carman S, et al.
T11358 756144-756163 Sentence denotes Porcine adenovirus.
T5370 756164-756289 Sentence denotes According to serological surveys, the 5 serotypes of species Porcine adenovirus (PAdV), genus Mastadenovirus, are all common.
T12923 756290-756391 Sentence denotes Serotype 4 appears to be the most widely distributed strain of the virus in Europe and North America.
T27939 756392-756573 Sentence denotes Asymptomatic infections are most common in swine, and PAdV may be isolated from feces of normal pigs; PAdVs are actually of more interest as viral vaccine vectors than as pathogens.
T23332 756574-756670 Sentence denotes The importance of adenoviruses as a cause of enteric disease in the field remains controversial.
T67986 756671-756920 Sentence denotes When disease occurs, the macroscopic lesions in the intestine consist of excessive yellow watery to pasty contents and moderate enlargement of the mesenteric lymph nodes, which cannot be differentiated from other causes of diarrhea in neonatal pigs.
T97853 756921-757153 Sentence denotes In contrast to the situation in calves, in which inclusions are located mainly in the nuclei of endothelial cells, inclusions in pigs are in enterocytes in the distal jejunum and ileum, where primary viral replication likely occurs.
T50182 757154-757243 Sentence denotes The infected nuclei are enlarged, round, and displaced to the apical portion of the cell.
T43108 757244-757277 Sentence denotes The villi may be short and blunt.
T51980 757278-757350 Sentence denotes There may be a moderate mononuclear cell reaction in the lamina propria.
T47764 757351-757507 Sentence denotes Inclusions are also found in the squamous epithelial cells of the tonsils and in endothelial cells of capillary and small blood vessels throughout the body.
T14752 757508-757645 Sentence denotes Ultrastructurally, infected nuclei of enterocytes are round and swollen and contain numerous typical adenoviral particles ( Fig. 1-111) .
T72104 757646-757737 Sentence denotes Affected enterocytes are cuboidal and the apical portion protrudes slightly into the lumen.
T63299 757738-757816 Sentence denotes The cell membrane and microvilli are irregular and the terminal web is absent.
T13026 757817-757918 Sentence denotes The rough endoplasmic reticulum shows local distension with formation of large multivesicular bodies.
T90050 757919-758115 Sentence denotes Eventually there is complete loss of microvilli, and the cell membrane ruptures with the release of cell contents and virus particles into the gut lumen. some veins and lymphatics contain thrombi.
T74520 758116-758191 Sentence denotes Similar inclusion bodies may occasionally be seen in nuclei of enterocytes.
T40479 758192-758433 Sentence denotes Typical inclusions also may be found in endothelial cells of vessels and sinusoids of the adrenal glands, mesenteric lymph nodes, liver, spleen, glomeruli, and interstitial capillaries in the kidney, and in the mucosa of the urinary bladder.
T1341 758434-758624 Sentence denotes Confirmation of enteric BAdV infection depends on the demonstration of the virus in tissue, through electron microscopy, in situ hybridization, PCR or isolation of the virus in cell culture.
T7105 758625-758876 Sentence denotes The latter is often difficult because different serotypes and strains of the virus require specific cell cultures, and several blind passages may be required before cytopathic changes are evident. with abundant adenoviral inclusions in lambs and kids.
T28963 758877-759001 Sentence denotes In the former, inclusions were found predominantly in the lamina propria, whereas in the latter they were mostly epithelial.
T52576 759002-759181 Sentence denotes Goat adenovirus (GAdV) serotypes 1 and 2 can cause enteritis and diarrhea in goat kids; GAdV-1 is a serotype of Ovine adenovirus D, which also includes serotype 7 and isolate 287.
T17209 759182-759263 Sentence denotes Two distinct but serologically related adenoviruses have been isolated from dogs.
T17803 759264-759409 Sentence denotes Canine adenovirus 1 (CAdV-1) infection is usually subclinical, but it may cause infectious hepatitis, and diarrhea may be present in these cases.
T69481 759410-759483 Sentence denotes The virus has a particular tropism for hepatocytes and endothelial cells.
T64186 759484-759646 Sentence denotes The serosal hemorrhages in the gastrointestinal tract and possibly the diarrhea may be related to vascular damage in the serosa and mucosa, respectively (see Vol.
T62074 759647-759676 Sentence denotes 2, Liver and biliary system).
T6376 759677-759757 Sentence denotes CAdV-2 is usually associated with upper respiratory infections in dogs (see Vol.
T7255 759758-759781 Sentence denotes 2, Respiratory system).
T47733 759782-759870 Sentence denotes Viruses serologically similar to CAdV-2 have been isolated from feces of diarrheic dogs.
T52674 759871-759960 Sentence denotes DNA fingerprinting of two of these isolates indicated that they are distinct from CAdV-2.
T60636 759961-760078 Sentence denotes It may be that the fecal isolates are due to swallowing of virus originating from upper respiratory tract infections.
T32645 760079-760290 Sentence denotes A newly recognized cervid Atadenovirus known as Odocoileus adenovirus 1 (OdAdV-1) was the cause of an outbreak of a hemorrhagic disease that caused high mortality in mule deer species in California in the 1990s.
T73543 760291-760442 Sentence denotes OdAdV-1 infection has since been diagnosed as a frequent cause of herd mortality in other deer species in other states of the United States and Canada.
T28812 760443-760562 Sentence denotes The OdAdV-1 is phylogenetically most closely related to bovine adenovirus 7, goat adenovirus 1, and ovine adenovirus 7.
T8951 760563-760649 Sentence denotes Experimentally, OdAdV-1 has been demonstrated to be noninfectious to cattle and sheep.
T16760 760650-760724 Sentence denotes There are 2 manifestations of the disease in deer; systemic and localized.
T45991 760725-760798 Sentence denotes Both forms were experimentally reproduced in black and white-tailed deer.
T9678 760799-761089 Sentence denotes The disease mimics the orbivirus hemorrhagic diseases in that it triggers DIC through endothelial cell necrosis; however, OdAdV-1 targets first endothelial cells of medium and large vessels, whereas bluetongue and epizootic hemorrhagic disease viruses target primarily the microvasculature.
T76453 761090-761205 Sentence denotes With systemic infection, gross findings include pulmonary edema and/or gastrointestinal hemorrhage ( Fig. 1-112) .
T28572 761206-761252 Sentence denotes Microscopically there is widespread vasculitis
T88748 761253-761343 Sentence denotes The significance of adenoviral inclusions in enterocytes must be interpreted with caution.
T65985 761344-761473 Sentence denotes A survey in Canada revealed that 4.4% of 5-day to 24-week-old pigs had adenoviral inclusions in enterocytes, mainly in the ileum.
T46688 761474-761581 Sentence denotes More than 50% of the pigs had diarrhea; however, other enteropathogens were found in most of these animals.
T43735 761582-761624 Sentence denotes Guardado-Calvo P, et al Equine adenovirus.
T28336 761625-761755 Sentence denotes Two serotypes of species Equine adenovirus (EAdV), genus Mastadenovirus, designated EAdV-1 and EAdV-2, have been isolated to date.
T63421 761756-761978 Sentence denotes EAdV-1 has a worldwide distribution and it is mainly responsible for upper respiratory tract infections in foals <3 months of age, whereas EAdV-2 has been isolated mainly from horses with gastrointestinal tract infections.
T68102 761979-762042 Sentence denotes EAdV-2 has been isolated in Australia from foals with diarrhea.
T11527 762043-762101 Sentence denotes Rotavirus also was identified in the feces of these foals.
T44329 762102-762221 Sentence denotes A serologic survey showed that 77% of adult horses in the area had neutralizing antibodies to this particular serotype.
T43274 762222-762368 Sentence denotes An unidentified alimentary tract adenoviral infection has been reported in an Arabian foal that did not have lesions of combined immunodeficiency.
T35773 762369-762441 Sentence denotes The foal had diarrhea and progressive weight loss over a 2-month period.
T4559 762442-762549 Sentence denotes The macroscopic lesions consisted of ulcers in the distal esophagus and nonglandular mucosa of the stomach.
T48862 762550-762600 Sentence denotes The intestine contained soft to semifluid ingesta.
T76810 762601-762697 Sentence denotes Histologically, there was necrosis and ulceration of the esophageal and gastric squamous mucosa.
T60545 762698-762776 Sentence denotes Typical adenoviral inclusions were found at all levels of the small intestine.
T81527 762777-762915 Sentence denotes These were most commonly located in the villus epithelial cells, less often in the crypts, and only occasionally in the submucosal glands.
T55570 762916-762986 Sentence denotes There was focal-to-diffuse villus atrophy through the small intestine.
T18495 762987-763017 Sentence denotes Adenoviruses in other species.
T3245 763018-763091 Sentence denotes Seven serotypes of Ovine adenovirus (OAdV) have been isolated from sheep.
T87754 763092-763141 Sentence denotes Serotypes 1-6 belong to the genus Mastadenovirus.
T16002 763142-763334 Sentence denotes However, serotype 7 is phylogenetically different from mastadenoviruses, and has been renamed Ovine adenovirus D, and subsequently Ovine atadenovirus D, the type species in genus Atadenovirus.
T42516 763335-763450 Sentence denotes Serotypes 1, 2, and 3 have been recovered from feces of normal sheep, and lambs with enteritis and pneumoenteritis.
T16767 763451-763636 Sentence denotes Experimental inoculation of specific-pathogen-free lambs with OAdV-4 did not cause disease but the virus was re-isolated from feces and nasal secretions for several days post infection.
T30097 763637-763700 Sentence denotes However, occasionally there are reports of enteritis associated
T21516 763702-763740 Sentence denotes is similar in all the species studied.
T4256 763741-763868 Sentence denotes Coronavirus infects and replicates in the apical cytoplasm of absorptive enterocytes on the tips and sides of intestinal villi.
T41414 763869-763964 Sentence denotes Virions are probably taken up by the apical border of the cell, by fusion with the plasmalemma.
T43842 763965-764170 Sentence denotes Replication and maturation appear to involve budding of virions from the cytosol through the membrane and into the lumen of vacuoles or cisternae in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, where they accumulate.
T40771 764171-764223 Sentence denotes Virions are found in tubules of the Golgi apparatus.
T77803 764224-764481 Sentence denotes They may exit via that route from infected cells, by exocytosis at the apical cell membrane, or on the lateral cell surface, because viral particles are often seen lined up between microvilli or in the basolateral intercellular space between infected cells.
T70015 764482-764536 Sentence denotes Virus also may be released by lysis of infected cells.
T5527 764537-764630 Sentence denotes Coronaviruses also infect some mesenchymal cells in villi and probably mesenteric lymph node.
T9656 764631-764698 Sentence denotes Changes in the infected cell occur by ∼12-24 hours after infection.
T57381 764699-764901 Sentence denotes Mitochondria in virus-infected cells swell, cisternae of smooth and rough endoplasmic reticulum dilate, the cytoplasm of infected cells loses its electron density, and cells lose their columnar profile.
T31299 764902-765033 Sentence denotes The terminal web is fragmented; microvilli swell and become irregular, perhaps in association with blebbing of the apical membrane.
T29541 765034-765156 Sentence denotes Damaged epithelium may lyse in situ, releasing virus retained in cytoplasmic vacuoles, or it may exfoliate into the lumen.
T96281 765157-765309 Sentence denotes Profuse diarrhea usually begins about the time that early cytologic changes are becoming apparent, but before there is extensive epithelial exfoliation.
T9692 765310-765519 Sentence denotes Exfoliation of damaged epithelium may be massive over a relatively short period of time, leading to the development of villus atrophy, the severity of which largely reflects the degree of initial viral damage.
T25436 765520-765647 Sentence denotes Villi may appear fused along their sides or tips, and during the exfoliative phase some villi with denuded tips may be present.
T81148 765648-765836 Sentence denotes The enterocytes present on villi shortly after the initial exfoliative episode are mainly poorly differentiated low columnar, cuboidal, or squamous cells, with stubby irregular microvilli.
T75128 765837-766019 Sentence denotes Within 2-3 days, villi begin to regenerate and the epithelium becomes progressively more columnar, although still lacking a well-developed brush border and its complement of enzymes.
T14621 766020-766137 Sentence denotes Defective fat absorption is reflected in the accumulation of lipid droplets in the cytoplasm of enterocytes on villi.
T78629 766138-766226 Sentence denotes This is particularly marked over the period of ∼2-5 days after experimental inoculation.
T39172 766227-766407 Sentence denotes With progressive epithelial regeneration from the crypts, the villus fusion, which may be the result of adhesion of temporarily denuded lamina propria of adjacent villi, regresses.
T4030 766408-766511 Sentence denotes Separation begins along the basal margins of the adhesions and progresses toward the tips of the villi.
T95348 766512-766669 Sentence denotes There may be focal acute inflammation in the lamina propria of temporarily denuded villi, and a mild mononuclear infiltrate in the stroma of collapsed villi.
T96506 766670-766888 Sentence denotes Although several cycles of viral replication may occur, poorly differentiated enterocytes appear relatively refractory to infection, and the virus titer falls, presumably as local immune mechanisms also come into play.
T46117 766889-767220 Sentence denotes Hyperplasia of epithelium in crypts usually results in eventual resolution of the villus atrophy, restoring normal function. characterized by endothelial cell hypertrophy and necrosis, disruption of the tunica intima, leukocytic margination, fibrinoid necrosis, and leukocytic infiltration of the tunica intima and sometimes media.
T5320 767221-767482 Sentence denotes Intranuclear inclusion bodies are seen primarily in the endothelium of large vessels in the lungs and serosa and submucosa of the intestine and less often seen in endothelium of interalveolar septal capillaries in the lungs and lamina propria of the intestines.
T66019 767483-767585 Sentence denotes Localized infection is grossly characterized by necrosis and ulceration of the upper alimentary tract.
T16972 767586-767737 Sentence denotes Microscopically there is necrosis of multiple tissues in areas of gross lesions, but vasculitis with intranuclear inclusions is frequently not present.
T36407 767738-767823 Sentence denotes A novel adenovirus was isolated from an alpaca presented with diarrhea and enteritis.
T61379 767824-767936 Sentence denotes Microscopically, multiple intranuclear inclusion bodies were seen in enterocytes throughout the small intestine.
T11210 767938-768026 Sentence denotes Coronaviruses cause disease affecting a number of organ systems in a variety of species.
T10632 768027-768197 Sentence denotes Among domestic mammals they mainly cause enteric infections, although coronaviruses are implicated in pneumonia in swine and cattle, and in feline infectious peritonitis.
T47782 768198-768246 Sentence denotes Coronaviruses have a single-stranded RNA genome.
T53226 768247-768356 Sentence denotes They are pleomorphic or roughly spherical and vary in size from ∼70-200 nm in diameter, averaging 100-130 nm.
T70820 768357-768449 Sentence denotes They have a phospholipid-bearing envelope, probably derived in part from host cell membrane.
T64996 768450-768646 Sentence denotes They gain their name from the characteristic "corona" of petal- or droplet-shaped radial surface projections ("peplomers") visible under the electron microscope in negatively stained preparations.
T44711 768647-768785 Sentence denotes The coronaviruses infecting each species of host appear to be distinctive; some species are infected by more than one type of coronavirus.
T82811 768786-768965 Sentence denotes There are antigenic relationships among viruses from various hosts, and experimental cross-infection will occur between some host species, usually without pathologic consequences.
T92886 768966-768998 Sentence denotes Persistent infections can occur.
T79642 768999-769121 Sentence denotes Coronaviruses significant is the differentiation, and low rate of turnover, of small intestinal epithelium in the neonate.
T34224 769122-769313 Sentence denotes The surface epithelium is mature and has an extensive vesicular network in the apical cytoplasm associated with uptake of macromolecules and colostrum during the first day or two after birth.
T5971 769314-769355 Sentence denotes Crypts are short and relatively inactive.
T58000 769356-769501 Sentence denotes Therefore the population of epithelium susceptible to infection on each villus is large, and the capacity to regenerate new enterocytes is small.
T90568 769502-769559 Sentence denotes By ∼3 weeks of age, epithelium is actively proliferative.
T28624 769560-769778 Sentence denotes Virus production by infected enterocytes in older pigs seems less efficient, and replacement of cells lost to infection is more rapid, contributing to the relative resistance seen in swine greater than ∼3 weeks of age.
T9708 769779-769883 Sentence denotes Piglets with TGE have the nonspecific gross appearance at autopsy of undifferentiated neonatal diarrhea.
T52025 769884-769942 Sentence denotes The stomach may contain a milk curd or bile-stained fluid.
T31188 769943-770114 Sentence denotes The small bowel is flaccid and contains yellow frothy fluid with flecks of mucus; chyle is not usually evident in mesenteric lymphatics because there is fat malabsorption.
T22202 770115-770319 Sentence denotes The microscopic lesions are those of villus atrophy resulting from exfoliation of surface enterocytes (Fig. 1-113) , the severity of which is a function of the age of the pig and the stage of the disease.
T78472 770320-770406 Sentence denotes In young piglets, the lesions are most severe about the time of the onset of diarrhea.
T25521 770407-770614 Sentence denotes In later phases or in older pigs there may be subtotal to moderate atrophy, and the mucosa may be lined by cuboidal to low columnar epithelium, with irregular nuclear polarity and an indistinct brush border.
T65915 770615-770743 Sentence denotes Severe atrophy is readily recognized at necropsy of neonatal piglets by examination of the mucosa under a dissecting microscope.
T45436 770744-770868 Sentence denotes Lesions are most common in the middle and lower small intestine, and villi in the duodenum are usually tall and cylindrical.
T15138 770869-770999 Sentence denotes Lesions may be patchy, and several areas of lower small intestine must be examined before atrophy is considered not to be present.
T49921 771000-771223 Sentence denotes In animals beyond the neonatal age group, atrophy may not be so severe and readily recognized under the dissecting microscope, and the contrast with the normally shorter villi in the duodenum of older pigs is not as marked.
T97650 771224-771270 Sentence denotes Histologic assessment of the gut is essential.
T14668 771271-771368 Sentence denotes Porcine respiratory coronavirus (PRCoV) is genetically and antigenically extremely close to TGEV.
T99957 771369-771484 Sentence denotes It cross-reacts serologically, and vaccinated sows successfully induce passive immunity against enteric infections.
T89746 771485-771572 Sentence denotes PRCoV is spread by inhalation, and infects lining cells of the upper respiratory tract.
T81488 771573-771717 Sentence denotes Mild bronchointerstitial pneumonia results from experimental infection, and the agent has been associated with outbreaks of respiratory disease.
T88597 771718-771750 Sentence denotes many years from Europe and Asia.
T84293 771751-771892 Sentence denotes In 2013 a diagnosis of this condition was made in Iowa, from where it spread quickly to several other states of the United States and Canada.
T76512 771893-772022 Sentence denotes Traditionally the disease was considered to be essentially similar to TGE in epidemiology, pathogenesis, and lesions, but milder.
T61443 772023-772171 Sentence denotes However, the recent US epidemic occurred as explosive epidemics of diarrhea and vomiting affecting all ages, with 90-95% mortality in suckling pigs.
T51936 772172-772272 Sentence denotes Clinically, grossly, and histologically, disease produced by PEDV cannot be differentiated from TGE.
T31140 772273-772338 Sentence denotes The diagnosis should be confirmed by PCR or immunohistochemistry.
T72816 772339-772420 Sentence denotes Although PEDV is related to TGEV, diagnostic tests for TGEV will not detect PEDV.
T95066 772421-772534 Sentence denotes Porcine deltacoronavirus (PDCoV), a deltacoronavirus first detected in Hong Kong in 2012 and now present in North
T89412 772535-772748 Sentence denotes The diarrhea that occurs is a result of electrolyte and nutrient malabsorption, with some contribution by secretion by crypt cells, and probably by poorly differentiated surface epithelium in the reparative phase.
T48626 772749-772861 Sentence denotes Mechanisms of diarrhea in villus atrophy are discussed in the section on the Pathophysiology of enteric disease.
T90910 772862-773047 Sentence denotes Remission of signs occurs within ∼4-6 days as regeneration of villi occurs, providing the animal survives the dehydration, electrolyte depletion, and acidosis brought about by diarrhea.
T25536 773048-773247 Sentence denotes Diagnosis is achieved by detection of viral particles by negative-staining electron microscopy or detection of the virus by fluorescent antibodies, immunohistochemistry, PCR, and/ or virus isolation.
T89910 773249-773314 Sentence denotes Deltacoronavirus, species Porcine deltacoronavirus (PDCoV, SDCV).
T31441 773315-773447 Sentence denotes PEDV, TGEV, and PDCoV cause vomiting and diarrhea in suckling piglets, with high morbidity and mortality caused by severe enteritis.
T15607 773448-773602 Sentence denotes PHEV also causes vomiting and wasting disease in suckling piglets; but mainly mediated by infection of the central and peripheral nervous system (see Vol.
T31250 773603-773622 Sentence denotes 1, Nervous system).
T33035 773623-773755 Sentence denotes Transmissible gastroenteritis (TGE) may affect swine of any age, causing vomiting, severe diarrhea, and, in piglets, high mortality.
T5085 773756-773811 Sentence denotes The disease is recognized throughout most of the world.
T92083 773812-773931 Sentence denotes The epidemiology of TGE depends on the overall immune status of the herd and of the various age groups within the herd.
T29128 773932-774051 Sentence denotes Introduction of TGEV into a naive herd results in rapid spread of disease with high morbidity affecting all age groups.
T25117 774052-774135 Sentence denotes Sows and older pigs show transient inappetence, and possibly diarrhea and vomiting.
T19658 774136-774225 Sentence denotes Signs may be more severe in sows exposed to high virus challenge from infected baby pigs.
T52958 774226-774328 Sentence denotes Agalactia may occur in recently farrowed sows, perhaps related to TGEV infection of the mammary gland.
T78991 774329-774430 Sentence denotes Suckling piglets develop severe diarrhea, and mortality may approach 100% in piglets <10-14 days old.
T69600 774431-774501 Sentence denotes Older pigs usually develop less severe signs and have lower mortality.
T69902 774502-774762 Sentence denotes In herds with enzootic infection, high piglet mortality may occur in the offspring of recently introduced naive sows, and diarrhea with lower mortality may occur in piglets greater than ∼2-3 weeks of age as milk intake and concomitant lactogenic immunity wane.
T33569 774763-774829 Sentence denotes Infected pigs in the late suckling or weanling age group may runt.
T9932 774830-774968 Sentence denotes TGE is more prevalent in the winter, perhaps because the virus is not resistant to summer environmental conditions of warmth and sunlight.
T85392 774969-775052 Sentence denotes Baby pigs that are chilled also seem less able to survive the effects of infection.
T10342 775053-775225 Sentence denotes The severity of disease in baby pigs is partly related to their inability to withstand dehydration because of their small size, and to their susceptibility to hypoglycemia.
T69666 775226-775257 Sentence denotes Probably as Bovine coronavirus.
T81385 775258-775438 Sentence denotes In neonatal calves, Bovine coronavirus (BCoV) infection is a common cause of diarrhea, either alone or in combination with other agents, particularly Rotavirus and Cryptosporidium.
T80468 775439-775500 Sentence denotes The disease may be severe in combination with BVDV infection.
T50891 775501-775618 Sentence denotes BCoV is capable of infecting absorptive epithelium in the full length of the small intestine, and in the large bowel.
T82347 775619-775723 Sentence denotes Viral antigen is also found in macrophages in the lamina propria of villi and in mesenteric lymph nodes.
T75554 775724-775832 Sentence denotes In field infections, microscopic lesions are found most consistently in the lower small intestine and colon.
T59264 775833-775956 Sentence denotes Calves with BCoV infection usually develop mild depression, but continue to drink milk despite developing profuse diarrhea.
T65062 775957-776142 Sentence denotes With progressive dehydration, acidosis, and hyperkalemia, the animals become weak and lethargic; death can ensue as a result of hypovolemia, hypoglycemia, and potassium cardiotoxicosis.
T27444 776143-776186 Sentence denotes Diarrhea in survivors resolves in 5-6 days.
T66299 776187-776288 Sentence denotes At autopsy, affected animals have the nonspecific lesions of undifferentiated neonatal calf diarrhea.
T38661 776289-776383 Sentence denotes Rarely, mild fibrinonecrotic typhlocolitis is recognized in calves with coronaviral infection.
T98345 776384-776440 Sentence denotes Mesenteric lymph nodes may be somewhat enlarged and wet.
T78814 776441-776696 Sentence denotes Virus replication is cytocidal and initially occurs throughout the length of the villi in all levels of the small intestine, eventually spreading throughout the large intestine up to the end of the large colon and rectum, causing a malabsorptive diarrhea.
T48271 776697-776768 Sentence denotes Large concentration of BCoV can be typically found in the spiral colon.
T69456 776769-776847 Sentence denotes Infected epithelial cells die, slough off, and are replaced by immature cells.
T45047 776848-777034 Sentence denotes The microscopic lesions of coronaviral infection in calves vary with the severity and duration of the infection; villus atrophy in combination with mild colitis is typical (Fig. 1-114) .
T37140 777035-777139 Sentence denotes In the calf small intestine, villus atrophy is rarely as severe as that seen in neonatal swine with TGE.
T74692 777140-777280 Sentence denotes Rather, villi are moderately shortened, or have subtotal atrophy with stumpy, club-shaped, or pointed tips, and villus fusion may be common.
T87271 777281-777396 Sentence denotes In the early phase of the clinical disease, villi are often pointed and covered by cuboidal to squamous epithelium.
T16296 777397-777455 Sentence denotes Exfoliation of epithelium and microerosion may be evident.
T6212 777456-777582 Sentence denotes Later, the epithelium is cuboidal to low columnar, basophilic, with irregular nuclear polarity and an indistinct brush border.
T66587 777583-777618 Sentence denotes Cryptal epithelium is hyperplastic.
T68478 777619-777770 Sentence denotes The lamina propria may contain a moderate infiltrate of mainly mononuclear inflammatory cells, some of which may have pyknotic or karyorrhectic nuclei.
T11495 777771-777961 Sentence denotes In the early stages of infection, necrosis of cells in mesenteric lymph nodes is hyperplastic epithelium, and the surface epithelium will be restored to a cuboidal or low columnar cell type.
T80969 777962-778007 Sentence denotes Goblet cells are usually relatively uncommon.
T2618 778008-778158 Sentence denotes Colonic lesions may be recognizable in tissues from animals submitted dead, even though postmortem change has obscured changes in the small intestine.
T14858 778159-778276 Sentence denotes Live calves in the early stages of clinical disease are the best subjects for confirmation of an etiologic diagnosis.
T53488 778277-778383 Sentence denotes In calves becoming ill <7 days of age, enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli is the main alternative diagnosis.
T54486 778384-778482 Sentence denotes Rotavirus, Cryptosporidium, and combined infections must be considered in calves 5-15 days of age.
T64289 778483-778583 Sentence denotes Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, salmonellosis, and bovine viral diarrhea must also be considered.
T98481 778584-778823 Sentence denotes Both salmonellosis and bovine viral diarrhea may be associated with depletion of Peyer's patches and colitis that can be confused with that of coronaviral infection; neither is common in the strictly neonatal age group (<7-14 days of age).
T97005 778824-778905 Sentence denotes Respiratory tract infection also occurs in calves and feeders infected with BCoV.
T14088 778906-779083 Sentence denotes The virus replicates in the epithelium of the nasal turbinates and tracheobronchial tree, and respiratory infection may precede, be concurrent with, or follow enteric infection.
T56245 779084-779159 Sentence denotes Calf pneumonia caused by BRCoV can be observed in calves 6-9 months of age.
T74383 779160-779269 Sentence denotes Affected animals may develop fever, serous to mucopurulent nasal discharge, coughing, tachypnea, and dyspnea.
T83002 779270-779459 Sentence denotes Respiratory infections may play a role in maintaining the virus within a herd, and significant, but poorly characterized, pneumonia has been reported in some experimentally infected calves.
T47838 779460-779645 Sentence denotes In addition, coronaviral infection may predispose to subsequent respiratory bacterial infections or contribute to more severe respiratory disease as part of the shipping fever syndrome.
T32858 779646-779746 Sentence denotes Virus may be identified in tissue or nasal secretions by immunofluorescence or immunohistochemistry.
T88245 779747-779867 Sentence denotes Winter dysentery is a syndrome in adult cattle that has been associated with BCoV in a number of areas around the world.
T27070 779868-779978 Sentence denotes Animals develop blood-tinged diarrhea, nasolacrimal discharge or cough, anorexia, and drop in milk production.
T79470 779979-780012 Sentence denotes Mortality is rare, but may occur.
T76187 780013-780135 Sentence denotes The disease is characterized by a high morbidity rate ranging from 50-100%, but usually low mortality rate, typically <2%.
T90542 780136-780276 Sentence denotes Winter dysentery outbreaks are predominantly seen in young postpartum dairy cows, which then experience a drop of 25-95% in milk production.
T99049 780277-780343 Sentence denotes Occasional cases are also observed in adult dairy and beef cattle.
T3920 780344-780451 Sentence denotes Despite its name, cases of winter dysentery can be observed, albeit infrequently, during the warmer season.
T89102 780452-780564 Sentence denotes The pathophysiologic characteristics of winter dysentery are mostly attributed to lesions of the colonic mucosa.
T57919 780565-780759 Sentence denotes Grossly, the colon of affected animals has linear congestion and hemorrhage along the crests of mucosal folds and there may be a large amount of blood mixed with colonic contents (Fig. 1-115) .
T93796 780760-780964 Sentence denotes The histologic lesions are similar to those seen in calves with classical BCoV diarrhea, although they are mostly restricted to the colon with only occasional lesions seen in the terminal small intestine.
T70123 780965-781048 Sentence denotes Large amount of BCoV can be detected in colonic epithelium by immunohistochemistry.
T39281 781049-781205 Sentence denotes Coronaviruses are commonly demonstrated in the feces of cattle with winter dysentery; seroconversions occur, and seroprevalence increases in affected herds.
T13727 781206-781341 Sentence denotes Coronavirus antigen is found in the colonic glands of affected animals, in which there is necrosis and exfoliation of epithelial cells.
T67962 781342-781563 Sentence denotes Certain management practices, notably housing animals in stanchions and use of equipment that handles both manure and feed, have been associated with the development of winter dysentery. associated with viral replication.
T41384 781564-781698 Sentence denotes Peyer's patches in animals examined after 4-5 days of clinical illness often appear involuted, and are dominated by histiocytic cells.
T43282 781699-781799 Sentence denotes Whether this is the result of viral activity or the effect of endogenous glucocorticoids is unclear.
T56783 781800-781939 Sentence denotes In the colon during the early phase of infection, surface epithelium may be exfoliating, flattened, and squamous or eroded in patchy areas.
T94467 781940-782055 Sentence denotes Some colonic glands may be dilated, lined by flattened epithelium and contain exfoliated cells and necrotic debris.
T6254 782056-782231 Sentence denotes A moderate mixed inflammatory reaction is present in the lamina propria, and neutrophils may be in damaged glands or effusing into the lumen through superficial microerosions.
T8015 782232-782340 Sentence denotes Later in infection, some dilated debris-filled colonic glands will remain, but other glands will be lined by
T43119 782342-782458 Sentence denotes Villus atrophy in the jejunum was inconsistent, but there was necrotic debris in many glands in the cecum and colon.
T17309 782459-782511 Sentence denotes Virusinfected cells were exfoliating into the lumen.
T7433 782512-782752 Sentence denotes In the recently observed infections with pantropic coronavirus, gross lesions were mostly confined to the small intestine and included pink to red intestinal mucosa that occasionally had a slightly dry and rough surface with rare petechiae.
T37898 782753-782824 Sentence denotes Regional mesenteric lymph nodes and spleen were enlarged and congested.
T75152 782825-782951 Sentence denotes Microscopic lesions included villus atrophy and fusion together with dilated crypts containing degenerated and necrotic cells.
T50387 782953-783053 Sentence denotes Our understanding of the enteric implications of coronaviral infections of cats is still incomplete.
T68408 783054-783204 Sentence denotes It appears that Feline enteric coronavirus (FECV) can establish persistent infection in the intestine, which in rare cases may be clinically apparent.
T2723 783205-783230 Sentence denotes Infection is very common.
T9770 783231-783343 Sentence denotes When it occurs, diarrhea is usually mild or moderate, perhaps with some blood, and kittens are most susceptible.
T51420 783344-783437 Sentence denotes Viral antigen is in cells on the tips of villi, and mild villus atrophy has been illustrated.
T51259 783438-783576 Sentence denotes Approximately 13% of all infected cats are not able to clear the virus, which persists for long periods of time in the colonic epithelium.
T4629 783577-783798 Sentence denotes During replication, mutations may occur in the viral genome giving rise to feline infectious peritonitis virus, which causes the highly lethal feline infectious peritonitis, a disease of far greater clinical significance.
T98465 783799-783984 Sentence denotes Coronaviruses have been recovered from the feces of sheep with transient diarrhea, and they have been associated with severe villus atrophy in several spontaneous outbreaks of diarrhea.
T41139 783985-784072 Sentence denotes No experimental confirmation of the pathogenicity of coronavirus in sheep is available.
T98434 784073-784223 Sentence denotes Equine coronavirus (EqCoV) is a betacoronavirus that has been associated with enteric and neurologic disease in horses in the United States and Japan.
T75069 784224-784334 Sentence denotes Necrotizing enteritis associated with EqCoV has been diagnosed in a horse in California and a donkey in Idaho.
T77588 784335-784467 Sentence denotes EqCoV infection of adult horses can occur in outbreaks, but is usually limited to individual cases of anorexia, lethargy, and fever.
T87405 784468-784624 Sentence denotes Epizootic catarrhal enteritis of ferrets (ECE) is a highly contagious, diarrheal disease with close to 100% morbidity, but low overall mortality rate (<5%).
T4129 784625-784695 Sentence denotes ECE is produced by Ferret enteric coronavirus, genus Alphacoronavirus.
T92230 784696-784834 Sentence denotes The disease is clinically characterized by lethargy, hyporexia or anorexia, vomiting, diarrhea with a high mucus content, and dehydration.
T13850 784835-784955 Sentence denotes Feces of chronically affected animals frequently contain gritty material that has been described as resembling birdseed.
T14488 784956-785047 Sentence denotes Grossly, the affected small intestinal mucosa is hyperemic and the intestinal wall is thin.
T48026 785048-785258 Sentence denotes Microscopically, ECE is characterized by diffuse lymphocytic enteritis, with villus atrophy, fusion, and blunting; vacuolar degeneration and necrosis of the apical epithelium; or a combination of these lesions.
T47952 785259-785272 Sentence denotes Large numbers
T94154 785273-785292 Sentence denotes Canine coronavirus.
T66168 785293-785361 Sentence denotes Canine coronavirus (CCoV) is widely prevalent in the dog population.
T13139 785362-785542 Sentence denotes Although dogs of all ages appear to be susceptible to infection by CCoV, the condition is probably most important as an uncommon, transient, generally nonfatal diarrhea in puppies.
T9603 785543-785623 Sentence denotes Fatal infections have been reported in pups previously infected with parvovirus.
T12069 785624-785770 Sentence denotes Infection with a pantropic canine coronavirus characterized by deadly acute systemic disease was diagnosed recently in several European countries.
T16439 785771-785831 Sentence denotes This was concurrent in most cases with Canine parvovirus 2c.
T1799 785832-786047 Sentence denotes Viral replication occurs in the enterocytes of the small intestine, and in experimental infections in neonatal puppies, the lesion resembles the villus atrophy associated with coronaviral infection in other species.
T39195 786048-786130 Sentence denotes Diarrhea begins as early as 1 day after inoculation and in most animals by 4 days.
T2787 786131-786215 Sentence denotes Onset of signs coincides with the development of moderate villus atrophy and fusion.
T45768 786216-786314 Sentence denotes Enterocytes on villi become cuboidal, contain lipid vacuoles, and have an indistinct brush border.
T37086 786315-786367 Sentence denotes Lesions are most consistent and severe in the ileum.
T81610 786368-786452 Sentence denotes Resolution of villus atrophy within 7-10 days is associated with remission of signs.
T27335 786453-786670 Sentence denotes Colonic infection by CCoV was not demonstrated by immunofluorescence in experimental animals, although mild colonic lesions were described, including loss of sulfomucins from goblet cells and some epithelial shedding.
T27238 786671-786789 Sentence denotes However, in a report of lesions caused by spontaneous CCoV infection, colonic infection and lesions were demonstrated.
T69594 786790-786925 Sentence denotes There was watery content in the lumen of the small and large intestine, and fibrin mixed with blood was evident in the cecum and colon.
T49596 786926-786977 Sentence denotes Mesenteric lymph nodes were enlarged and edematous.
T16255 786979-787036 Sentence denotes Further reading Pratelli A, et viral antigen are present.
T96003 787037-787144 Sentence denotes Infected enterocytes lose cytoplasmic electron density, and mitochondria swell, as does the cell generally.
T98078 787145-787307 Sentence denotes Swollen rarified cells and syncytia may occur in the enterocytes at the villus tips, but cells are fragile and shed readily, particularly if autolysis intervenes.
T68002 787308-787421 Sentence denotes Syncytial cell formation has been recognized in porcine, bovine, and laboratory animal infections with rotavirus.
T27212 787422-787516 Sentence denotes Microvilli become irregular and somewhat stunted, and there may be some blebbing of membranes.
T74943 787517-787652 Sentence denotes Infected cells exfoliate into the intestinal lumen, and virus is released by lysis of damaged epithelium prior to or after exfoliation.
T45970 787653-787719 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis of diarrhea with rotavirus involves 3 mechanisms.
T40171 787720-787788 Sentence denotes First, malabsorption occurs secondary to destruction of enterocytes.
T39986 787789-787931 Sentence denotes Second, a vasoactive agent is released from infected epithelial cells and causes villus ischemia and activation of the enteric nervous system.
T84825 787932-788045 Sentence denotes Third, rotaviruses are capable of producing a nonstructural protein, NSP4, which acts as a secretory enterotoxin.
T21083 788046-788104 Sentence denotes This is the first viral pathogen known to produce a toxin.
T43849 788105-788205 Sentence denotes Exfoliation of infected epithelium over a relatively short period of time results in villus atrophy.
T39537 788206-788379 Sentence denotes The mucosal surface is covered by cuboidal, poorly differentiated epithelium that has an ill-defined microvillus border and that may contain lipid droplets in the cytoplasm.
T55630 788380-788508 Sentence denotes Diarrhea is probably mediated by electrolyte and nutrient malabsorption, perhaps exacerbated by the effect of cryptal secretion.
T35808 788509-788666 Sentence denotes It begins about the time of early viral cytopathology 20-24 hours after infection, and may persist for a variable period, from a few hours to a week or more.
T73040 788667-788852 Sentence denotes Regeneration of the mucosa by epithelium emerging from crypts, and differentiating on reformed villi, is associated with remission of signs in animals surviving the effects of diarrhea.
T20129 788853-788997 Sentence denotes Rotaviruses are widespread, if not ubiquitous, among populations of most species, and they are relatively resistant to the external environment.
T70560 788998-789110 Sentence denotes Protection against infection in neonates is apparently largely conferred by the presence of lactogenic immunity.
T11061 789111-789182 Sentence denotes Many individuals in a population probably undergo inapparent infection.
T25228 789183-789374 Sentence denotes Disease is seen in the various species when viral contamination of the environment is heavy, perhaps as a result of intensive husbandry practices, and lactogenic immunity is waning or absent.
T40246 789375-789599 Sentence denotes Although rotaviral infection is usually associated with younger age groups, and viral receptors on cells diminish with age in some species, naïve older animals may become infected, sometimes with the development of diarrhea.
T52649 789600-789627 Sentence denotes Bovine rotaviral infection.
T77768 789628-789830 Sentence denotes Rotaviral infection is mainly implicated in diarrhea of neonatal beef and dairy calves, both suckled and artificially reared, although there are reports of its association with diarrhea in adult cattle.
T57254 789831-789944 Sentence denotes Combinations of agents, including Rotavirus, are frequently involved in outbreaks of diarrhea in neonatal calves.
T99337 789945-790175 Sentence denotes Diarrhea may be produced in calves by rotaviral infection alone, but the condition is usually considered to be relatively mild or transient in comparison with that induced by enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli or Bovine coronavirus.
T23480 790176-790349 Sentence denotes Rotavirus may be implicated in animals developing signs at any time over the period up to ∼2-3 weeks of age, and it is more commonly encountered in animals >4-5 days of age.
T24343 790350-790441 Sentence denotes Rotaviral diarrhea is most severe in calves that have slower enterocyte regeneration times.
T96640 790442-790533 Sentence denotes Rotavirus has a prepatent period of 1-3 days, and diarrhea lasts 2-5 days if uncomplicated.
T63565 790534-790799 Sentence denotes The gross lesions of rotaviral infection are the nonspecific findings of undifferentiated neonatal diarrhea in calves, of coronavirus-infected epithelial cells can be detected by immunohistochemistry using a monoclonal antibody against group 1c coronavirus antigen.
T79382 790800-790945 Sentence denotes Coronavirus-like particles can be seen in cytoplasmic vacuoles of apical enterocytes and at the cell surface by transmission electron microscopy.
T67707 790946-791064 Sentence denotes Members of the genus Rotavirus, in the family Reoviridae, infect the gastrointestinal tract of most mammals and birds.
T35592 791065-791172 Sentence denotes Rotaviruses are classified according to antigenic properties with group, subgroup, and serotype categories.
T76428 791173-791317 Sentence denotes Segment 6 of the Rotavirus genome codes for the VP6 intermediate capsid protein, which is used to classify the virus into seven serogroups, A-G.
T65267 791318-791474 Sentence denotes Group A rotaviruses (RV-A) are the most diverse and common, and infect all species of domestic animals, as well as humans, laboratory animals, and wildlife.
T83301 791475-791626 Sentence denotes RV-A can be subdivided into G and P serotypes based on VP7 and VP4 external capsid proteins, respectively; there are 14 G serotypes and 20 P serotypes.
T59192 791627-791735 Sentence denotes The serotypes isolated most commonly from piglets with diarrhea are P[7],G5, P[6],G4, P[7],G3, and P[7],G11.
T84855 791736-791821 Sentence denotes Individual rotavirus serotypes have a surprisingly wide range of host susceptibility.
T56767 791822-791896 Sentence denotes Non−group A rotaviruses infect pigs and ruminants, among domestic animals.
T19590 791897-792023 Sentence denotes The ability to infect cells, and the serotype specificity of rotaviruses, are conferred by elements of the outer capsid layer.
T25282 792024-792117 Sentence denotes The viruses are probably generally host-specific, with little significant zoonotic potential.
T69962 792118-792210 Sentence denotes However, if epidemiologic circumstances are favorable, cross-species transmission may occur.
T45286 792211-792374 Sentence denotes Rotaviruses infect the absorptive enterocytes and occasionally goblet cells on the tips and sides of the distal half or two thirds of villi in the small intestine.
T19108 792375-792492 Sentence denotes Rotaviruses infect cells on the apical half (ruminants) or the entire villus (pigs), mainly in the jejunum and ileum.
T22320 792493-792579 Sentence denotes Virus production and the pathogenesis of infection are similar in all species studied.
T12758 792580-792708 Sentence denotes Rotaviruses adhere to cell receptors (e.g., integrins, sialic acid), and inner capsid components are internalized into the cell.
T26287 792709-792938 Sentence denotes Granular "viroplasm" containing incomplete virions is seen in the apical cytoplasm of infected cells, and virions acquire their complete capsid after budding into dilated cisternae of endoplasmic reticulum, where they accumulate.
T39006 792939-793046 Sentence denotes Elongate tubular structures are found in the nuclei and rough endoplasmic reticulum of some infected cells.
T56107 793047-793307 Sentence denotes Virus-infected cells are most prevalent 18-24 hours after experimental infection, and they tend to diminish in number rapidly, so that by 3-4 days after infection few cells containing alone or in combination with enterotoxigenic E. coli and/or Cryptosporidium.
T10154 793308-793490 Sentence denotes In older, weaned lambs, an outbreak of diarrhea with 17% mortality was reported, produced by a novel ovine rotavirus group A G8 P strain and no other intestinal pathogens associated.
T64457 793491-793655 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis and lesions of Rotavirus infection in lambs are like those caused in other species, with the exception that viral infection of the colon may occur.
T39546 793656-793773 Sentence denotes In foals <3-4 months of age, Rotavirus infection is considered a major cause of diarrhea, although mortality is rare.
T24175 793774-793830 Sentence denotes Outbreaks have been reported in many areas of the world.
T77309 793831-794065 Sentence denotes Equine rotaviruses are ubiquitous in horse populations and dual infections with more than one strain of rotavirus, including viruses of different G types, have been reported, but the clinical significance of this is poorly understood.
T54156 794066-794198 Sentence denotes Co-infections with other pathogens, including Salmonella spp., Cryptosporidium spp., and equine coronavirus have also been observed.
T3686 794199-794382 Sentence denotes The natural and experimental disease resembles that seen in other species, with significant viral infection limited to enterocytes in the small intestine, where villus atrophy occurs.
T73788 794383-794504 Sentence denotes In young puppies, especially those <1-2 weeks of age, diarrhea, occasionally fatal, may be caused by Rotavirus infection.
T64355 794505-794697 Sentence denotes In experimentally infected pups, green fluid content filled the lower small bowel and colon, and moderate villus atrophy was induced by exfoliation of epithelium from the distal half of villi.
T94431 794698-794838 Sentence denotes Rotavirus has also been associated with diarrhea in kittens, although rotavirus also can be isolated from asymptomatically infected kittens.
T22165 794839-795023 Sentence denotes Rotavirus infection should be sought in cases of diarrhea in young animals of any species and it should be particularly suspected in animals with villus atrophy in the small intestine.
T18650 795024-795111 Sentence denotes Rotavirus is part of the syndrome of undifferentiated neonatal diarrhea in any species.
T45584 795112-795147 Sentence denotes Bailey KE, et described previously.
T34919 795148-795252 Sentence denotes Microscopic lesions in the small intestine cannot be differentiated from those of coronaviral infection.
T13946 795253-795373 Sentence denotes They may vary somewhat depending on the severity of the initial viral damage and the stage of evolution of the sequelae.
T93343 795374-795488 Sentence denotes Blunt club-shaped villi, mild or moderate villus atrophy, and perhaps villus fusion may be present ( Fig. 1-116 ).
T5360 795489-795601 Sentence denotes Villi are covered by low columnar, cuboidal, or flattened surface epithelium with a poorly defined brush border.
T65420 795602-795742 Sentence denotes There is usually a moderate proprial infiltrate of mononuclear cells and eosinophils or neutrophils, and hypertrophic crypts may be evident.
T36465 795743-795976 Sentence denotes The distribution of lesions may vary between animals and perhaps with time after infection within an individual animal because the onset of maximal viral damage may not occur synchronously throughout the full length of the intestine.
T23060 795977-796107 Sentence denotes Lesions and viral antigen always should be sought in the distal small intestine, and preferably at several sites along its length.
T15617 796108-796203 Sentence denotes Rotavirus does not cause gross or microscopic lesions in the colon, in contrast to coronavirus.
T96108 796204-796230 Sentence denotes Swine rotaviral infection.
T37731 796231-796346 Sentence denotes Rotavirus infection is widespread and enzootic in most swine herds, and subclinical infection of piglets is common.
T41016 796347-796505 Sentence denotes It assumes particular importance as a cause of diarrhea in pigs with reduced lactogenic immunity, either as a result of early weaning or after normal weaning.
T24554 796506-796657 Sentence denotes High environmental levels of virus may result in disease in piglets suckling the sow, but in these circumstances the signs are usually relatively mild.
T78505 796658-796755 Sentence denotes Rotavirus may be a cause of "3-week," "white," or postweaning scours in piglets 2-8 weeks of age.
T62301 796756-796886 Sentence denotes The signs may resemble those of transmissible gastroenteritis (TGE), although Rotavirus infection is considered to be less severe.
T67310 796887-796992 Sentence denotes Vomition is less commonly encountered than with TGE, but depression, diarrhea, and dehydration are usual.
T46611 796993-797041 Sentence denotes The character of the feces varies with the diet.
T82647 797042-797097 Sentence denotes Steatorrhea occurs in white scours of suckling piglets.
T90906 797098-797255 Sentence denotes Rotavirus infection in swine is frequently associated with other causes of diarrhea, including E. coli, coccidiosis, adenoviral infection, and Strongyloides.
T38629 797256-797375 Sentence denotes The gross and microscopic lesions and pathogenesis of rotavirus infection in pigs resemble those of TGE ( Fig. 1-117) .
T19625 797376-797438 Sentence denotes As in TGE, severity of lesions seems inversely related to age.
T95092 797439-797476 Sentence denotes Rotaviral infection in other species.
T10463 797477-797624 Sentence denotes Neonatal lambs have proved a useful model for the demonstration of the importance of lactogenic immunity in preventing disease caused by Rotavirus.
T41860 797625-797696 Sentence denotes Rotavirus may cause diarrhea in neonatal lambs at the nuclear membrane.
T23167 797697-797814 Sentence denotes Inclusions are most prevalent late in the incubation period, before extensive exfoliation or lysis of infected cells.
T23981 797815-797944 Sentence denotes Hence they are not commonly encountered in animals submitted for autopsy after a period of clinical illness culminating in death.
T49378 797945-798108 Sentence denotes Large nucleoli, seen in proliferative cells encountered in the intestine of parvovirus-infected animals, should not be confused with intranuclear viral inclusions.
T96373 798109-798279 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis of FPV and of CPV-2 infection is sufficiently similar for them to be considered together here, followed by separate discussions of the specific diseases.
T28529 798280-798372 Sentence denotes Oronasal exposure results in uptake of virus by epithelium over tonsils and Peyer's patches.
T57222 798373-798514 Sentence denotes Infection of draining lymphoid tissue is indicated by isolation of virus from mesenteric lymph nodes 1-2 days after experimental inoculation.
T36660 798515-798764 Sentence denotes Release of virus into lymph, and dissemination of infected lymphoblasts from these sites, may result in infection of other central and peripheral lymphoid tissues, including thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and Peyer's patches, 3-4 days after infection.
T13295 798765-798844 Sentence denotes Lymphocytolysis in these tissues releases virus, reinforcing cell-free viremia.
T68025 798845-798943 Sentence denotes Viremia is terminated when neutralizing antibody appears in circulation ∼5-7 days after infection.
T71981 798944-798987 Sentence denotes Moderate pyrexia occurs at about this time.
T91122 798988-799121 Sentence denotes Cell invasion is mediated via capsid-mediated attachment to one or more receptors on cell membranes and receptormediated endocytosis.
T15248 799122-799266 Sentence denotes In the dog, capsid proteins bind to transferrin receptors, whereas in the cat capsid proteins bind to neuraminic acid and transferrin receptors.
T65881 799267-799352 Sentence denotes These receptors confer cell and animal-species specificity to each parvovirus strain.
T21431 799353-799480 Sentence denotes After the replication cycle is completed, parvovirus particles are released from infected crypt enterocytes, killing the cells.
T4258 799481-799630 Sentence denotes Infection of the gastrointestinal epithelium is a secondary event, following dissemination of virus by circulating lymphocytes and cell-free viremia.
T52773 799631-799823 Sentence denotes Peyer's patches are consistently infected at all levels of the intestine, and epithelium in crypts of Lieberkühn over or adjacent to Peyer's patches usually becomes infected a day or so later.
T89566 799824-799967 Sentence denotes Infection of gastrointestinal epithelium at other sites in the gut is less consistent, but is usually more severe in the lower small intestine.
T81449 799968-800075 Sentence denotes It may be the result of virus free in circulation, or carried by infected lymphocytes homing to the mucosa.
T66418 800076-800167 Sentence denotes Maximal infection of cryptal epithelium occurs during the period ∼5-9 days after infection.
T21785 800168-800298 Sentence denotes The occurrence and severity of enteric signs are determined by the degree and extent of damage to epithelium in intestinal crypts.
T25508 800299-800347 Sentence denotes This seems to be a function of two main factors.
T92718 800348-800519 Sentence denotes The first is the availability of virus, which is influenced by the rate of proliferation of lymphocytes, and therefore their susceptibility to virus replication and lysis.
T15320 800520-800665 Sentence denotes The second factor influencing the degree of epithelial damage is the rate of proliferation in the progenitor compartment in crypts of Lieberkühn.
T62939 800666-800769 Sentence denotes If many cells are entering mitosis, large numbers will support virus replication and subsequently lyse.
T11840 800770-800937 Sentence denotes Destruction of cells in the crypts of Lieberkühn, if severe enough, ultimately results in focal or widespread villus atrophy and perhaps mucosal erosion or ulceration.
T36862 800938-801146 Sentence denotes The recognition, evolution, and sequelae of radiomimetic insult to the intestine, such as that caused by parvovirus, are described elsewhere (see previous section on Epithelial renewal in health and disease).
T14286 801147-801371 Sentence denotes Regeneration of cryptal epithelium and partial or complete restoration of mucosal architecture will occur, if undamaged stem cells persist in most affected crypts, and the animal survives the acute phase of clinical illness.
T29628 801372-801412 Sentence denotes In some survivors, focal Kang BK, et al.
T81853 801414-801558 Sentence denotes The Parvoviridae are small nonenveloped viral particles ∼18-26 nm in diameter, with icosahedral symmetry and a short single-stranded DNA genome.
T93120 801559-801636 Sentence denotes They replicate and produce inclusion bodies in the nucleus of infected cells.
T423 801637-801724 Sentence denotes Members of the genus Parvovirus infect many species of laboratory and domestic animals.
T25046 801725-801957 Sentence denotes Among syndromes associated with parvovirus infection are: disease in cats, dogs, and mink (distinct from Aleutian mink disease virus) dominated clinically by enteritis; diarrhea in neonatal calves; and reproductive wastage in swine.
T83104 801958-802168 Sentence denotes Feline panleukopenia virus (FPV), Mink enteritis virus (MEV), and Canine parvovirus 2 (CPV-2) are considered host range variants or strains of the species Feline panleukopenia virus within the genus Parvovirus.
T66414 802169-802332 Sentence denotes Based on the nucleotide sequence in the gene for capsid proteins, VP1/VP2, FPV, and MEV are very closely related to each other, and somewhat less related to CPV-2.
T39525 802333-802513 Sentence denotes These viruses are nonetheless biologically distinct, varying in their hemagglutination characteristics, in vitro host cell ranges, and virulence in experimentally inoculated hosts.
T92041 802514-802577 Sentence denotes CPV has been shown to evolve very rapidly in comparison to FPV.
T61025 802578-802759 Sentence denotes Antigenic differences can be detected by monoclonal antibodies and there are differences in host specificity conferred by variations in only very small segments of the viral genome.
T47502 802760-802795 Sentence denotes However, host range is overlapping.
T35923 802796-803033 Sentence denotes Although the originally identified cause of canine parvoviral enteritis (CPV-2) was unable to infect cats, two new antigenic types have evolved from CPV-2, namely, CPV-2a and CPV-2b, which are able to replicate and cause disease in cats.
T40951 803034-803150 Sentence denotes Another variant, CPV-2c, has a more diverse carnivore host range, including skunks, raccoons, foxes, dogs, and cats.
T3689 803151-803303 Sentence denotes Although it is controversial whether CPV-2c is more virulent than other types, CPV-2c is shed at high concentration in feces and it is extremely stable.
T15265 803304-803416 Sentence denotes The host ranges of FPV and CPV are determined by receptor binding, particularly to the transferrin receptor TfR.
T9760 803417-803560 Sentence denotes Canine parvovirus 2 is distinct from canine minute virus (CMV, or canine parvovirus 1) that also has enteric lesions associated with infection.
T29153 803561-803753 Sentence denotes Although autonomous parvoviruses may infect cells at any phase of the cell cycle, replication is dependent on cellular mechanisms only functional during nucleoprotein synthesis before mitosis.
T57459 803754-803845 Sentence denotes Hence the effects of parvoviral infection are greatest in tissues with a high mitotic rate.
T43148 803846-803931 Sentence denotes These may include a variety of tissues during organogenesis in the fetus and neonate.
T70247 803932-804067 Sentence denotes In older animals, the proliferative elements of the enteric epithelium, hematopoietic and lymphoid tissue are particularly susceptible.
T49850 804068-804235 Sentence denotes At the time of virus assembly, large basophilic or amphophilic Feulgen-positive nuclear inclusions may be found in infected cells, especially in Bouin's fixed tissues.
T63602 804236-804306 Sentence denotes Parvovirus is demonstrated in these inclusions by electron microscopy.
T11883 804307-804367 Sentence denotes The chromatin in inclusion-bearing nuclei is usually clumped
T87541 804368-804461 Sentence denotes When it occurs, signs usually begin during the late viremic phase, ∼5-7 days after infection.
T95919 804462-804516 Sentence denotes Severe enteric damage is the major cause of mortality.
T93720 804517-804654 Sentence denotes Shedding of infective virus in feces begins ∼3-5 days after infection, when Peyer's patches and cryptal epithelium first become infected.
T76365 804655-804771 Sentence denotes Virus shedding persists until coproantibody appears to neutralize virus entering the gut, ∼6-9 days after infection.
T66272 804772-804967 Sentence denotes Virus-infected cells may still be detected in crypts and Peyer's patches at this time, and virus complexed with antibody may be found in feces or intestinal content by direct electron microscopy.
T23872 804968-805174 Sentence denotes However, attempts to demonstrate virus in tissues or feces after several days of clinical disease, or at death, are often thwarted by the fact that virus is neutralized by antibody present in tissue fluids.
T34516 805175-805366 Sentence denotes Persistent or sporadic shedding of virus by recovered animals may be the result of virus replication in cells entering mitosis days or weeks after they were infected during the viremic phase.
T47719 805367-805757 Sentence denotes Infection of the fetus during late prenatal life by FPV causes anomalies of the central nervous system, mainly hypoplasia of the cerebellum; anomalies of the central nervous system have not been reported in puppies with CPV-2, although there is mounting evidence from polymerase chain reaction studies that central nervous system lesions in puppies can be induced by fetal CPV-2 infections.
T49550 805758-805924 Sentence denotes Infection of proliferating cardiac myocytes in young puppies with CPV-2 results in nonsuppurative myocarditis and sequelae of acute or chronic heart failure (see Vol.
T71581 805925-806035 Sentence denotes 3, Cardiovascular system), but this is rarely seen in populations with a high prevalence of maternal immunity.
T42060 806036-806166 Sentence denotes A tentative association has been made between infection of kittens with FPV and myocarditis, as well as subsequent cardiomyopathy.
T6874 806167-806272 Sentence denotes infects all members of the Felidae, as well as mink, raccoons, and some other members of the Procyonidae.
T81549 806273-806383 Sentence denotes FPV is ubiquitous in environments frequented by cats, and infection is common, although generally subclinical.
T68190 806384-806593 Sentence denotes The disease panleukopenia (infectious feline enteritis, feline distemper) usually occurs in young animals exposed after decay of passively acquired maternal antibody, but it may occur in naïve cats of any age.
T18599 806594-806762 Sentence denotes Clinical signs of several days' duration, including pyrexia, depression, inappetence, vomition, diarrhea, dehydration, and perhaps anemia may be evident in the history.
T69215 806763-807095 Sentence denotes However, many cases, particularly poorly observed animals or those prone to wander, may be presented as "sudden death." The pathogenesis of panleukopenia has been considered villus atrophy is associated with persistent dilated crypts containing cellular debris, and with local "drop-out" of crypts completely destroyed by infection.
T64576 807096-807323 Sentence denotes In rare animals that have recovered from acute disease, chronic malabsorption and protein-losing enteropathy are associated with persistent areas of ulceration caused by more extensive loss of crypts and collapse of the mucosa.
T16693 807324-807516 Sentence denotes The low rate of replication of intestinal epithelium in germ-free cats explains failure to produce significant intestinal lesions and clinical panleukopenia in experimentally infected animals.
T39770 807517-807728 Sentence denotes In spontaneous cases, the lower prevalence of parvoviral lesions in the colon and stomach, in comparison with the small intestine, reflects the relatively lower rate of epithelial proliferation in those tissues.
T46700 807729-807918 Sentence denotes The consistency of epithelial lesions in the mucosa over Peyer's patches probably results from high local concentrations of virus derived from infected lymphocytes in the dome and follicle.
T48571 807919-808040 Sentence denotes This may be coupled with local stimulation of epithelial turnover by cytokines released by T lymphocytes in the vicinity.
T94763 808041-808342 Sentence denotes Variations in the rate of epithelial proliferation related to age, starvation, and refeeding, or concomitant parasitic, bacterial, or viral infections, may also influence the susceptibility of crypt epithelium to infection, and therefore affect the extent and severity of intestinal lesions and signs.
T6030 808343-808462 Sentence denotes Diarrhea in parvoviral infections is mainly the result of reduced functional absorptive surface in the small intestine.
T42510 808463-808590 Sentence denotes Effusion of tissue fluids and blood from a mucosa at least focally denuded of epithelium probably also contributes to diarrhea.
T37910 808591-808749 Sentence denotes Dehydration and electrolyte depletion are the result of reduced fluid intake, enteric malabsorption, effusion of tissue fluid, and, in some animals, vomition.
T69005 808750-808865 Sentence denotes Hypoproteinemia is common, and anemia may occur because of enteric blood loss; both are exacerbated by rehydration.
T83259 808866-808906 Sentence denotes Anemia reflects hemorrhage into the gut.
T79411 808907-808979 Sentence denotes Proliferating cells in the bone marrow also are infected during viremia.
T12433 808980-809134 Sentence denotes Lysis of many infected cells is reflected in hypocellularity of the marrow caused by depletion of myeloid and erythroid elements, particularly the former.
T77372 809135-809227 Sentence denotes Megakaryocytes also may be lost, but seem the least sensitive cell population in the marrow.
T63571 809228-809312 Sentence denotes The number of neutrophils in circulation drops quickly in severely affected animals.
T50644 809313-809432 Sentence denotes This is due to failure of recruitment from the damaged marrow, and peripheral consumption, especially in the intestine.
T42692 809433-809535 Sentence denotes Transient neutropenia, of ∼2-3 days' duration, occurs consistently in cats, and less commonly in dogs.
T51534 809536-809696 Sentence denotes In surviving animals, regeneration of depleted myeloid elements from remaining stem cells restores the circulating population of granulocytes within a few days.
T55404 809697-809752 Sentence denotes Neutrophilia with left shift may occur during recovery.
T85853 809753-809855 Sentence denotes Lymphopenia, relative or absolute, results from viral lymphocytolysis in all infected lymphoid tissue.
T73858 809856-809932 Sentence denotes Relative lymphopenia is more consistently observed in dogs than neutropenia.
T92493 809933-810044 Sentence denotes When lymphopenia and neutropenia occur together, the combined leukopenia may be profound in both dogs and cats.
T77762 810045-810226 Sentence denotes In dogs surviving the lymphopenic phase, circulating lymphocytes return to normal numbers within 2-5 days, as regenerative hyperplasia occurs in lymphoid tissue throughout the body.
T15049 810227-810317 Sentence denotes Lymphocyte numbers increase rapidly, sometimes producing lymphocytosis in recovering dogs.
T78848 810318-810422 Sentence denotes However, there may be transient immunosuppression in gnotobiotic pups subclinically infected with CPV-2.
T48617 810423-810535 Sentence denotes Transient depression of T-cell response to mitogens occurs in cats a week after experimental infection with FPV.
T4670 810536-810647 Sentence denotes But immunosuppression by these agents appears to be of little clinical significance. severely attenuated cells.
T94940 810648-810824 Sentence denotes The lamina propria between crypts contains numerous neutrophils and eosinophils at this time, and some emigrate into the lumen of crypts, where they join the epithelial debris.
T31382 810825-811000 Sentence denotes Subsequently severely damaged crypts may be lined by extremely flattened cells, and by scattered large bizarre cells with swollen nuclei and prominent nucleoli ( Fig. 1-119) .
T38075 811001-811045 Sentence denotes Enterocytes covering villi are not affected.
T12000 811046-811220 Sentence denotes But as they progress off the villus, they are replaced by a few cuboidal, squamous, or bizarre epithelial cells, so that villi in affected areas undergo progressive collapse.
T11211 811221-811371 Sentence denotes If cryptal damage is severe and widespread, the mucosa becomes thin and eroded or ulcerated, with effusion of tissue fluids, fibrin, and erythrocytes.
T81572 811372-811548 Sentence denotes Inflammatory cells are usually sparse in the gut of such animals, and superficial masses of bacteria may be present, occasionally accompanied by locally invasive fungal hyphae.
T74395 811549-811765 Sentence denotes In less severely affected animals with disease of longer duration, corresponding to ∼8-10 days after infection, scattered focal drop-out of crypts, or focal mucosal collapse and erosion or ulceration, may be evident.
T77394 811766-811878 Sentence denotes In these animals, remaining crypts recovering from milder viral damage show regenerative epithelial hyperplasia.
T85388 811879-811952 Sentence denotes Mucosal lesions are often most marked in the vicinity of Peyer's patches.
T36507 811953-812092 Sentence denotes Lesions in the colon generally resemble those found in the small bowel, although they are often less severe or more patchy in distribution.
T25604 812093-812167 Sentence denotes Colonic lesions are present in about half of fatal cases of panleukopenia.
T61492 812168-812260 Sentence denotes Gastric lesions resulting from damage to mitotic epithelium are relatively uncommon in cats.
T30165 812261-812460 Sentence denotes They are recognized by flattening of basophilic cells lining the narrowed isthmus of gastric fundic glands, with some reduction in number of parietal cells in the upper portion of the neck of glands.
T10792 812461-812679 Sentence denotes Lesions of lymphoid organs during the early phase of the disease consist of lymphocytolysis in follicles and paracortical tissue in lymph nodes, thymic cortex and splenic white pulp, and gut-associated lymphoid tissue.
T38624 812680-812771 Sentence denotes Lymphoid necrosis has been associated with induced apoptosis of virus-infected lymphocytes.
T24739 812772-812921 Sentence denotes Lymphocytes are markedly depleted in affected tissue and large histiocytes are prominent, often containing the fragmented remnants of nuclear debris.
T77696 812922-813042 Sentence denotes Follicular hyalinosis, the presence of amorphous eosinophilic material in the center of depleted follicles, may be seen.
T14014 813043-813069 Sentence denotes Erythrophagocytosis above.
T75198 813070-813141 Sentence denotes Lesions of the central nervous system in kittens are considered in Vol.
T19902 813142-813160 Sentence denotes 1, Nervous system.
T16098 813161-813323 Sentence denotes At autopsy, external evidence of diarrhea may be present, the eyes may be sunken, and the skin is usually inelastic, with a tacky subcutis reflecting dehydration.
T64350 813324-813415 Sentence denotes Rehydrated animals may have edema, hydrothorax, and ascites resulting from hypoproteinemia.
T23742 813416-813491 Sentence denotes There is pallor of mucous membranes and internal tissues in anemic animals.
T48224 813492-813580 Sentence denotes Gross lesions of internal organs most consistently involve the thymus and the intestine.
T70030 813581-813651 Sentence denotes The thymus is markedly involuted and reduced in mass in young kittens.
T93241 813652-813704 Sentence denotes Enteric lesions may be subtle and easily overlooked.
T17749 813705-813815 Sentence denotes Hence it is mandatory that intestine be examined microscopically despite the apparent absence of gross change.
T42508 813816-813911 Sentence denotes The intestinal serosa may appear dry and nonreflective, with an opaque ground-glass appearance.
T2944 813912-814050 Sentence denotes Uncommonly in cats, there may be petechiae or more extensive hemorrhage in the subserosa, muscularis, or submucosa of the intestinal wall.
T47067 814051-814193 Sentence denotes The small bowel may be segmentally dilated and can acquire a hose-like turgidity in places, perhaps because of submucosal edema (Fig. 1-118) .
T43689 814194-814264 Sentence denotes However, turgidity is difficult to assess in the intestine of the cat.
T89146 814265-814369 Sentence denotes The content is usually foul-smelling, scant, and watery, and yellow-gray at all levels of the intestine.
T22698 814370-814471 Sentence denotes The mucosa may be glistening gray or pink, with petechiae, perhaps covered by fine strands of fibrin.
T45056 814472-814561 Sentence denotes Patchy diphtheritic lesions may be present, especially over Peyer's patches in the ileum.
T44105 814562-814634 Sentence denotes Flecks of fibrin and sometimes casts may be in the content in the lumen.
T15150 814635-814677 Sentence denotes Formed feces are not evident in the colon.
T51504 814678-814736 Sentence denotes Lymph nodes may be prominent at the root of the mesentery.
T32622 814737-814916 Sentence denotes Gross lesions elsewhere in the carcass are usually restricted to pulmonary congestion and edema in some animals, and pale gelatinous marrow in normally active hematopoietic sites.
T86834 814917-815049 Sentence denotes Microscopic lesions are consistently found in the intestinal tract in fatal cases, and are usual in lymphoid organs and bone marrow.
T35631 815050-815124 Sentence denotes The intestinal lesions vary with the severity and duration of the disease.
T59033 815125-815253 Sentence denotes Lesions may be patchy, and several levels of gut should be examined, preferably including ileum and, if possible, Peyer's patch.
T29524 815254-815361 Sentence denotes During the late incubation period and early phase of clinical disease, crypt-lining epithelium is infected.
T8368 815362-815481 Sentence denotes Intranuclear inclusions may be found, and damaged epithelium containing inclusions exfoliates into the lumen of crypts.
T70499 815482-815690 Sentence denotes Crypts are dilated and lined by cuboidal or more bitches unable to protect pups with maternal antibody during the first 15 days of life, when replicating myocardial cells are susceptible to parvoviral damage.
T54184 815691-815788 Sentence denotes Myocardial disease in pups caused by CPV-2 is now fairly uncommon, as most bitches have antibody.
T84806 815789-815887 Sentence denotes Enteric and myocardial diseases rarely occur together in the same individual or cohort of animals.
T23720 815888-815984 Sentence denotes Occasional cases of generalized parvoviral infection have been reported in susceptible neonates.
T95725 815985-816101 Sentence denotes Necrosis and inclusion bodies are found in organs such as kidney, liver, lung, heart, gut, and vascular endothelium.
T74041 816102-816171 Sentence denotes They are presumably related to mitotic activity during organogenesis.
T65440 816172-816336 Sentence denotes Dogs with typical disease caused by CPV-2 become anorectic and lethargic and may vomit and develop diarrhea, perhaps in association with transient moderate pyrexia.
T87024 816337-816416 Sentence denotes Relative or absolute lymphopenia or leukopenia of 1-2 days' duration may occur.
T32285 816417-816487 Sentence denotes Diarrhea may be mucoid or liquid, sometimes bloody, and is malodorous.
T54219 816488-816616 Sentence denotes After a period of 2-3 days, dogs either succumb to the effects of dehydration, hypoproteinemia, and anemia, or begin to recover.
T75518 816617-816745 Sentence denotes Gross findings at autopsy of fatal cases are those of dehydration, accompanied by enteric lesions characteristic of the disease.
T71178 816746-816870 Sentence denotes There is often segmental or widespread subserosal intestinal hemorrhage, which may extend into the muscularis and submucosa.
T44163 816871-816984 Sentence denotes The serosa frequently appears hemorrhagic and granular because of superficial fibrinous effusion ( Fig. 1-120) .
T61790 816985-817101 Sentence denotes Peyer's patches may be evident from the serosal and mucosal aspects as deep red oval areas several centimeters long.
T32322 817102-817209 Sentence denotes The intestinal contents may be mucoid or fluid; sometimes they look like tomato soup because of hemorrhage.
T37754 817210-817304 Sentence denotes The mucosa is usually deeply congested and glistening, or covered by patchy fibrinous exudate.
T21364 817305-817500 Sentence denotes Severe mucosal lesions may be widespread or segmental, and their distribution is irregular; thus tissues from several levels of the small intestine should be selected for microscopic examination.
T96757 817501-817556 Sentence denotes Gross changes in the colon are similar but less common.
T17524 817557-817644 Sentence denotes The stomach may have a congested mucosa and contain scant bloody or bile-stained fluid.
T82197 817645-817727 Sentence denotes Mesenteric lymph nodes may be enlarged, congested, and wet, or be reduced in size.
T80637 817728-817840 Sentence denotes Thymic atrophy is consistently by sinus histiocytes may occur in lymph nodes, especially those draining the gut.
T81122 817841-817921 Sentence denotes Severely depleted Peyer's patches may be difficult to recognize microscopically.
T13557 817922-818082 Sentence denotes Later in the course of clinical disease, corresponding to the period beyond ∼7-8 days after infection, prominent regenerative lymphoid hyperplasia may be found.
T25147 818083-818216 Sentence denotes In severely affected animals at the nadir of the leukopenia, virtually all proliferating elements in the bone marrow may be depleted.
T29402 818217-818315 Sentence denotes The extremely hypocellular, moderately congested marrow is only populated by scattered stem cells.
T41757 818316-818438 Sentence denotes Milder lesions mainly affect the neutrophil series, generally sparing megakaryocytes and the committed erythroid elements.
T78174 818439-818591 Sentence denotes During the later phases of the disease, marked hyperplasia of stem cells, and eventually of amplifier populations in the various cell lines, is evident.
T23168 818592-818718 Sentence denotes In the liver, dissociation and rounding up of hepatocytes, and perhaps some periacinar atrophy and congestion, may be evident.
T51941 818719-818775 Sentence denotes This is probably associated with dehydration and anemia.
T96874 818776-818841 Sentence denotes Pancreatic acinar atrophy also is common, reflecting inappetence.
T15930 818842-818882 Sentence denotes The lung may be congested and edematous.
T17606 818883-818958 Sentence denotes In leukopenic animals, few leukocytes are seen in circulation in any organ.
T70250 818959-819183 Sentence denotes A diagnosis of feline panleukopenia may be made on the basis of the characteristic microscopic intestinal lesions, in association with evidence of involution or regenerative hyperplasia of lymphoid and hematopoietic tissues.
T8417 819184-819338 Sentence denotes Inclusion bodies may be sought in these tissues, but are usually present in significant numbers only during the late incubation and early clinical period.
T84094 819339-819480 Sentence denotes Cryptal necrosis is also reported in the intestines of some cats with FeLV infection, which must be differentiated from feline panleukopenia.
T42467 819481-819601 Sentence denotes Application of immunohistochemical techniques may identify viral antigen in tissue as late as 8-10 days after infection.
T20360 819602-819694 Sentence denotes Viral antigen also may be identified in intestinal content or feces by ELISA or PCR testing.
T41679 819695-819739 Sentence denotes Streck AF, et Canine parvovirus 2 infection.
T7115 819740-819880 Sentence denotes Canine parvovirus 2 (CPV-2) resulted from mutation of a closely related virus, likely an FPV-like virus from wild carnivores, such as foxes.
T67189 819881-820019 Sentence denotes It appeared spontaneously and virtually simultaneously in populations of dogs on several continents in 1978, and rapidly spread worldwide.
T41124 820020-820120 Sentence denotes Retrospective serologic studies suggest that it was circulating unnoticed in western Europe by 1976.
T47872 820121-820262 Sentence denotes In addition to domestic dogs, several species of wild canids, including coyotes, gray wolves, and raccoon dogs, are susceptible to infection.
T26075 820263-820392 Sentence denotes Enteric disease caused by this virus was epizootic for several years in naive populations of dogs, affecting animals of all ages.
T36434 820393-820529 Sentence denotes As the prevalence of antibody caused by natural infection and vaccination increased, the problem subsided to one of an enzootic disease.
T87079 820530-820651 Sentence denotes It now affects those animals with reduced levels of passively acquired maternal immunity, or scattered naive individuals.
T8777 820652-820769 Sentence denotes During the epizootic period, nonsuppurative viral myocarditis caused by CPV-2 was prevalent in the offspring of naive
T97141 820771-820802 Sentence denotes Further reading Ikeda Y, et al.
T67443 820803-820831 Sentence denotes Bovine parvovirus infection.
T68587 820832-821019 Sentence denotes The antigenically distinct species Bovine parvovirus (BPV) also known as hemadsorbing enteric virus, is the type species of genus Bocavirus, with 3 significant subspecies: BPV1, 2, and 3.
T81832 821020-821117 Sentence denotes BPV has been recognized for many years and occurs widely in cattle populations on all continents.
T35079 821118-821242 Sentence denotes It has been isolated from the feces of normal and recently diarrheic calves as well as from conjunctiva and aborted fetuses.
T46878 821243-821414 Sentence denotes The status of BPV as an enteric pathogen is unclear, although it is believed to cause diarrhea in neonatal calves and respiratory and reproductive disease in adult cattle.
T64682 821415-821531 Sentence denotes Virus shedding is not always associated with diarrhea, and it may be part of a mixed infection in diarrheic animals.
T39385 821532-821672 Sentence denotes Serologic prevalence of antibodies to BPV is high, with 83% of cattle and 100% of herds being positive over 2 years of testing in one study.
T18415 821673-821856 Sentence denotes It is rarely diagnosed as a cause of death, and unless sought specifically by culture, direct electron microscopy, or molecular probe, would be missed as a cause of clinical diarrhea.
T37112 821857-822020 Sentence denotes Its significance may be greatest in neonatal calves and animals exposed while passive maternal antibody levels are waning, or in animals in the postweaning period.
T81329 822021-822089 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis of infection with BPV resembles that in carnivores.
T47281 822090-822243 Sentence denotes Initial viral replication following oral inoculation is in tonsils and gut, with spread to systemic lymphoid tissues, resulting in transient lymphopenia.
T97527 822244-822483 Sentence denotes Viral antigen has been identified in the nuclei of epithelium in intestinal crypts and in cells in thymus, lymph nodes, adrenal glands, and heart present in young animals, and the organ may be so reduced in size as to be difficult to find.
T11715 822484-822544 Sentence denotes The lungs often appear congested and have a rubbery texture.
T88600 822545-822764 Sentence denotes The microscopic lesions in stomach, small intestine ( Fig. 1-121) , colon, lymphoid tissue, and bone marrow caused by CPV-2 infection do not differ significantly from those described earlier in cats with panleukopenia.
T90575 822765-822855 Sentence denotes Gastric lesions are perhaps more frequently encountered in dogs with parvoviral infection.
T28826 822856-822918 Sentence denotes Small intestinal lesions are invariably severe in fatal cases.
T87890 822919-822966 Sentence denotes The colon is involved in a minority of animals.
T83565 822967-823216 Sentence denotes Pulmonary lesions such as alveolar septal thickening by mononuclear cells, congestion, and effusion of edema fluid and fibrin into the lumina of alveoli may be related to terminal gram-negative sepsis and endotoxemia, which is common in fatal cases.
T46695 823217-823373 Sentence denotes Periacinar atrophy and congestion in the liver are attributable to anemia, hypovolemia, and shock, and prominent Kupffer cells probably reflect endotoxemia.
T59731 823374-823465 Sentence denotes Some studies have shown that viral inclusions may occur in tongue epithelium cells as well.
T67670 823466-823566 Sentence denotes Although these inclusions are nuclear, they often appear to be in the cytoplasm (pseudocytoplasmic).
T66226 823567-823775 Sentence denotes A case of erythema multiforme as a result of CPV-2 infection of keratinocytes has been described in a dog with concurrent parvoviral enteritis; viral inclusions were present in oral and skin epithelial cells.
T92506 823776-823889 Sentence denotes The diagnosis of parvoviral enteritis in dogs follows the principles described for that of panleukopenia in cats.
T72796 823890-824162 Sentence denotes The disease must be differentiated from Canine coronavirus infection, which is very rarely fatal, and from canine intestinal hemorrhage syndrome, shock gut, intoxication with heavy metals or warfarin, infectious canine hepatitis, and other causes of hemorrhagic diathesis.
T73657 824163-824332 Sentence denotes Involution of gut-associated lymphoid tissue and cryptal necrosis caused by parvovirus must be differentiated from similar lesions occasionally seen in canine distemper.
T39054 824334-824419 Sentence denotes Escherichia coli have several virulence attributes that result in disease in animals.
T50120 824420-824632 Sentence denotes Principally, these promote colonization or adhesion to the mucosa; they cause metabolic dysfunction or death of enterocytes; they affect the local or systemic vasculature; or they promote invasion and septicemia.
T83817 824633-824758 Sentence denotes Disease syndromes caused by E. coli in domestic animals can be related to the combinations of virulence attributes expressed.
T11804 824759-824971 Sentence denotes Many terms have been applied to the mechanisms of action of E. coli, with some becoming obsolete and others applying mainly to E. coli infections of laboratory animals and humans, rather than to domestic animals.
T38179 824972-825133 Sentence denotes "Enterotoxigenic" E. coli (ETEC) cause secretory smallbowel diarrhea stimulated by enterotoxins produced by E. coli colonizing the mucosa of the small intestine.
T98036 825134-825252 Sentence denotes This condition is an important, common cause of diarrhea in neonatal animals of many species, and in postweaning pigs.
T86452 825253-825469 Sentence denotes "Enteropathogenic" E. coli (EPEC) in humans and animals may colonize the mucosa of the intestine by a mechanism involving adhesion-effacement ("enteroadherent" E. coli [EAEC] or "attaching-effacing" E. coli [AEEC] ).
T84235 825470-825607 Sentence denotes Some do not produce recognized toxins, but are associated with villus atrophy; they are an uncommon cause of disease in domestic animals.
T95098 825608-825774 Sentence denotes Other strains of E. coli, many of which are attachingeffacing, in addition secrete cytotoxins (Shiga toxins = verotoxins) that have an effect locally or systemically.
T88357 825775-825952 Sentence denotes Depending on the manifestation of this effect, such E. coli have been categorized as "Shiga toxin-producing" (STEC) = "verotoxinproducing" (VTEC), or "enterohemorrhagic" (EHEC).
T74315 825953-826102 Sentence denotes EHEC are a serious cause of foodborne illness in humans and have been incriminated as a cause of hemorrhagic enterocolitis in calves <1 month of age.
T95447 826103-826178 Sentence denotes The reservoir for EHEC that cause human disease is thought to be ruminants.
T66900 826179-826386 Sentence denotes Shigatoxigenic infections in swine that are not attachingeffacing are associated with some outbreaks of postweaning E. coli enteritis and also cause edema disease of weaned pigs, which is a systemic toxemia.
T49281 826387-826529 Sentence denotes "Enteroinvasive" E. coli (EIEC) can be internalized by surface enterocytes and subsequently disseminate through the body to become septicemic.
T85140 826530-826770 Sentence denotes Although EIEC are poorly documented in domestic animals, septicemic colibacillosis is a common manifestation of E. coli infection caused by strains adapted to avoid specific or innate systemic defense mechanisms, often in compromised hosts.
T11004 826771-826864 Sentence denotes The intestine is not necessarily the portal of entry and there may not be alimentary disease.
T42470 826865-827037 Sentence denotes The signs of E. coli septicemia are mainly referable to bacteremia, endotoxemia, and the effect of bacterial localization in a variety of tissue spaces throughout the body.
T9619 827039-827217 Sentence denotes Evolutionary processes for bacterial survival, persistence, and proliferation are controlled by virulence genes and are subject to complex mechanisms of regulation of expression.
T81356 827218-827389 Sentence denotes Similarly, evolutionary processes for resisting the effects of bacteria on the host are determined by genetic factors and equally complex regulatory processes in the host.
T6867 827390-827460 Sentence denotes Bacterial virulence can be resolved into 5 components: (1) attachment;
T80090 827461-827740 Sentence denotes (2) colonization or entry into the host; (3) evasion of host defense; (4) multiplication and/or spread within the host, and damage to the host, by direct virulence attributes, or by stimulation of an immunoinflammatory response; and (5) transmission to other susceptible animals.
T89719 827741-827907 Sentence denotes The interplay between host and pathogen has been extensively studied for a number of important enteric bacterial pathogens, including Salmonella and Escherichia coli.
T58522 827908-828173 Sentence denotes Genes encoding a range of virulence characteristics in pathogenic bacteria, including adhesion factors, toxins, proteolytic enzymes, and other agents that promote tissue invasion, are often clustered in discrete regions of the genome known as pathogenicity islands.
T65781 828174-828347 Sentence denotes These appear to be sites of relative instability, and are thought to facilitate the horizontal transfer of virulence factors between bacteria, and their continued evolution.
T90646 828348-828656 Sentence denotes Similarities in the regulatory mechanisms for pathogenicity islands of important enteric pathogens, including Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio, Yersinia, and E. coli, are providing new insights into the reasons why strains of many genera of bacteria vary greatly in their host range and ability to cause disease.
T86457 828657-828815 Sentence denotes Among the factors in the mucosal barrier that resist pathogen virulence there is growing interest in the role of the luminal microbiota and their metabolites.
T78373 828816-828926 Sentence denotes Disruption of the intestinal microbiota may facilitate virulence factors of invading pathogens listed earlier.
T43105 828927-829004 Sentence denotes They are antigenically distinct, permitting recognition by specific antibody.
T61220 829005-829171 Sentence denotes Fimbrial adhesins include F5 (K99) and F41 in strains affecting calves, lambs, and pigs; F42, F165, F17, F18 in calves and pigs; and F4 (K88), F6 (987P), F18 in pigs.
T18792 829172-829337 Sentence denotes Combinations of adhesins may be expressed by the same strain of ETEC; typically, F41 is expressed by strains also expressing F5, and seems to be of minor importance.
T10447 829338-829468 Sentence denotes Bacteria possessing F4 colonize the entire small bowel, whereas those with F5, F6, and F41 mainly adhere in the jejunum and ileum.
T21625 829469-829688 Sentence denotes Susceptibility to bacterial fimbrial adhesins, especially F5 and F6, appears to be somewhat age-related; the ability of fimbria-bearing E. coli to colonize the small intestine is greatest in animals only a few days old.
T91125 829689-829901 Sentence denotes F5 receptors on enterocytes decline in availability with age, whereas receptors for F6 are shed into the lumen in older pigs, facilitating clearance of bacteria from the mucosa, and interfering with colonization.
T97921 829902-829996 Sentence denotes F18 receptors are not found in neonatal pigs, but are produced with increasing age to weaning.
T76809 829997-830194 Sentence denotes Stimulation of maternal immunity to fimbrial antigens causes secretion of lactogenic antibody, which combines with adhesins in the gut lumen, preventing colonization of the gut of suckling animals.
T8327 830195-830425 Sentence denotes A nonfimbrial plasmid-encoded adhesin involved in diffuse adherence (AIDA) of E. coli to enterocytes in humans also occurs in strains from pigs associated with edema disease and postweaning diarrhea, often in combination with F18.
T16180 830426-830665 Sentence denotes Enterotoxigenic strains of E. coli produce 2 classes of plasmid-encoded proteins-heat-labile toxin (LT) and heatstable toxin (ST)-which act locally in the intestine to alter secretion and absorption of electrolyte and water by enterocytes.
T23058 830666-830731 Sentence denotes However, these toxins usually do not alter enterocyte morphology.
T97866 830732-830878 Sentence denotes Heat-labile toxin is a large immunogenic plasmid-encoded molecule, with two subgroups (LTI and LTII) and comprised Enterotoxigenic colibacillosis.
T40526 830879-831047 Sentence denotes Enterotoxigenic colibacillosis caused by enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) is one of the major forms of diarrhea in neonatal pigs, calves, and lambs, as well as in humans.
T78267 831048-831114 Sentence denotes Two major attributes confer virulence on these strains of E. coli.
T97445 831115-831274 Sentence denotes These are the ability to colonize the intestine, and the capacity to produce toxins that stimulate secretion of electrolyte and water by the intestinal mucosa.
T77453 831275-831356 Sentence denotes Colonization and enterotoxin production must occur together for disease to ensue.
T1851 831357-831515 Sentence denotes The diarrhea produced by ETEC is accompanied by relatively minor microscopic evidence of inflammation, and by little or no architectural change in the mucosa.
T60361 831516-831669 Sentence denotes As a result, overt enteritis is usually not evident at autopsy, and the disease is part of the syndrome of undifferentiated diarrhea of neonatal animals.
T7563 831670-831833 Sentence denotes Intestinal colonization results from the adhesion of E. coli to the surface of enterocytes on villi in the small intestine, and proliferation there (Fig. 1-122A) .
T64272 831834-831933 Sentence denotes By adhering to the mucosa, bacteria are able to resist the normal peristaltic clearance mechanisms.
T19901 831934-832056 Sentence denotes Large numbers of organisms, of the order of >10 7 per gram of mucosa, or 20-30 per enterocyte, cover the surface of villi.
T88417 832057-832173 Sentence denotes The ability to attach to enterocytes is conferred on ETEC by pili, and may be enhanced by the presence of a capsule.
T13599 832174-832469 Sentence denotes Fimbriae or pili (also known as colonization factor antigens [CFA], with specific names in transition to a system of "F" numbers) are rod-like or filamentous projections from the cell wall of E. coli that attach to specific glycoconjugate receptors on the surface of enterocytes ( Fig. 1-122B ).
T60003 832470-832583 Sentence denotes They are distinct may be present in the proprial core of villi, and transmigrating the epithelium into the lumen.
T36771 832584-833000 Sentence denotes The involvement of ETEC expressing F4 in postweaning diarrhea of pigs >3 weeks of age, and distinct from postweaning colibacillosis caused by VTEC, discussed later, may be related to colonization of intestine in weaned pigs in which Rotavirus infection, changes in diet, or villus atrophy associated with hypersensitivity to dietary protein constituents, provide adhesin-bearing E. coli with a competitive advantage.
T52694 833001-833267 Sentence denotes It causes diarrhea for up to a week or so, with ill-thrift, but is uncommonly fatal, although a syndrome probably caused by endotoxic shock, similar to that associated with shigatoxigenic stains associated with postweaning colibacillosis, described later, may occur.
T54137 833268-833497 Sentence denotes In calves, many cases of undifferentiated neonatal diarrhea are accounted for by enterotoxigenic colibacillosis, usually involving strains of serogroups O8, O9, O20, O64, O101 with fimbrial adhesins F5 and F41, and producing STa.
T77494 833498-833736 Sentence denotes Infection is typically restricted to the first 2-3 days of life, probably because of the loss of receptors for F5 in older calves. of a small A subunit with two fragments (A1 and A2), which links A1 to a large pentamer of five B subunits.
T99740 833737-833841 Sentence denotes LTI is antigenically similar to cholera toxin, whereas LTII toxins have B subunits that differ from LTI.
T9262 833842-834018 Sentence denotes The B subunits bind to ganglioside receptors (GM1 gangliosides) on the enterocyte surface; the toxin complex then dissociates, and the A1 subunit is internalized into the cell.
T68199 834019-834164 Sentence denotes It operates via an adenylate cyclase pathway to cause chloride secretion by enterocytes, sodium, and water following osmotically from the mucosa.
T72203 834165-834286 Sentence denotes Co-transport of sodium chloride by enterocytes, and associated water uptake, is probably also shut down at the same time.
T71834 834287-834427 Sentence denotes LT may also promote mucosal secretion by stimulation of local prostaglandin production, the enteric nervous system, and cytokine activation.
T2591 834428-834552 Sentence denotes LT has been shown to decrease host defenses through interference with antimicrobial peptide production by human enterocytes.
T34594 834553-834658 Sentence denotes LT has a latent period before the development of secretion, but the effects on the cell are irreversible.
T79998 834659-834761 Sentence denotes Heat-stable toxin is classified as STa and STb based on biological properties, and is plasmid-encoded.
T62197 834762-834971 Sentence denotes STa causes an increase in cyclic guanosine monophosphate, which inhibits Na/Cl co-transport and therefore water absorption by surface enterocytes, whereas in crypt epithelium it promotes Cland water secretion.
T50497 834972-835072 Sentence denotes STb acts through a different mechanism than STa and is mainly produced by ETEC associated with pigs.
T50352 835073-835232 Sentence denotes STb causes increased intracellular calcium, chloride secretion, and may cause secretion by stimulation of prostaglandin E 2 and 5-hydroxytryptamine production.
T93654 835233-835327 Sentence denotes In pigs, STb can cause exfoliation of surface enterocytes, resulting in mild atrophy of villi.
T26903 835328-835442 Sentence denotes Enteroaggregative E. coli heat stabile toxin (EAST1) has also been reported in ETEC isolated from pigs and cattle.
T75842 835443-835516 Sentence denotes This toxin has been associated with E. coli-induced diarrhea in children.
T86560 835517-835597 Sentence denotes However, the role of EAST1 in E. coli disease in pigs and cattle is not certain.
T27114 835598-835724 Sentence denotes Enterotoxigenic colibacillosis is among the commonest causes of diarrhea in neonatal pigs, from a few hours to ∼1 week of age.
T30496 835725-835778 Sentence denotes ETEC are present in the environment and are ingested.
T16361 835779-836009 Sentence denotes Commonly, serogroups O8, O45, O138, O141, O147, O149, and O157, expressing F4, are involved in enterotoxigenic colibacillosis in piglets, though the prevalence of F4-bearing strains may be declining because of vaccination of sows.
T5763 836010-836069 Sentence denotes Less commonly, F5, F6, and F41 pilus adhesins are involved.
T31154 836070-836215 Sentence denotes STb is the most common toxin produced by porcine ETEC; when LT is found, it is in association with STb, which may be encoded on the same plasmid.
T55352 836216-836309 Sentence denotes STa also occurs in strains of ETEC in swine, alone or in combination with other enterotoxins.
T66136 836310-836478 Sentence denotes At autopsy, enterotoxigenic colibacillosis cannot be readily separated from the other common causes of undifferentiated neonatal diarrhea without laboratory assistance.
T99533 836479-836589 Sentence denotes Generally there is dehydration, usually with evidence of diarrhea, or a history of its occurrence in the herd.
T5258 836590-836706 Sentence denotes Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from the bacterial cell membrane may promote inflammatory cascades and contribute to shock.
T18898 836707-836888 Sentence denotes Other than the presence of characteristic fluid content in the flaccid small and large bowel, usually with clotted milk still in the stomach, the internal findings are unremarkable.
T78746 836889-837005 Sentence denotes In contrast to the viruses and Cystoisospora, ETEC usually does not cause significant villus atrophy (Fig. 1-123A ).
T4835 837006-837177 Sentence denotes Small clumps, or a continuous layer, of bacteria may be found on the surface of enterocytes on villi in mucosal tissue sections, most consistently in ileum (Fig. 1-123B) .
T13200 837178-837335 Sentence denotes Some neutrophils A B F4-bearing E. coli, despite the presence of F4 receptors on enterocytes, and it seems that ETEC has little significance in this species.
T98367 837336-837484 Sentence denotes Strains of E. coli have been associated with diarrhea in neonates of other species of animals, especially young dogs, where they mainly produce STa.
T57736 837485-837611 Sentence denotes Generally the enterotoxigenicity and other attributes of virulence have not been well described in strains from other species.
T32700 837612-837644 Sentence denotes Enteropathogenic colibacillosis.
T33696 837645-837810 Sentence denotes Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) are those that cause direct damage to the mucosa, through a characteristic mechanism of attachment to, and effacement of, epithelium.
T60615 837811-838000 Sentence denotes These attaching-effacing E. coli (AEEC) are more common in humans than in animals, where they are most important in pigs, dogs, and rabbits, although they also have been isolated from cats.
T53710 838001-838129 Sentence denotes Control of attaching-effacing activity resides in the locus for enterocyte effacement (LEE), a chromosomal pathogenicity island.
T12360 838130-838198 Sentence denotes EPEC have a complicated and sequential relationship with host cells.
T32536 838199-838281 Sentence denotes Long polar fimbriae may mediate initial bacterial interaction with the enterocyte.
T62327 838282-838361 Sentence denotes Secretion of bacterial proteins ensues, including intimin, which is an adhesin.
T99160 838362-838547 Sentence denotes A second protein, the translocated intimin receptor, is transported via a type III secretion system into the enterocyte cytoplasm, emerging on the cell membrane as the intimin receptor.
T53261 838548-838764 Sentence denotes In response to translocated EPEC proteins, the cell's cytoskeleton is reorganized, resulting in formation of cupped pedestal-like structures beneath the attached bacteria, and the subsequent loss of microvilli (Figs.
T60984 838765-838784 Sentence denotes 1-125 and 1-126) .
T34262 838785-838921 Sentence denotes Paracellular permeability increases as tight junctions between enterocytes loosen, and neutrophils migrate between cells into the lumen.
T65472 838922-839035 Sentence denotes In animals and humans, some strains of AEEC are pathogenic despite failure to secrete enterotoxins or cytotoxins.
T23865 839036-839207 Sentence denotes A heavy layer of plump coccobacilli may be found over the luminal aspect of enterocytes on villi throughout the small intestine, and on the surface of the large intestine.
T3318 839208-839352 Sentence denotes The degree of diarrhea seems related to the extent of bacterial colonization, which is most consistent in lower small intestine and large bowel.
T40896 839353-839707 Sentence denotes Enterocytes to which bacteria are adherent round up or contract, and exfoliate from the mucosa singly or in clumps, ETEC must be differentiated from the other major causes of undifferentiated diarrhea in neonatal calves-Bovine coronavirus (BCoV), Coronavirus, Rotavirus, and Cryptosporidiumwhich typically dominate in calves older than a few days of age.
T59627 839708-839788 Sentence denotes However, ETEC is commonly found in combination with BCoV or Rotavirus infection.
T13195 839789-839913 Sentence denotes The gross findings in calves with enterotoxigenic colibacillosis are the nonspecific appearance of diarrhea and dehydration.
T97655 839914-840173 Sentence denotes The infection is differentiated in tissue sections from the other infectious causes of this syndrome by the absence of severe villus atrophy (Fig. 1-124A ) and by the presence of bacteria on the surfaces of villi in the distal small intestine (Fig. 1-124B) .
T54770 840174-840312 Sentence denotes As in piglets, application of a variety of presumptive or specific tests for the presence of ETEC in the intestine confirms the diagnosis.
T21705 840313-840392 Sentence denotes Enterotoxigenic colibacillosis is a significant problem in lambs in some areas.
T9718 840393-840493 Sentence denotes The serotypes involved, pathogenesis, and diagnosis of the condition are similar to those in calves.
T13984 840494-840539 Sentence denotes Synergism with Rotavirus infection may occur.
T4200 840540-840608 Sentence denotes There are several reports of ETEC isolated from foals with diarrhea.
T80702 840609-840670 Sentence denotes The organisms have pili, probably F41, and secrete LT or STa.
T33248 840671-840735 Sentence denotes However, their capacity to produce disease in foals is unproved.
T82870 840736-840929 Sentence denotes Diarrhea has not ensued in foals inoculated with A B resulting in mild to severe atrophy of villi in the small bowel, and attenuation of surface cells, or microerosions, in the large intestine.
T88878 840930-841043 Sentence denotes Fusion of villi may occur in small intestine, and goblet cell numbers are depleted in both large and small bowel.
T42293 841044-841119 Sentence denotes There is moderate mucosal congestion and local infiltration by neutrophils.
T64680 841120-841405 Sentence denotes Diarrhea is presumably related to maldigestion and malabsorption of nutrients and electrolytes in small intestine, perhaps with the additive effect of increased mucosal permeability, overloading the colon, the absorptive ability of which is also compromised by damage to surface cells.
T68935 841406-841487 Sentence denotes Microscopic diagnosis is based on recognition of bacteria on the mucosal surface.
T63784 841488-841632 Sentence denotes In pigs, EPEC belonging to serogroups O45 and O103, infecting small and large intestine, are responsible for some cases of postweaning diarrhea.
T51967 841633-841784 Sentence denotes In young dogs, and occasionally in cats, EPEC have been associated with diarrhea, often as a component of co-infections with viral or protozoal agents.
T33610 841785-841940 Sentence denotes Microscopic lesions characteristic of AEEC are typically found in the jejunum and ileum, less commonly in the colon, and in dogs, sometimes in the stomach.
T28944 841941-841998 Sentence denotes A distinct subset of EPEC is the Shiga toxin-producing E.
T31408 841999-842155 Sentence denotes In addition to their ability to attach and efface, these strains produce cytotoxic Shiga toxins (Stx1 and its homologue Stx2 with its variants, c, d, e, f).
T55605 842156-842287 Sentence denotes Shigatoxin 1 is structurally identical to the Shiga toxin produced by Shigella dysenteriae, which has a profound cytopathic effect.
T9439 842288-842411 Sentence denotes Because of their effect on Vero cells in culture, these E. coli are also referred to as verotoxinproducing E. coli (VTEC) .
T74986 842412-842636 Sentence denotes Shiga toxins, encoded in the genome of bacteriophages, are composed of an A subunit that has enzymatic activity and a B subunit that binds the toxin to the glycolipid receptor globotriaosylceramide (Gb3) on the cell surface.
T2063 842637-842857 Sentence denotes Once endocytosed and transferred via the Golgi apparatus to the rough endoplasmic reticulum, the toxin inhibits protein synthesis, which may be lethal to the target cell, and via separate mechanisms may induce apoptosis.
T26664 842858-843058 Sentence denotes The presence or absence of Gb3 on cell surfaces is a major determinant of the distribution of tissue susceptibility to Shiga toxins, which mainly affect intestinal epithelium and vascular endothelium.
T85552 843059-843163 Sentence denotes Some EHEC also produce hemolysins, which may assist survival in the gut by increasing iron availability.
T32331 843164-843257 Sentence denotes Acid tolerance may also promote colonization efficiency by enhancing survival in the stomach.
T30222 843258-843571 Sentence denotes The EHEC strains produce disease predominantly in humans, although involvement of domestic animals has been highlighted in the public health arena because of the tendency for cattle and some other species to carry the organism asymptomatically, adherent to epithelium over lymphoid follicles in the rectal mucosa.
T81783 843572-843691 Sentence denotes Different variants of the Stx encoded by phage have been associated with clinical disease and carrier states in cattle.
T76233 843692-843829 Sentence denotes The most widely recognized EHEC serotype is O157:H7, a major pathogen in humans, although >200 other STEC serotypes have been identified.
T54662 843830-843952 Sentence denotes In addition to Shiga toxin production, virulence is attributable to attaching and effacing capability, encoded on the LEE.
T63733 843953-844250 Sentence denotes In calves <4 weeks of age (generally >3 days of age, and most commonly in the second week of life), strains of EHEC (O5:NM, O8:H9, O26:H11, O103:H2, O111:NM, O111:H8, and O111:H11) have been associated with a syndrome of erosive fibrinohemorrhagic enterocolitis, with the development of dysentery.
T49045 844251-844431 Sentence denotes Fever is not characteristic, and animals may remain bright until the effects of dehydration and blood loss flattened epithelium, and filled with sloughed epithelium and leukocytes.
T89619 844432-844594 Sentence denotes In the small intestine, foci of bacterial adhesion may be patchy, on the sides of the upper third of villi, with extensive surrounding areas of normal epithelium.
T93933 844595-844686 Sentence denotes Crypts in areas of atrophic small intestine may be elongate, with numerous mitotic figures.
T81978 844687-844818 Sentence denotes In severely affected bowel, the mucosa and submucosa are congested, edematous, and occasional microvascular thrombi may be present.
T78482 844819-844906 Sentence denotes Sloughed enterocytes, erythrocytes, neutrophils, fibrin, and bacteria are in the lumen.
T93042 844907-845037 Sentence denotes In dogs, STEC have been associated with dysentery, and in some dogs, hemolytic uremic syndrome and cutaneous edema and ulceration.
T51162 845038-845245 Sentence denotes In Greyhounds, the syndrome involving this triad has been termed cutaneous and renal glomerular vasculopathy, and has been attributed to consumption of beef contaminated with O157:H7 E. coli, and other STEC.
T24810 845246-845341 Sentence denotes Renal and cutaneous lesions are attributable to vascular damage caused by Shiga toxin (see Vol.
T98730 845342-845365 Sentence denotes 2, Urinary system; Vol.
T65550 845366-845391 Sentence denotes 1, Integumentary system).
T14478 845392-845440 Sentence denotes Edema disease and postweaning E. coli enteritis.
T3731 845441-845642 Sentence denotes Edema disease is a distinct syndrome in pigs, characterized by sudden death, or the development of nervous signs associated with enteric colonization by STEC, especially serotypes O138, O139, and O141.
T38992 845643-845765 Sentence denotes The disease occurs most commonly in pigs within a few weeks after weaning, or after other change in feeding or management.
T43497 845766-845925 Sentence denotes Colonization may be related to transient enterocyte malabsorption soon after weaning, which allows for increased dietary protein accumulation in the gut lumen.
T67381 845926-846005 Sentence denotes It often occurs in association with outbreaks of postweaning E. coli enteritis.
T45135 846006-846073 Sentence denotes Rare reports exist of edema disease in suckling and mature animals.
T61100 846074-846230 Sentence denotes The disease may be sporadic or occur as an outbreak, usually affecting the best animals in a group, and mortality often approaches 100% of affected animals.
T28483 846231-846355 Sentence denotes Edema disease and postweaning E. coli enteritis have apparently declined in prevalence in parts of North America, supervene.
T35758 846356-846454 Sentence denotes Death may occur within several days of onset of illness, but some cases will recover in 7-10 days.
T19955 846455-846651 Sentence denotes At autopsy, gross lesions are usually confined to the spiral colon and rectum, although the ileum and cecum are occasionally involved with mild fibrinous or fibrinohemorrhagic enteritis/typhlitis.
T10738 846652-846869 Sentence denotes In the colon, changes vary from mild patchy congestion of the mucosa to marked mucosal reddening, with adherent mucus, necrotic debris, and blood; colonic contents are fluid and frequently blood-tinged ( Fig. 1-127 ).
T63377 846870-846979 Sentence denotes There may be congestion of the margins of mucosal folds in the rectum, or overt fibrinohemorrhagic proctitis.
T48944 846980-847131 Sentence denotes Mesenteric lymph nodes are often enlarged, especially along the ileum, and occasionally there are lesions (arthritis, serositis) suggesting septicemia.
T62961 847132-847283 Sentence denotes Microscopically, in affected small intestine the profile of villi is ragged or markedly scalloped, and they are blunted, moderately atrophic, or fused.
T2288 847284-847493 Sentence denotes Epithelial cells on villi in small bowel, and on the colonic surface, where lesions are most severe, are short, rounded up, and in some cases exfoliating singly or in small clumps, causing focal microerosions.
T97461 847494-847541 Sentence denotes Cells in some areas may be markedly attenuated.
T88842 847542-847663 Sentence denotes The microvillus border is indistinct, and covered by a heavy layer of prominent gramnegative coccobacilli ( Fig. 1-128) .
T52909 847664-847797 Sentence denotes Lesions in large bowel may extend down into glands, which may be dilated, lined by relatively empty and the mucosa is grossly normal.
T60776 847798-847847 Sentence denotes The colon may contain somewhat inspissated feces.
T84261 847848-848026 Sentence denotes In swine dying after a more prolonged clinical course, gross edema is often not present, although enlargement of mesenteric lymph nodes is present in a large proportion of cases.
T87482 848027-848169 Sentence denotes A few pigs may show foci of yellow malacia, usually bilaterally symmetrical, in the brainstem at various levels from basal ganglia to medulla.
T43570 848170-848281 Sentence denotes Microscopically edema in the sites of predilection mentioned earlier is the main lesion in swine dying acutely.
T25854 848282-848374 Sentence denotes It is generally devoid of much protein and contains few erythrocytes and inflammatory cells.
T49844 848375-848478 Sentence denotes A proportion of animals also will have meningeal edema and distended Virchow-Robin spaces in the brain.
T30311 848479-848545 Sentence denotes Vascular lesions may not be well-developed in pigs dying suddenly.
T90946 848546-848665 Sentence denotes When present they usually consist of edema, hemorrhage, myocyte necrosis, and hyaline degeneration in the tunica media.
T37741 848666-848732 Sentence denotes Angiopathy is more consistently found in cases of longer standing.
T81728 848733-848792 Sentence denotes Affected vessels may be found in any tissue in the carcass.
T58851 848793-848961 Sentence denotes Brain edema and focal encephalomalacia in the brainstem are associated with the presence of lesions in cerebral vessels; necrosis may be a sequel to edema and ischemia.
T19226 848962-849041 Sentence denotes Cerebrospinal angiopathy of swine is probably a manifestation of edema disease.
T30264 849042-849211 Sentence denotes A diagnosis of edema disease is based on nervous signs or sudden death in growing pigs, in association with typical gross and microscopic lesions, when they are present.
T2361 849212-849322 Sentence denotes In acute cases, heavy growth of hemolytic E. coli of one of the serotypes known to produce Stx2e is essential.
T31628 849323-849614 Sentence denotes Edema disease must be differentiated from enteritis and endotoxemia resulting from E. coli in postweaning pigs; from mulberry heart disease in animals dying suddenly; and from salt poisoning, Salmonella meningoencephalitis, and other infectious encephalitides, in animals with nervous signs.
T85725 849615-849795 Sentence denotes Postweaning E. coli enteritis (coliform enteritis of weaned pigs) typically occurs during the first week or two following weaning, or after some other change in feed or management.
T13772 849796-850014 Sentence denotes Postweaning diarrhea may be caused by classical enterotoxigenic F4 (K88) E. coli, but it is often associated with hemolytic E. coli of the same serotypes primarily implicated in edema disease, as well as serotype O149.
T86065 850015-850143 Sentence denotes The two diseases often perhaps with the use of concentrate rations based largely on soybeans and corn, rather than other grains.
T32471 850144-850208 Sentence denotes Bacterial colonization of the gut is mediated by F18ab fimbriae.
T98436 850209-850301 Sentence denotes Susceptibility of pigs is genetic and related to the presence of receptors for the fimbriae.
T13877 850302-850493 Sentence denotes A Shiga toxin (Stx2e) producing vascular injury and edema has been incriminated in the pathogenesis of edema disease, and vaccination with Stx2e toxoid almost entirely prevents edema disease.
T68492 850494-850578 Sentence denotes Some strains of E. coli that cause edema disease also produce secretory enterotoxin.
T28851 850579-850654 Sentence denotes Diarrhea is not a usual concomitant of edema disease in individual animals.
T72296 850655-850877 Sentence denotes Significant gross or microscopic lesions in the intestinal mucosa do not occur in edema disease, which appears to be a classical enterotoxemia, the active principle being absorbed from the gut and acting at a distant site.
T69157 850878-850950 Sentence denotes However, the means by which the toxin enters the circulation is unknown.
T77051 850951-851037 Sentence denotes Stx2e can bind to erythrocytes which may promote its dissemination from the intestine.
T107 851038-851171 Sentence denotes Experimentally, the target of Stx2e, like other Shiga toxins, is vascular endothelium, particularly of small arteries and arterioles.
T40602 851172-851254 Sentence denotes Preferentially affected organs include spinal cord, cerebellum, eyelid, and colon.
T77364 851255-851391 Sentence denotes However, a study to determine preferential binding sites for Stx2e found receptors on a variety of tissues, not just the aforementioned.
T15414 851392-851569 Sentence denotes Stx2e causes angiopathy, which, in its early stages in experimental intoxication, is recognized by swelling of endothelial cells and mild intramural and perivascular hemorrhage.
T41777 851570-851746 Sentence denotes Pyknosis and karyorrhexis of smooth-muscle nuclei, often accompanied by fibrinoid degeneration or hyaline change in the tunica media, may be seen in subacute spontaneous cases.
T41978 851747-851857 Sentence denotes Proliferative mesenchymal elements are found in the tunica media and tunica adventitia in more advanced cases.
T87124 851858-852032 Sentence denotes However, inflammation is not at any stage a prominent component of the angiopathy, nor of the associated edema in most sites, and thrombosis of vessels is rarely encountered.
T84605 852033-852117 Sentence denotes Edema is probably caused by vessel damage during the early stages of the angiopathy.
T53451 852118-852180 Sentence denotes The lesions are distinct from those expected with endotoxemia.
T94153 852181-852240 Sentence denotes Swine with edema disease may die without premonitory signs.
T35155 852241-852345 Sentence denotes Others may have anorexia, or, more characteristically, show nervous signs, usually of <1 day's duration.
T7407 852346-852451 Sentence denotes An unsteady staggering gait, knuckling, ataxia, prostration and tremors, convulsions, and paddling occur.
T70161 852452-852556 Sentence denotes A hoarse squeal, the hoarseness attributed to laryngeal edema and dyspnea, also may be noted clinically.
T59357 852557-852623 Sentence denotes At autopsy, gross lesions in acute deaths may be subtle or absent.
T14209 852624-852682 Sentence denotes Typically, edema is variably present in one or more sites.
T87144 852683-852803 Sentence denotes However, it may be mild and must be carefully sought, especially by "slipping" the suspected area over subjacent tissue.
T23721 852804-852958 Sentence denotes Subcutaneous edema may be present in the frontal area and over the snout, in the eyelids, and in the submandibular, ventral abdominal, and inguinal areas.
T38508 852959-853107 Sentence denotes Internally, there may be some hydropericardium, and serous pleural and peritoneal effusion, perhaps accompanied by mild or moderate pulmonary edema.
T30476 853108-853176 Sentence denotes More commonly, the serous surfaces merely appear glistening and wet.
T78753 853177-853348 Sentence denotes Edema of the mesocolon, of the submucosa of the cardiac glandular area of the stomach over the greater curvature, and of mesenteric lymph nodes is most consistently found.
T65648 853349-853456 Sentence denotes The gastric submucosal edema should be sought by carefully cutting through the muscularis to the submucosa.
T66307 853457-853521 Sentence denotes The edema fluid is clear and slightly gelatinous ( Fig. 1-129) .
T70571 853522-853624 Sentence denotes It is rarely blood-tinged, and overt hemorrhage is usually not present in uncomplicated edema disease.
T76025 853625-853694 Sentence denotes The stomach is often full of feed, but the small intestine is 1-132).
T90051 853695-853843 Sentence denotes Experimentally, stress and decreased mucosal immune functions associated with early weaning have been associated with ETEC and postweaning diarrhea.
T48033 853844-853975 Sentence denotes Like edema disease, high protein levels in the intestinal lumen at weaning may play a role in colonization and disease development.
T61428 853976-854078 Sentence denotes Atrophy of villi does not seem to be evident, and diarrhea is presumed to be mediated by enterotoxins.
T44373 854079-854207 Sentence denotes Mortality may be ascribed to dehydration in animals with prolonged diarrhea and few gross intestinal or extraintestinal lesions.
T68094 854208-854499 Sentence denotes In animals dying of more acute disease, there is local microvascular thrombosis in sections of congested mucosa, and the gross and microscopic lesions in other organs, especially those related to gastric mucosal and submucosal thrombosis and venous infarction, are suggestive of endotoxemia.
T58992 854500-854637 Sentence denotes Hemolytic E. coli of the implicated strains are consistently isolated in virtually pure culture from the lower small intestine and colon.
T55612 854638-854740 Sentence denotes However, they are present in the spleen and liver in only a few cases, suggesting terminal bacteremia.
T68322 854741-854827 Sentence denotes The factors predisposing to the massive colonization of hemolytic E. coli are unclear.
T89954 854828-855078 Sentence denotes Loss of lactogenic immunity, a favorable environment for proliferation of bacterial strains with specific nutrient requirements, and promotion of epithelial colonization by the effects of antecedent Rotavirus infection have been variously implicated.
T59475 855079-855274 Sentence denotes A diagnosis of postweaning colibacillosis is suggested by the gross lesions in animals dying acutely or subacutely, and it is confirmed by culture and serotyping of associated strains of E. coli.
T32801 855275-855410 Sentence denotes The fatal disease must be differentiated from edema disease, proliferative hemorrhagic enteropathy, salmonellosis, and swine dysentery.
T26259 855411-855677 Sentence denotes Postweaning diarrhea caused by uncomplicated Rotavirus infection, transmissible gastroenteritis virus, or associated with attaching-effacing O45:K "E65" E. coli, is usually nonfatal. occur in the same population of pigs, although usually affecting different animals.
T74016 855678-855830 Sentence denotes Typically, postweaning colibacillosis is a disease of high morbidity and variable mortality, with loss of condition in pigs suffering prolonged illness.
T60850 855831-855893 Sentence denotes Diarrhea is usually yellow and fluid, and stains the perineum.
T61146 855894-856009 Sentence denotes Deaths that occur may or may not follow a prior episode of diarrhea, and often appear to be related to endotoxemia.
T50270 856010-856101 Sentence denotes In fatal cases there may be blue-red discoloration of the skin and evidence of dehydration.
T26492 856102-856181 Sentence denotes Deep red gastric venous infarcts are present in almost all cases (Fig. 1-130) .
T43538 856182-856213 Sentence denotes The small intestine is flaccid.
T80455 856214-856271 Sentence denotes The mucosa may be normal in color and the content creamy.
T81794 856272-856453 Sentence denotes In other animals the mucosa of the distal small intestine is congested and the contents watery and perhaps blood-tinged or brown with flecks of yellow mucus or fibrin (Fig. 1-131) .
T93921 856454-856581 Sentence denotes Cecal and colonic lesions are usually mild, but there may be some congestion and fibrinous exudate in the proximal large bowel.
T69736 856582-856652 Sentence denotes Mesenteric lymph nodes may be somewhat enlarged, congested, and juicy.
T76889 856653-856699 Sentence denotes Other organs are usually unremarkable grossly.
T65067 856700-856849 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis of postweaning E. coli enteritis caused by non-F4 E. coli is poorly understood, and the microscopic pathology is not well described.
T42072 856850-857100 Sentence denotes In swine with diarrhea, E. coli may be attached to the surface of villi by F18ac fimbriae (Fig. Figure 1-130 Deep red areas of venous infarction in the gastric mucosa in postweaning colibacillosis in a pig. from the mucosa by antimicrobial therapy.
T75370 857101-857198 Sentence denotes It is hypothesized that a genetic predisposition to this invasive E. coli exists in these breeds.
T22715 857199-857348 Sentence denotes There are similarities between this E. coli and adherent and invasive E. coli (AIEC) described as playing a role in human inflammatory bowel disease.
T68538 857349-857516 Sentence denotes Generalized systemic infection with E. coli occurs commonly in calves, and less commonly or sporadically, especially among young animals of the other domestic species.
T19792 857517-857586 Sentence denotes Predisposition to infection is a prerequisite for E. coli septicemia.
T38883 857587-857727 Sentence denotes This usually results from reduced transfer or absorption of maternal colostral immunoglobulin, or from intercurrent disease or debilitation.
T79704 857728-858046 Sentence denotes But certain strains of E. coli, especially O8, O9, O15, O26, O35, O45, O78, O86, O101, O117, and O137 in calves and lambs, and O115 in pigs and calves, are particularly associated with septicemia, and may possess characteristics that enhance their ability to invade and proliferate systemically in compromised animals.
T24042 858047-858143 Sentence denotes Among factors conferring virulence upon these strains are plasmids coding for colicin V (Col V).
T94056 858144-858462 Sentence denotes Col V plasmids carry genes coding for aerobactin, a bacterial hydroxamate siderophore permitting survival in low-iron extracellular environments; outer-membrane proteins resisting bactericidal effects of serum, such as complement activation; and hydrophobic properties that impede phagocytosis, conferred by a capsule.
T33002 858463-858542 Sentence denotes Some produce cytolethal distending toxin, or fimbriae that impede phagocytosis.
T74712 858543-858652 Sentence denotes Endotoxin released by dying bacteria causes the vascular damage and shock associated with E. coli septicemia.
T81926 858653-858728 Sentence denotes The portal of entry of E. coli causing septicemia probably varies somewhat.
T6138 858729-858843 Sentence denotes The navel in the neonate, the upper respiratory tract and possibly the tonsil, and the intestine are likely sites.
T18921 858844-858947 Sentence denotes In calves, adhesins such as P, F17, AfaE-VIII, and CS31A may promote enteric colonization and invasion.
T87131 858948-859035 Sentence denotes Enteritis is not a necessary, or even common, concomitant of colisepticemia in animals.
T37607 859036-859311 Sentence denotes Colisepticemia is most commonly a disease of neonates, and may vary from peracute septicemia and endotoxemia resulting in sudden death, to subacute or chronic disease in which signs are related to sites of bacterial localization, especially in the meninges, joints, and eyes.
T62065 859312-859457 Sentence denotes The lesions associated with colisepticemia in young animals of any species, especially calves, lambs, and foals, may vary from subtle to obvious.
T97229 859458-859570 Sentence denotes Mortality in hypogammaglobulinemic neonates may occur acutely with little in the way of abnormal gross findings.
T9809 859571-859704 Sentence denotes These may be limited to mildly congested or blue-red, slightly rubbery lungs, and a firm spleen, perhaps with evidence of omphalitis.
T48674 859705-859761 Sentence denotes Microscopic changes in the lungs Enteroinvasive E. coli.
T8980 859762-859977 Sentence denotes Strains of E. coli are recognized, infecting humans and certain other species, which have the capacity to invade or to be internalized by surface enterocytes of the small and large intestine, in which they multiply.
T67193 859978-860043 Sentence denotes In this sense they resemble Shigella in primates, and Salmonella.
T45691 860044-860240 Sentence denotes The enteroinvasiveness of Shigella and some strains of E. coli appears to be correlated with the presence of a high-molecularweight plasmid coding for outer-membrane proteins involved in invasion.
T35927 860241-860386 Sentence denotes Multiplication of the organism within epithelial cells results in local erosion and ulceration, associated with acute inflammation in the mucosa.
T90437 860387-860530 Sentence denotes Among domestic animals, enteroinvasive colibacillosis has only been confirmed experimentally in neonatal swine, using a strain of O101 E. coli.
T24105 860531-860679 Sentence denotes Spontaneous enteritis that appears to be due to enteroinvasive E. coli is rarely encountered in piglets up to weaning and in calves <2 weeks of age.
T43370 860680-860788 Sentence denotes Diarrhea in experimentally infected piglets is described as gray-yellow, watery, and containing small clots.
T76623 860789-860919 Sentence denotes The gross findings may not be remarkable, or the intestine may appear congested in comparison with that in most diarrheic piglets.
T54912 860920-861116 Sentence denotes In spontaneous cases suspected of being due to enteroinvasive E. coli, the gastric fundus also may be congested, and this correlates with the presence of venous infarction visible microscopically.
T66364 861117-861274 Sentence denotes Experimental enteroinvasive colibacillosis in piglets causes villus atrophy that is comparable in severity to that induced by the common viruses of neonates.
T42410 861275-861341 Sentence denotes Enterocytes appear cuboidal or flattened and some are seen lysing.
T86089 861342-861461 Sentence denotes The lamina propria is edematous; capillaries are congested and infiltrated by neutrophils and other inflammatory cells.
T24301 861462-861557 Sentence denotes In spontaneous cases, thrombi may be evident in proprial capillaries and submucosal lymphatics.
T29944 861558-861658 Sentence denotes Neutrophils and tissue fluid effuse into the lumen between villi through epithelial discontinuities.
T30862 861659-861780 Sentence denotes Similar microthrombosis, proprial inflammation, enterocyte destruction, and effusion may be found in the cecum and colon.
T65800 861781-861998 Sentence denotes Intracellular organisms of O serogroup 101 were demonstrated by immunoperoxidase staining in the experimental study, but are not generally recognized in spontaneous cases suspected to be due to enteroinvasive E. coli.
T40705 861999-862084 Sentence denotes Edema and neutrophil accumulation in sinusoids of mesenteric lymph nodes are present.
T64501 862085-862284 Sentence denotes Experimental enteroinvasive colibacillosis in piglets has been associated with malabsorption and protein loss into the gut, presumably a result of villus atrophy and effusive enteritis, respectively.
T57153 862285-862420 Sentence denotes There is growing evidence that an invasive E. coli is involved in the histiocytic and ulcerative colitis of Boxers and French Bulldogs.
T7016 862421-862515 Sentence denotes In these dogs, E. coli are noted within lamina propria macrophages and mesenteric lymph nodes.
T75665 862516-862649 Sentence denotes A role for this agent in disease development is supported by improvement of clinical signs and mucosal inflammation after its removal
T13255 862650-862680 Sentence denotes Further reading Simpson KW, et
T46085 862682-862758 Sentence denotes The taxonomy of Salmonella is currently based on molecular genetic analysis.
T57277 862759-862851 Sentence denotes The genus Salmonella is considered to be comprised of 2 species, S. bongori and S. enterica.
T25970 862852-863017 Sentence denotes There are 6 subspecies of S. enterica (enterica, salamae, arizonae, diarizonae, indica, and houtenae) and many (>2,400) antigenically distinct serotypes or serovars.
T17999 863018-863122 Sentence denotes About 60% of Salmonella serotypes belong to S. enterica subsp. enterica, and occur in birds and mammals.
T10797 863123-863321 Sentence denotes Members of S. e. enterica are the predominant cause of salmonellosis in humans and domestic animals, but <50 of these serotypes have been isolated from mammals or birds with any frequency worldwide.
T64701 863322-863428 Sentence denotes The remainder of S. enterica and S. bongori serotypes are found in ectothermic animals or the environment.
T99609 863429-863656 Sentence denotes In conventional terminology, the serotypes have been treated as species, but in the new terminology the names of serotypes are capitalized, but not italicized (e.g., S. enterica Typhimurium when first used, followed later by S.
T44741 863657-863670 Sentence denotes Typhimurium).
T32115 863671-863851 Sentence denotes They are usually named on the basis of the locality in which the serotype was first isolated or identified, or on their host association and the clinical syndrome they may produce.
T86512 863852-864084 Sentence denotes Identification of isolates at the subserotype level, by phage typing, plasmid profile analysis, or other molecular techniques, is desirable when there is evidence of zoonotic transmission, or when epidemiologic tracing is necessary.
T271 864085-864265 Sentence denotes The clinical and pathologic syndromes of salmonellosis typically vary from localized enterocolitis to septicemia; abortion may also occur, with or without obvious systemic disease.
T19365 864266-864352 Sentence denotes Although some serotypes are strongly host-adapted, others have a very wide host range.
T61527 864353-864394 Sentence denotes Highly host-adapted serotypes, such as S.
T71357 864395-864413 Sentence denotes Typhi (humans), S.
T56404 864414-864437 Sentence denotes Dublin (cattle), and S.
T75756 864438-864590 Sentence denotes Choleraesuis (swine), tend to produce severe systemic disease in adult, as well as juvenile animals, whereas serotypes with a broad host range, e.g., S.
T79099 864591-864724 Sentence denotes Typhimurium, tend to affect predominantly young animals in most species, and mainly cause enterocolitis, though septicemia may occur.
T42711 864725-864861 Sentence denotes There may be overlap between the two forms of disease, and if the animal survives, a carrier state of variable duration usually follows.
T39417 864862-865090 Sentence denotes Asymptomatic carriage of Salmonella may be common, depending on the species, and transmission can occur directly, or indirectly, by contamination of feed, water, or the environment from which the organism is ingested or inhaled.
T28507 865091-865280 Sentence denotes Stressors that compromise immune competence or disrupt the enteric bacterial ecosystem are often implicated in salmonellosis, and disease is usually more common and severe in young animals.
T30624 865281-865475 Sentence denotes The more common stressors associated with include thickening of alveolar septa by mononuclear cells and neutrophils, and effusion of lightly fibrinous exudate and a few neutrophils into alveoli.
T1945 865476-865665 Sentence denotes There may be a corona of neutrophils around white pulp in the spleen, and neutrophils may be present in abnormal numbers in circulation in many organs, including lung and hepatic sinusoids.
T68267 865666-865728 Sentence denotes Kupffer cells also may be prominent in sinusoids in the liver.
T15834 865729-865818 Sentence denotes Fibrin thrombi may be evident in pulmonary capillaries, glomeruli, and hepatic sinusoids.
T22453 865819-865978 Sentence denotes Some calves develop acute interstitial nephritis with foci of neutrophil accumulation, which with time evolve into "white-spotted kidney" in surviving animals.
T94178 865979-866092 Sentence denotes More severe acute cases show evidence of serosal hemorrhage, with perhaps some serosanguineous pericardial fluid.
T26727 866093-866155 Sentence denotes The lungs may be deep red-blue, rubbery, and fail to collapse.
T25631 866156-866266 Sentence denotes Interlobular septa may be slightly separated by edema, and froth or fluid may be present in the major airways.
T91333 866267-866324 Sentence denotes Meningeal vessels may be congested, and the meninges wet.
T76791 866325-866438 Sentence denotes The abomasum or stomach may have focal superficial ulcers, or more extensive deep red areas of venous infarction.
T80655 866439-866529 Sentence denotes There may be evidence of diarrhea and dehydration, with congestion of the small intestine.
T81429 866530-866674 Sentence denotes Microscopic lesions resemble those previously described, with more severe congestion, thrombosis, and edema in lungs, and perhaps other tissues.
T1257 866675-866791 Sentence denotes In cases not examined for some time after death, clumps of small bacilli may be seen in vessels throughout the body.
T86412 866792-866883 Sentence denotes The vascular permeability, thrombosis, and hemorrhage reflect endotoxemia and its sequelae.
T11584 866884-866978 Sentence denotes Subacute cases may develop localized infection on serous surfaces, in the joints and meninges.
T36201 866979-867139 Sentence denotes Fibrinous peritonitis, pleuritis, and pericarditis, fibrinopurulent arthritis and meningitis, and hypopyon are commonly found, alone or in various combinations.
T72703 867140-867273 Sentence denotes Affected animals may have a history of lameness ascribable to arthritis, nervous signs caused by meningitis, or general debilitation.
T43891 867274-867514 Sentence denotes Microscopic examination reveals the lesions already described in animals with active systemic disease, with the addition of extensive congestion and edema of inflamed serous surfaces, associated with an acute fibrinous inflammatory exudate.
T6209 867515-867659 Sentence denotes In lambs, congestion and edema of the mucosa of turbinates and sinuses, perhaps with mucopurulent to hemorrhagic sinusitis, have been described.
T81786 867660-867904 Sentence denotes Fibrinous polyserositis and arthritis are sporadic manifestations of E. coli septicemia in growing or adult swine, and must be differentiated from the more significant Haemophilus, Mycoplasma, and streptococcal infections causing these lesions.
T34315 867905-867981 Sentence denotes Colisepticemia is a sporadic cause of mortality in litters of young puppies.
T95524 867982-868529 Sentence denotes Diagnosis of colisepticemia is based on the isolation of E. coli in large numbers from more than one parenchymatous organ or other internal site, other than mesenteric lymph node (preferably liver, spleen, lung, or kidney), or from a site of serosal localization, in conjunction with compatible gross and/ or microscopic lesions. "Watery mouth," a syndrome characterized by drooling, depression, loss of appetite, and abomasal and abdominal distention, is associated with E. coli infection/bacteremia in lambs <3 days of age in the United Kingdom.
T94710 868530-868578 Sentence denotes At autopsy affected lambs are in poor condition.
T14497 868579-868731 Sentence denotes They may have unclotted milk and mucinous fluid in the distended abomasum; there is gas in the abomasum and intestine, and meconium retention is common.
T63624 868732-868853 Sentence denotes It is hypothesized that E. coli colonize the bowel, and in some manner cause loss of motility and functional obstruction.
T88268 868854-868895 Sentence denotes Fluid and gas accumulate in the abomasum.
T31355 868896-869012 Sentence denotes Bacteremia/septicemia is terminal. chromosomes in clusters of genes known as Salmonella pathogenicity islands (SPI).
T79559 869013-869110 Sentence denotes Invasion of enterocytes, especially those in the ileum, occurs within 12 hours of oral infection.
T60019 869111-869204 Sentence denotes Ability to invade cells is dependent on a type III protein secretion system encoded in SPI-1.
T47144 869205-869388 Sentence denotes Protein targets of the secretion system are translocated into host cells, where they facilitate bacterial invasion by causing changes in the cytosol and ruffling of the cell membrane.
T23445 869389-869499 Sentence denotes Outer membrane vesicles are secreted from the surface of the bacterium and are internalized by the host cells.
T85455 869500-869598 Sentence denotes These vesicles also carry bacterial proteins into the cell that are important for internalization.
T35737 869599-869697 Sentence denotes Motility, associated with the presence of flagella, is characteristic of many Salmonella serovars.
T51778 869698-869786 Sentence denotes Bacterial motility is generally not considered to be an important virulence determinant.
T44712 869787-869927 Sentence denotes However, it may enhance the movement of bacteria through the glycocalyx and facilitate attachment to specific receptor sites on enterocytes.
T58975 869928-870083 Sentence denotes Fimbriae (pilus adhesins) encoded in chromosomes and on virulence plasmids are present on salmonellae, and they may play a role in colonization of the gut.
T83191 870084-870163 Sentence denotes Adherence of Salmonella to intestinal epithelial cells takes place in 2 stages.
T67852 870164-870240 Sentence denotes The first step is reversible because the organisms can be easily washed off.
T9168 870241-870397 Sentence denotes Weak ionic and nonionic interactions between bacterial and host cell membrane surfaces are thought to be the binding forces responsible for this attachment.
T57394 870398-870478 Sentence denotes The second stage, referred to as receptor-mediated endocytosis, is irreversible.
T3766 870479-870738 Sentence denotes It occurs after a lag period and it is characterized by degeneration of the microvilli on the epithelial cells, "ruffling" of the cell membrane, and macropinocytosis, resulting in internalization into membrane-bound vacuoles (endosomes) containing Salmonella.
T53216 870739-870871 Sentence denotes The ultrastructural changes of Salmonella infection in the intestine were first described in experimental infections of guinea pigs.
T55991 870872-870980 Sentence denotes Large numbers of organisms are present in the lumen, on the surface of the brush border, and in enterocytes.
T63951 870981-871116 Sentence denotes There is an increase in the number of neutrophils in the gut lumen and within intercellular spaces, and some of these contain bacteria.
T47602 871117-871236 Sentence denotes Degeneration of microvilli, characterized by loss of filamentous cores, is associated with close adherence of bacteria.
T75925 871237-871347 Sentence denotes Other changes consist of elongation, swelling, budding and fusion of microvilli, and loss of the terminal web.
T49576 871348-871498 Sentence denotes The organisms usually invade the cells through the brush border; however, they may also enter the mucosa through the intercellular junctional complex.
T2719 871499-871643 Sentence denotes In the cytoplasm, the bacteria are located within membrane-bound vacuoles, which may also contain remnants of microvilli and cytoplasmic debris.
T15850 871644-871736 Sentence denotes Most organisms remain intact and multiply during their transcellular migration in endosomes.
T15124 871737-871873 Sentence denotes Often, many bacteria are present in a single enterocyte during the early stages of infection, but cellular damage is mild and transient.
T6891 871874-872083 Sentence denotes The Salmonellareceptor complex dissociates as a result of the acidification of the endosomal content, allowing the receptor site to return to the apical plasma membrane and repeat the processes of endocytosis.
T33617 872084-872194 Sentence denotes After 24 hours, most bacteria are located within membrane-bound vacuoles in macrophages in the lamina propria.
T46140 872195-872318 Sentence denotes Many organisms are evident in the lumina of crypts, but invasion of cryptal epithelial cells evidently does not take place.
T41211 872319-872468 Sentence denotes The lipopolysaccharide (LPS) moiety of Salmonella with smooth cell walls consists of an O-specific side chain, a core portion, and a lipid A portion.
T17097 872469-872824 Sentence denotes Most Salmonella isolated from animals have smooth cell walls, which influences virulence in salmonellosis in domestic animals include transportation, starvation, changes in the ration, overcrowding, pregnancy, parturition, exertion, anesthesia, surgery, intercurrent disease, immunosuppressive drugs, and oral treatment with antibiotics and anthelmintics.
T77064 872825-872997 Sentence denotes Consequent changes in the anaerobic bacterial ecosystem that alter the volatile fatty acid composition of the enteric environment are permissive of Salmonella colonization.
T3103 872998-873103 Sentence denotes There are many examples of enhanced susceptibility to salmonellosis associated with intercurrent disease.
T87728 873104-873173 Sentence denotes The best known is that between the Classical swine fever virus and S.
T82496 873174-873302 Sentence denotes Choleraesuis, an association so close as to have caused early pathologists to disregard the bacterium as a significant pathogen.
T76613 873303-873471 Sentence denotes The disease in adult cattle is usually sporadic, and often there are predisposing conditions, such as parturient paresis, ketosis, mastitis, and parasitic infestations.
T47722 873472-873649 Sentence denotes The stress of anesthesia and surgery may account in part for the serious outbreaks of salmonellosis that occur in hospitalized animals, especially horses, at veterinary schools.
T99722 873650-873899 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis of salmonellosis may be divided into several stages: entry of the bacteria into the host and attainment of the primary site of infection, usually the enterocyte; attachment to the surface (colonization); and invasion of enterocytes.
T65634 873900-874086 Sentence denotes For infection to take place, Salmonella must be present in sufficient numbers; generally a minimal infective oral dose of 10 7 -10 9 organisms is needed to infect large domestic animals.
T77261 874087-874264 Sentence denotes After ingestion, the Salmonella must overcome nonspecific resistance factors, including the bactericidal effects of salivary enzymes, and the acid pH of the gastric environment.
T85483 874265-874425 Sentence denotes Mucus and lysozymes in the glycocalyx, peristalsis, commensal luminal microbial population, and constant sloughing of enterocytes may interfere with attachment.
T81827 874426-874526 Sentence denotes Those organisms that survive the nonspecific resistance factors may colonize and invade enterocytes.
T30506 874527-874740 Sentence denotes Invading Salmonella in some species enter the mucosa through M cells in the Peyer's patches, and host specificity of some Salmonella serotypes may be associated in part with specific receptor sites on these cells.
T12559 874741-874834 Sentence denotes Salmonella have been demonstrated in the Peyer's patches as early as 6 hours postinoculation.
T33208 874835-874971 Sentence denotes When bacteria invade through M cells, smaller numbers of Salmonella may enter through enterocytes in other areas of the small intestine.
T12663 874972-875068 Sentence denotes However, the M cell is not the main site of attachment in some circumstances, for instance in S.
T28351 875069-875111 Sentence denotes Typhimurium infections of calves and pigs.
T70241 875112-875325 Sentence denotes In salmonellosis characterized primarily by enterocolitis, the organisms do not usually disseminate beyond the mucosa and the mesenteric lymph nodes, and the ensuing inflammation remains confined to the intestine.
T30404 875326-875535 Sentence denotes In those cases where bacteremia ensues, the organisms must be able to survive and replicate in macrophages and disseminate to other systemic sites, such as liver, lung, joints, meninges, or placenta and fetus.
T38767 875536-875541 Sentence denotes In S.
T75001 875542-875722 Sentence denotes Dublin infection, the bacteria are present within macrophages in the intestinal mucosa, but are free in lymph in the draining lymphatics and dissemination is likely via lymphatics.
T90916 875723-875860 Sentence denotes The ability to attach, invade, and penetrate enterocytes is crucial to virulence, and the first step in the development of salmonellosis.
T74950 875861-876084 Sentence denotes A number of known virulence factors contribute to the pathogenesis of salmonellosis, including motility, pili, or fimbriae, effector proteins modifying the metabolism or causing death of host cells, and lipopolysaccharides.
T37169 876085-876256 Sentence denotes The information for such virulence attributes is often encoded in killing of Salmonella in cytoplasmic vacuoles, and in some species by factors encoded in SPI-2 and SPI-3.
T83209 876257-876361 Sentence denotes The virulence of several serotypes commonly associated with systemic infections in animals, including S.
T27646 876362-876377 Sentence denotes Typhimurium, S.
T98967 876378-876392 Sentence denotes Dublin, and S.
T69826 876393-876513 Sentence denotes Choleraesuis, is enhanced by intracellular survival in macrophages mediated by attributes encoded on virulence plasmids.
T17652 876514-876601 Sentence denotes Salmonella taken up by resident macrophages elicit a major immune response in the host.
T293 876602-876767 Sentence denotes Initiation of the innate immune response commences with pattern recognition receptors, such as toll-like receptors (TLR), which recognize conserved bacterial motifs.
T83749 876768-876872 Sentence denotes Ligation of these receptors promotes proinflammatory cytokine production and recruitment of neutrophils.
T55018 876873-877108 Sentence denotes There is considerable controversy about the roles played by cell-mediated and humoral immunity in the pathogenesis of salmonellosis, but Salmonella infection results in the release of cytokines by specifically stimulated T lymphocytes.
T23507 877109-877245 Sentence denotes They activate macrophages that phagocytose the organisms, and in such a circumstance, cell-mediated immunity is of paramount importance.
T46976 877246-877424 Sentence denotes Once Salmonella bacteria have crossed the mucosa, they may enter the bloodstream via the lymphatics, perhaps carried in macrophages, and cause septicemia or transient bacteremia.
T96403 877425-877523 Sentence denotes Or they may remain indefinitely in the gut-associated lymphoid tissues and mesenteric lymph nodes.
T5509 877524-877698 Sentence denotes Increased susceptibility to salmonellosis in animals with intercurrent disease, or subjected to stress, may be related to relaxation of cellmediated immunity to the organism.
T47129 877699-877804 Sentence denotes Septicemia may be of variable duration and severity but, as a rule, it is rapidly fatal in young animals.
T97064 877805-877952 Sentence denotes If, however, there is transient bacteremia, the organisms are removed by fixed macrophages, especially those of the spleen, liver, and bone marrow.
T77367 877953-878149 Sentence denotes They may continue to proliferate in such extravascular locations and subsequently may cause another bacteremic phase that may result in fatal septicemia or secondary localization in other tissues.
T20702 878150-878216 Sentence denotes The carrier state is important in the epidemiology of the disease.
T17033 878217-878464 Sentence denotes Whether Salmonella can maintain themselves in the intestinal lumen is not clear; to some extent fecal shedding is likely to depend on intermittent seeding from the bile, or from macrophages in the lamina propria and gut-associated lymphoid tissue.
T65816 878465-878609 Sentence denotes The duration of the carrier state may be prolonged, or animals may rid themselves of the infection, probably by means of cell-mediated immunity.
T89673 878610-878804 Sentence denotes The carrier state is an unstable one, for it appears that if the carrier is subjected to some stress or debilitating disease it may succumb to disease; this often seems to occur in adult cattle.
T74616 878805-878993 Sentence denotes The carrier animal is a potential threat to any other animal that it contacts, either directly or through the medium of its excreta, or by-products such as bone or meat meal. several ways.
T29055 878994-879171 Sentence denotes These strains are more invasive, and are more successful at avoiding phagocytosis, and lysis in phagolysosomes after invasion, than are "rough" counterparts with incomplete LPS.
T71960 879172-879385 Sentence denotes LPSs reduce the susceptibility of the organisms to the host's cationic proteins; they stimulate local prostaglandin synthesis; and they prevent the activation and deposition of complement on the bacterial surface.
T28320 879386-879505 Sentence denotes The main function of LPS may be to facilitate survival in the intestinal mucosa and eventual entry into deeper tissues.
T34770 879506-879612 Sentence denotes The involvement of LPS in invasion apparently varies among Salmonella serotypes because some strains of S.
T18758 879613-879687 Sentence denotes Typhimurium do not require intact LPS to invade epithelial cells in vitro.
T45160 879688-879758 Sentence denotes On the other hand, more host-specific Salmonella serotypes, such as S.
T21903 879759-879771 Sentence denotes Typhi and S.
T46240 879772-879822 Sentence denotes Choleraesuis, require intact LPS or O-side chains.
T65503 879823-879958 Sentence denotes The lipid A portion of LPS is responsible for the endotoxin-mediated effects of Salmonella infection that are seen in systemic disease.
T6957 879959-880095 Sentence denotes Septicemia (endotoxemia) typically causes fever, leukopenia, hemoconcentration, lactic acidosis, coagulopathies, hypotension, and death.
T87424 880096-880211 Sentence denotes Diarrhea in salmonellosis is not mediated by enterotoxins such as those involved in cholera and E. coli infections.
T28165 880212-880395 Sentence denotes Rather, effector proteins associated with SPI-1 induce secretory diarrhea by blocking chloride channel closure, whereas others attract neutrophils and induce apoptosis of enterocytes.
T92676 880396-880484 Sentence denotes Proteins encoded in SPI-5 also promote neutrophil recruitment and electrolyte secretion.
T7717 880485-880714 Sentence denotes Mucosal inflammation leads to the accumulation of a number of mediators, including prostaglandin E 2 , capable of causing hypersecretion of chloride by enterocytes, and consequent passive osmotic movement of water into the lumen.
T35329 880715-881001 Sentence denotes Loss of enterocytes, dying as a sequel to Salmonella invasion and neutrophil-induced tissue injury, results in a reduction in absorptive surface area, and causes defects in mucosal integrity, through which the protein- and neutrophil-rich exudate leaking from permeable vessels effuses.
T38708 881002-881270 Sentence denotes Thus diarrhea is an outcome of active secretion of electrolyte, malabsorption resulting from reduced mucosal surface area and enterocyte competence, and inflammatory exudation, which may contain sufficient fibrinogen to form a pseudomembrane over the affected surface.
T84116 881271-881555 Sentence denotes The volume of fluid originating in lesions in the small intestine may overwhelm the capacity of the colon to compensate; as often as not in salmonellosis, the large intestinal mucosa is also involved, further compounding the compromise to electrolyte and water homeostasis in the gut.
T62489 881556-881669 Sentence denotes Thrombosis of mucosal venules is common in Salmonella enteritis, and may contribute to loss of mucosal viability.
T11721 881670-881793 Sentence denotes Such lesions may be due in part to the large amounts of endotoxin absorbed through the damaged mucosa, or released locally.
T20095 881794-882103 Sentence denotes Enteritis in salmonellosis is thus characterized by fibrinous or fibrinohemorrhagic exudates over denuded small and large intestinal mucosae, directly mediated by the apoptosis and necrosis induced by invading bacteria, and by the necrotizing effects of local neutrophil activity and microvascular thrombosis.
T92804 882104-882312 Sentence denotes The systemic outcome of an infection with Salmonella is determined by the genetic virulence determinants of the invading organism and the ensuing innate, humoral, and cellmediated immune response of the host.
T10059 882313-882503 Sentence denotes Salmonella are considered to be facultative intracellular pathogens, and invading strains must have the ability to survive and replicate within macrophages to cause bacteremia or septicemia.
T74870 882504-882730 Sentence denotes This capacity is conferred by components coded in SPI-2, perhaps largely through inhibition of NADPH oxidase-mediated oxidative yellow feces containing flakes of fibrin, progressive emaciation and debility, and eventual death.
T63979 882731-882811 Sentence denotes Some recover but fail to thrive, often partly owing to chronic bronchopneumonia.
T43090 882812-882925 Sentence denotes At autopsy, there is blue or purple discoloration of the skin, which may be very intense about the head and ears.
T93736 882926-882981 Sentence denotes There may be superficial ischemic necrosis of the ears.
T32432 882982-883051 Sentence denotes Typically there are petechial hemorrhages in many organs and tissues.
T88547 883052-883102 Sentence denotes The lymph nodes are almost invariably hemorrhagic.
T28593 883103-883264 Sentence denotes The visceral nodes are more frequently and obviously involved than the peripheral ones, with the exception of those of the throat, which are usually hemorrhagic.
T63919 883265-883356 Sentence denotes The mesenteric lymph nodes are greatly enlarged, and they may be speckled with hemorrhages.
T10423 883357-883450 Sentence denotes There may be hemorrhages, petechial or as small discrete ecchymoses, on the laryngeal mucosa.
T94730 883451-883535 Sentence denotes The lungs do not collapse because there is frothy fluid in the respiratory passages.
T63029 883536-883568 Sentence denotes They may be pale blue or purple.
T97623 883569-883637 Sentence denotes Beneath the visceral pleura there are small dark foci of hemorrhage.
T87807 883638-883702 Sentence denotes The lungs are wet and there is fluid in the interlobular tissue.
T20347 883703-883828 Sentence denotes The changes are best appreciated in the caudal lobes because the cranial lobes are often the seat of acute lobular pneumonia.
T70529 883829-883943 Sentence denotes These pulmonary changes, attributable in part to endotoxin, account for the respiratory signs observed clinically.
T21803 883944-884019 Sentence denotes The pneumonia is interstitial because of endotoxemia and embolic organisms.
T84902 884020-884118 Sentence denotes The lobar cranioventral pneumonia may be due to ascending Salmonella alveolitis and bronchiolitis.
T32131 884119-884241 Sentence denotes Occasionally, the injury to the alveolar septa by Salmonella results in extensive fibrinous pneumonia of the caudal lobes.
T95790 884242-884389 Sentence denotes The cardiac serosae often bear petechiae, and in some more virulent infections there is fibrinohemorrhagic pericarditis with scant fluid exudation.
T6240 884390-884488 Sentence denotes The spleen is enlarged, deep blue, firm with sharp edges; little blood oozes from the cut surface.
T31948 884489-884595 Sentence denotes There may be petechiae on the capsule, but the marginal infarcts of classical swine fever are not present.
T1716 884596-884713 Sentence denotes Other causes of splenomegaly, such as erysipelas, other septicemias, and African swine fever, must be differentiated.
T10145 884714-884798 Sentence denotes The liver is usually congested, and focal hemorrhages may be visible in the capsule.
T93209 884799-884898 Sentence denotes In some cases the hemorrhages are very large, involving up to half of the central area in a lobule.
T76729 884899-884992 Sentence denotes They may be scattered at random throughout the liver or grouped, often at the edge of a lobe.
T5664 884993-885040 Sentence denotes In some, there are tiny Salmonellosis in swine.
T790 885041-885178 Sentence denotes Many serotypes of Salmonella have been isolated from swine, and with poultry and cattle they form an important reservoir of the organism.
T32140 885179-885372 Sentence denotes The bacteria are carried in the lamina propria of the intestine, but also in the regional lymph nodes of the alimentary tract, so that carrier animals may not excrete the organism in the feces.
T16044 885373-885516 Sentence denotes Three syndromes are associated with Salmonella infections in swine. (1) Septicemic salmonellosis is usually associated with the host-adapted S.
T24326 885517-885605 Sentence denotes Choleraesuis var. kunzendorf, although enteric lesions may be present with this serovar.
T96868 885606-885633 Sentence denotes Sporadic infections with S.
T35569 885634-885706 Sentence denotes Dublin have also been associated with septicemia in nursing pigs. (2) S.
T79695 885707-885846 Sentence denotes Typhimurium most commonly causes acute or chronic enterocolitis, including necrotizing proctitis which may lead to rectal stricture. (3) S.
T63075 885847-885962 Sentence denotes Typhisuis infection is characterized by ulcerative enterocolitis, as well as caseous tonsillitis and lymphadenitis.
T35788 885963-885965 Sentence denotes S.
T48524 885966-885985 Sentence denotes Choleraesuis and S.
T58668 885986-886054 Sentence denotes Typhimurium are the most common serovars that cause disease in pigs.
T23510 886055-886066 Sentence denotes However, S.
T42751 886067-886109 Sentence denotes Derby is also frequently detected in pigs.
T39324 886110-886309 Sentence denotes Salmonella Choleraesuis was once thought to be the cause of classical swine fever (formerly hog cholera) because gross lesions of septicemic salmonellosis and acute classical swine fever are similar.
T63639 886310-886355 Sentence denotes The latter disease is often complicated by S.
T31123 886356-886447 Sentence denotes Choleraesuis, the bacterium being recovered from 10-50% of pigs with classical swine fever.
T36030 886448-886487 Sentence denotes The major clinical manifestations of S.
T52218 886488-886601 Sentence denotes Choleraesuis infection are septicemia and enteritis; they usually occur separately and septicemia is more common.
T37552 886602-886604 Sentence denotes S.
T12037 886605-886665 Sentence denotes Choleraesuis can cause disease in both young and adult pigs.
T85234 886666-886688 Sentence denotes Oral inoculation of S.
T17459 886689-886861 Sentence denotes Choleraesuis initially results in septicemia and acute enterocolitis, followed in some cases by large necrotic and ulcerative lesions (button ulcers) in the colonic mucosa.
T54708 886862-886927 Sentence denotes Enteritis is not necessarily chronic, or even clinically evident.
T5701 886928-887024 Sentence denotes Interstitial pneumonia and multifocal hepatic necrosis are the most consistent systemic lesions.
T64231 887025-887125 Sentence denotes In Europe, infection has also been associated with the development of fulminant fibrinous pneumonia.
T42161 887126-887195 Sentence denotes Immunohistochemical techniques reveal the preferential location of S.
T77316 887196-887270 Sentence denotes Choleraesuis in the colon and surface of ileal M cells in Peyer's patches.
T36274 887271-887419 Sentence denotes The invasive capability of this serovar is indicated by the presence of large numbers of organisms in proprial macrophages and regional lymph nodes.
T89555 887420-887481 Sentence denotes Salmonellosis that is clinically septicemic is usually fatal.
T85523 887482-887568 Sentence denotes Death may occur quickly without observed illness, or after a course of a week or more.
T72400 887569-887832 Sentence denotes There is a high fever; characteristic but not pathognomonic blue discoloration of the skin, especially of the tail, snout, and ears ( Fig. 1-133) ; caudal weakness; dyspnea that often leads to misdiagnosis of primary pneumonia; and sometimes terminal convulsions.
T77130 887833-887889 Sentence denotes Sows may abort during the septicemic phase of infection.
T6910 887890-888031 Sentence denotes Pigs that have recovered from this phase may have dry gangrene of the ears and tail, caudal paralysis, blindness, and diphtheritic enteritis.
T35455 888032-888128 Sentence denotes The chronic or enteric form may develop from the acute, but is usually insidious from the onset.
T25583 888129-888219 Sentence denotes It is characterized by loose resulting from endotoxin, and focal localization of bacteria.
T7301 888220-888368 Sentence denotes The discoloration of the skin is initially caused by intense dilation, congestion, and thrombosis of capillaries and venules in the dermal papillae.
T41763 888369-888447 Sentence denotes There is activation and necrosis of the endothelial cells in affected vessels.
T50871 888448-888508 Sentence denotes The renal lesions vary but principally affect the glomeruli.
T93294 888509-888609 Sentence denotes In some there is diffuse glomerulitis, and this is associated with mild nephrosis and hyaline casts.
T94202 888610-888732 Sentence denotes In others the glomerulitis is exudative and hemorrhagic and in these a great many capillary loops contain hyaline thrombi.
T8299 888733-888829 Sentence denotes Embolic bacterial colonies are occasionally seen in the glomerular and intertubular capillaries.
T66513 888830-888916 Sentence denotes Fibrin thrombi also may be found in the afferent arterioles and interlobular arteries.
T54540 888917-889053 Sentence denotes The pulmonary lesions are also characterized by thrombosis and vasculitis and a largely mononuclear cellular response in alveolar septa.
T99750 889054-889147 Sentence denotes There is flooding of the alveoli by edema fluid and moderate numbers of alveolar macrophages.
T52634 889148-889275 Sentence denotes This is the usual histologic picture; the extremes are acute fibrinous inflammation or a few scattered parenchymal hemorrhages.
T87756 889276-889410 Sentence denotes In the liver the paratyphoid nodules may be found in all transitional stages from foci of nonspecific necrosis to reactive granulomas.
T41954 889411-889523 Sentence denotes Typically there are few neutrophils, and whether the nodules are necrotic or reactive depends on their duration.
T42604 889524-889573 Sentence denotes The initial change is focal coagulative necrosis.
T67359 889574-889674 Sentence denotes Macrophages accumulate about the margin, expanding and displacing the surrounding parenchymal cords.
T11884 889675-889821 Sentence denotes In the spleen there are scattered hemorrhages, but the overall histologic impression is of increased histiocytes with a scattering of neutrophils.
T93859 889822-889866 Sentence denotes The follicles are small and rather inactive.
T67165 889867-890050 Sentence denotes Very small foci of necrosis, containing many bacteria, may be sparse or relatively numerous, and these develop a reactive macrophage response and form the typical paratyphoid nodules.
T89648 890051-890136 Sentence denotes Meningoencephalomyelitis occurs in a proportion of cases of septicemic salmonellosis.
T37388 890137-890178 Sentence denotes The lesion is fundamentally a vasculitis.
T47335 890179-890343 Sentence denotes There may be petechiae in the meninges but, microscopically, there is infiltration of large mononuclear cells in the pia-arachnoid and concentrated about the veins.
T3294 890344-890449 Sentence denotes The organism is relatively fastidious and cultures from postmortem samples may not be uniformly positive.
T26824 890450-890532 Sentence denotes Salmonella Typhimurium infection in swine produces a syndrome that differs from S.
T30219 890533-890566 Sentence denotes Choleraesuis in a number of ways.
T8647 890567-890747 Sentence denotes Clinically, the disease occurs in feeder pigs and is characterized by fever, inanition, and yellow watery diarrhea that may contain blood and mucus, especially in the later stages.
T68525 890748-890793 Sentence denotes The diarrhea may be chronic and intermittent.
T7743 890794-890836 Sentence denotes There is high morbidity but low mortality.
T8684 890837-890943 Sentence denotes Most pigs recover but may remain carriers for variable periods of time; some may develop rectal stricture.
T25850 890944-891046 Sentence denotes The organism persists in tonsils, lower intestinal tract, and submandibular and ileocolic lymph nodes.
T21218 891047-891136 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis and morphology of the enteric lesions differ from those described for S.
T86369 891137-891160 Sentence denotes Choleraesuis enteritis.
T2659 891161-891180 Sentence denotes The lesions with S.
T64563 891181-891309 Sentence denotes Typhimurium infection are mainly confined to the colon, cecum, and rectum, with minor involvement of the distal small intestine.
T96877 891310-891420 Sentence denotes There is acute enterocolitis with formation of a diphtheritic membrane on the mucosal surface ( Fig. 1-136) .
T89511 891421-891499 Sentence denotes Button ulcers are not associated with this or other non−host-adapted serovars.
T90866 891500-891547 Sentence denotes Systemic dissemination and septicemia are rare.
T23538 891548-891661 Sentence denotes Rectal stricture is thought to be a sequel in most cases to ulcerative proctitis of ischemic origin, caused by S.
T96370 891662-891674 Sentence denotes Typhimurium.
T2209 891675-891861 Sentence denotes It is characterized clinically by marked progressive distention of the abdomen, loss of appetite, emaciation, and soft feces. yellow foci of necrosis, referred to as paratyphoid nodules.
T29683 891862-891943 Sentence denotes Pinpoint hemorrhages are consistently present in the renal cortex ( Fig. 1-134 ).
T23238 891944-892050 Sentence denotes There may be only a few in each kidney or they may be so numerous as to cause the "turkey egg" appearance.
T82113 892051-892174 Sentence denotes The stomach shows the intense red-black color of the severe congestion and venous infarction common to endotoxemia in pigs.
T20954 892175-892284 Sentence denotes If the animal survives a week or more, the superficial necrotic layer of the affected gastric mucosa sloughs.
T22203 892285-892326 Sentence denotes There may be no lesions in the intestine.
T94757 892327-892494 Sentence denotes There may be catarrhal enteritis or, more frequently, the enteritis is hemorrhagic, increasing in severity lower in the tract and terminating in a hemorrhagic ileitis.
T1131 892495-892662 Sentence denotes The mucosae of the colon and cecum may be normal but, if the course is prolonged, there is hyperemia, fibrinohemorrhagic inflammation, or button ulcers ( Fig. 1-135) .
T30847 892663-892757 Sentence denotes Petechial hemorrhages may occur in the meninges and brain, but there is no gross inflammation.
T76883 892758-892863 Sentence denotes Localization sometimes occurs in synovial membranes, producing polysynovitis and sometimes polyarthritis.
T46659 892864-892975 Sentence denotes It is more usual to have an increase in the volume of fluid with red velvety hypertrophy of the synovial villi.
T6803 892976-893049 Sentence denotes The gross features described are usually not all present in any one case.
T37406 893050-893230 Sentence denotes The histologic changes that occur in internal organs in acute disease are mainly associated with endothelial damage Salmonella Typhisuis infection is an uncommon condition in pigs.
T50752 893231-893337 Sentence denotes The disease, called paratyphoid in Europe, is now known to cause disease in pigs in the Americas and Asia.
T4202 893338-893622 Sentence denotes It is a progressive disease of 2-4 month-old pigs that is clinically characterized by intermittent diarrhea, emaciation, and frequently, massive enlargement of the neck region, the latter associated with caseous palatine tonsillitis, cervical lymphadenitis, and parotid sialoadenitis.
T46797 893623-893738 Sentence denotes There is also circular or button-like to confluent ulceration of the mucosa of the ileum, cecum, colon, and rectum.
T94396 893739-893877 Sentence denotes Other less frequent findings are caseous lymphadenitis of the mesenteric lymph nodes, interstitial pneumonia, hepatitis, and pericarditis.
T51771 893878-893891 Sentence denotes Barrow PA, et
T17341 893893-893946 Sentence denotes The most common serovar in horses in most areas is S.
T66232 893947-894067 Sentence denotes Typhimurium, and its prevalence is increasing, especially that of multidrug-resistant definitive phage type 104 (DT104).
T59224 894068-894137 Sentence denotes Other serovars are usually associated with sporadic cases of disease.
T27008 894138-894220 Sentence denotes Many horses are Salmonella carriers, and when they are stressed, diarrhea follows.
T40013 894221-894275 Sentence denotes Abortion of pregnant mares has been associated with S.
T37871 894276-894288 Sentence denotes Abortusequi.
T15521 894289-894422 Sentence denotes Salmonella Infantum has been associated with disseminated infection localizing in a variety of tissues, including muscle, in a horse.
T23296 894423-894506 Sentence denotes Treatment with antibiotics, especially orally, increases the risk of salmonellosis.
T43982 894507-894708 Sentence denotes Resistance to certain antibiotics is associated with the presence of resistance (R) plasmids that may be transferred to other bacteria, of the same or different species, by conjugation or transduction.
T69345 894709-894913 Sentence denotes Antibiotic-resistant Salmonella may not respond to treatment, and antimicrobial therapy may increase the potential for infection and disease because of the suppression of the normal intestinal microbiota.
T33236 894914-895029 Sentence denotes Antibiotic-resistant strains have been associated with outbreaks of salmonellosis at veterinary teaching hospitals.
T97043 895030-895180 Sentence denotes Salmonellosis in horses may be manifested clinically as peracute (usually septicemic), acute, and chronic forms, and as an asymptomatic carrier state.
T16967 895181-895249 Sentence denotes The septicemic form occurs most commonly in foals 1-6 months of age.
T10078 895250-895340 Sentence denotes These animals are usually with their dams at pasture and predisposing factors are unclear.
T8186 895341-895382 Sentence denotes The infection in foals tends to be fatal.
T24460 895383-895516 Sentence denotes Affected animals are lethargic and develop severe diarrhea, often with characteristic green color, which may contain casts and blood.
T11825 895517-895572 Sentence denotes They are febrile and waste rapidly, to die in 2-3 days.
T75997 895573-895696 Sentence denotes Some survive for a week or more and these may develop signs of pneumonia, osteitis, polyarthritis, and meningoencephalitis.
T69862 895697-895781 Sentence denotes The primarily enteric forms of the disease are more likely to occur in older horses.
T45882 895782-895953 Sentence denotes Most of the predisposing factors At autopsy, there is marked dilation of the colon, which is caused by narrowing of the rectum, 1-10 cm cranial to the anus ( Fig. 1-137) .
T52767 895954-896038 Sentence denotes The stricture is usually <1.0 cm in diameter and varies in length from 0.5 to 20 cm.
T58177 896039-896127 Sentence denotes There is marked fibrous thickening of the rectal wall, which may contain microabscesses.
T24032 896128-896262 Sentence denotes The dilation of the colon, proximal to the stricture, may consist of a well-demarcated widened area several centimeters long and wide.
T61547 896263-896356 Sentence denotes The colonic mucosa in this area is usually ulcerated and may be covered by fibrinous exudate.
T32184 896357-896543 Sentence denotes In some cases there is more gradual but sometimes massive dilation of the entire colon and cecum, which are full of digesta, with ulceration of the mucosa just proximal to the stricture.
T53884 896544-896663 Sentence denotes The mucosa is always excessively corrugated; this is mainly the result of marked thickening of the internal muscularis.
T90381 896664-896769 Sentence denotes Anastomoses of the small intestine and/or colon to the dilated portion of the descending colon may occur.
T80592 896770-896859 Sentence denotes Localized chronic peritonitis is often associated with the dilated segments of the colon.
T58786 896860-897041 Sentence denotes The stricture is located in an area of rectum that has a relatively poor blood supply, namely, the junction of the circulatory fields of the caudal mesenteric and pudendal arteries.
T85223 897042-897125 Sentence denotes Ulcerative proctitis is consistently found in swine with typhlocolitis caused by S.
T92898 897126-897148 Sentence denotes Typhimurium infection.
T30803 897149-897223 Sentence denotes Granulation of such lesions probably leads to cicatrization and stricture.
T19964 897224-897430 Sentence denotes The location, the persistent nature of this lesion in some pigs, and its limited capacity to heal are probably related to the restricted blood supply of the affected area. mentioned earlier apply to horses.
T58056 897431-897591 Sentence denotes Salmonellosis is an occupational hazard of horses, since many are exposed to long periods of transport, and to exertion owing to overwork or excessive training.
T47723 897592-897718 Sentence denotes Clinically, the acute disease is characterized by diarrhea and fever for a period of 1-2 weeks, followed by recovery or death.
T58657 897719-897765 Sentence denotes The chronic form persists for weeks or months.
T16711 897766-897834 Sentence denotes Affected horses pass soft, unformed manure that resembles cow feces.
T67579 897835-897918 Sentence denotes They lose their appetite, with subsequent progressive loss of weight and condition.
T14723 897919-897972 Sentence denotes In later stages they become dehydrated and emaciated.
T18594 897973-898083 Sentence denotes The gross lesions are those of enteritis and/or septicemia; the former are most consistently found at autopsy.
T31507 898084-898183 Sentence denotes As a rule, the longer the course, the lower in the intestine does one find the most severe lesions.
T35220 898184-898265 Sentence denotes Acute septicemic cases have small hemorrhages on the serous or mucosal membranes.
T89514 898266-898341 Sentence denotes The visceral lymph nodes are always enlarged, juicy, and often hemorrhagic.
T91019 898342-898442 Sentence denotes Marked pulmonary congestion and edema, and renal cortical pallor and medullary congestion may occur.
T30178 898443-898494 Sentence denotes The main lesions are in the stomach and intestines.
T88456 898495-898646 Sentence denotes In peracute or septicemic cases there is intense hyperemia of the gastric mucosa, probably venous infarction, with some edema and scattered hemorrhage.
T83422 898647-898721 Sentence denotes The small intestine may be congested with a mucous or hemorrhagic exudate.
T56170 898722-898975 Sentence denotes In acute cases there is diffuse and intense fibrinohemorrhagic inflammation of the cecum and colon overshadowing any lesions in the upper intestine, and leading rapidly to superficial necrosis of the mucosa and a gray-red pseudomembrane ( Fig. 1-138A) .
T22105 898976-899039 Sentence denotes In chronic salmonellosis, enteric lesions may be few or subtle.
T64265 899040-899133 Sentence denotes Some animals have extensive or patchy fibrinous or ulcerative lesions of the cecum and colon.
T10201 899134-899259 Sentence denotes In others, raised circumscribed lesions ∼2-3 cm in diameter may be evident, with a gelatinous submucosa and ulcerated mucosa.
T60532 899260-899341 Sentence denotes Some such lesions are more fibrinous, and resemble button ulcers ( Fig. 1-138B) .
T96661 899342-899418 Sentence denotes Histologic alterations of significance are usually limited to the intestine.
T65337 899419-899537 Sentence denotes However, in septicemic animals lesions typical of endotoxemia are present in lung, liver, kidney, spleen, and adrenal.
T55512 899538-899682 Sentence denotes There may be acute ileocecocolic lymphadenitis, and inflammation in sites of localization, such as growth plates in long bones and the meninges.
T73980 899683-899838 Sentence denotes Depending on the duration of the enteritis, hemorrhage, necrosis, or diphtheresis may predominate, but the infiltrating leukocytes are largely mononuclear.
T15860 899839-899918 Sentence denotes The superficial coagulative necrosis of the mucosa may extend over large areas.
T76229 899919-899984 Sentence denotes A layer of fibrinocellular exudate may cover the necrotic mucosa.
T85220 899985-900091 Sentence denotes Fibrin thrombi are frequently present in the capillaries or venules of the lamina propria ( Fig. 1-138C ).
T15551 900092-900193 Sentence denotes There is usually marked congestion of submucosal vessels, which is accompanied by considerable edema.
T68893 900194-900227 Sentence denotes A B C infection of calves with S.
T35174 900228-900426 Sentence denotes Typhimurium, the numbers of bacteria are generally lower in the abomasum and duodenum than in the lower intestinal tract, whereas they are relatively constant from the jejunum through to the rectum.
T7681 900427-900571 Sentence denotes The early microscopic lesions in the small intestine consist of a thin layer of fibrinocellular exudate on the surface of short and blunt villi.
T11029 900572-900717 Sentence denotes This is followed by extensive necrosis and ulceration of the mucosa, with fibrin and neutrophils exuding from the ulcerated areas into the lumen.
T36732 900718-900801 Sentence denotes The lamina propria may be moderately infiltrated by mononuclear inflammatory cells.
T55361 900802-900871 Sentence denotes Fibrin thrombi are often evident in proprial capillaries and venules.
T95968 900872-900996 Sentence denotes There is also marked submucosal edema and the centers of lymphoid follicles in the Peyer's patches are completely involuted.
T48147 900997-901097 Sentence denotes Similar erosion, ulceration, and fibrinous effusion occur in the proximal large bowel (Fig. 1-140) .
T44263 901098-901208 Sentence denotes Scanning electron microscopy of small intestine shows large numbers of bacteria on a tattered mucosal surface.
T25198 901209-901271 Sentence denotes Clusters of enterocytes slough off short villi ( Fig. 1-141) .
T21493 901272-901343 Sentence denotes Strands of fibrin emerge from the mucosal defects and cover the mucosa.
T38140 901344-901521 Sentence denotes Ultrastructurally, the lesions are similar to those described originally in guinea pigs, except that there is more damage to epithelium in calves experimentally infected with S.
T7993 901522-901534 Sentence denotes Typhimurium.
T83616 901535-901644 Sentence denotes Characteristic changes usually occur in the liver and spleen, but may be absent in peracute septicemic cases.
T26378 901645-901684 Sentence denotes There is often fibrinous cholecystitis.
T47837 901685-901871 Sentence denotes In acute cases the spleen is enlarged and pulpy as a result of congestion, but this is soon replaced by acute splenitis, present as miliary, tiny foci of necrosis or as reactive nodules.
T21009 901872-901933 Sentence denotes The liver is often pale with many minute paratyphoid nodules.
T72451 901934-901990 Sentence denotes In the spleen, macrophage reaction is sometimes diffuse.
T92484 901991-902092 Sentence denotes Paratyphoid granulomas also may be found microscopically in the kidney, lymph nodes, and bone marrow.
T93724 902093-902170 Sentence denotes These probably represent a cell-mediated immune response to embolic bacteria.
T74380 902171-902441 Sentence denotes In those animals that survive the acute phase of the disease, the inflammatory changes in lymphoid tissues progress to an immunologic response, characterized by a diffuse reaction of medium-sized and large lymphocytes in the follicles, and plasma cells in the sinusoids.
T59018 902442-902493 Sentence denotes There may be marked cortical atrophy of the thymus.
T28722 902494-902597 Sentence denotes In calves with acute septicemia, pulmonary congestion and edema are visible at Salmonellosis in cattle.
T75612 902598-902639 Sentence denotes The serotypes usually incriminated are S.
T88935 902640-902658 Sentence denotes Typhimurium and S.
T1385 902659-902698 Sentence denotes Dublin; both are distributed worldwide.
T13592 902699-902710 Sentence denotes Wherever S.
T10735 902711-902849 Sentence denotes Dublin is found, it tends to be adapted to cattle and to occur in epizootics, whereas other serotypes usually cause more sporadic disease.
T65104 902850-902852 Sentence denotes S.
T45325 902853-902915 Sentence denotes Newport has been identified as an emerging pathogen in cattle.
T63254 902916-903072 Sentence denotes It is unusual to find salmonellosis in calves <1 week of age, in contrast to enteric and septicemic colibacillosis, which usually affect very young animals.
T58311 903073-903176 Sentence denotes In calves, salmonellosis is a febrile disease typified by dejection, dehydration, and usually diarrhea.
T23372 903177-903287 Sentence denotes Diarrhea is not always present, but when it is, the feces are yellow or gray, and have a very unpleasant odor.
T99585 903288-903347 Sentence denotes In older calves, there may be blood and mucus in the feces.
T87947 903348-903450 Sentence denotes In less acute cases there may be delayed evidence of localization in the lung and synovial structures.
T96678 903451-903565 Sentence denotes Morbidity and mortality may be considerable, especially in calves that are confined, such as in vealer operations.
T61938 903566-903728 Sentence denotes Experimental infections in calves indicate that survival is inversely related to the numbers of Salmonella in the inoculum, and directly to the age of the calves.
T32780 903729-903840 Sentence denotes The general appearance at autopsy of a calf with salmonellosis may resemble one with septicemic colibacillosis.
T34385 903841-903954 Sentence denotes However, enlargement of mesenteric lymph nodes and gross enteric lesions are generally observed in salmonellosis.
T10603 903955-904115 Sentence denotes There is moderately severe gastrointestinal inflammation, acute swelling, and hemorrhage of the visceral lymph nodes, and some petechiation of serous membranes.
T10365 904116-904246 Sentence denotes The enteritis may be catarrhal, but sometimes it is hemorrhagic or more commonly causes exudation of yellow fibrin ( Fig. 1-139) .
T1582 904247-904320 Sentence denotes The mucosa overlying the lymphoid tissues may become necrotic and slough.
T42502 904321-904442 Sentence denotes In animals with fibrinous enteritis, the bowel wall is somewhat turgid and the serosa may have a ground-glass appearance.
T67833 904443-904507 Sentence denotes There is often diffuse, but perhaps mild, fibrinous peritonitis.
T30028 904508-904619 Sentence denotes The intestinal lesions are usually most severe in the ileum, especially during the early stages of the disease.
T91565 904620-904711 Sentence denotes With time the jejunum and colon become involved but the duodenum remains relatively normal.
T18095 904712-904846 Sentence denotes The regional distribution of the lesions may, in part, be related to differences in the level of bacterial colonization of the mucosa.
T70682 904847-904937 Sentence denotes Twelve hours after oral of the United States is the leading cause of bovine salmonellosis.
T43831 904938-905093 Sentence denotes The potential for this strain to emerge as a major foodborne pathogen has caused great consternation among both agricultural and public health communities.
T22027 905094-905126 Sentence denotes Multidrugresistant strains of S.
T9638 905127-905161 Sentence denotes Newport have also been identified.
T39456 905162-905194 Sentence denotes As well as abortion caused by S.
T93403 905195-905304 Sentence denotes Abortus-ovis, abortion and neonatal death may follow infection of pregnant ewes by any species of Salmonella.
T38438 905305-905334 Sentence denotes Although the prevalence of S.
T81569 905335-905392 Sentence denotes Abortus-ovis in the United Kingdom seems to be waning, S.
T93216 905393-905498 Sentence denotes Montevideo, on the other hand, has been associated with abortions in several flocks in the British Isles.
T40669 905499-905501 Sentence denotes S.
T51643 905502-905556 Sentence denotes Brandenburg has been reported in sheep in New Zealand.
T85534 905557-905669 Sentence denotes Salmonellosis is not a common disease in sheep, but outbreaks are always severe and may cause very heavy losses.
T39713 905670-905783 Sentence denotes Predisposing influences are necessary, and these are usually provided by circumstances that enforce congregation.
T62209 905784-905961 Sentence denotes Deprivation of food and water for 2-3 days may be sufficient and, coupled with fatigue, is the usual predisposing factor when sheep are transported or confined in holding yards.
T27873 905962-906052 Sentence denotes Deaths usually continue for 7-10 days after debilitating circumstances have been remedied.
T24580 906053-906095 Sentence denotes The serovars usually found in sheep are S.
T92495 906096-906111 Sentence denotes Typhimurium, S.
T45451 906112-906128 Sentence denotes Arizonae, and S.
T89180 906129-906141 Sentence denotes Enteritidis.
T6825 906142-906257 Sentence denotes Salmonella Dublin is increasing in prevalence in the United Kingdom and the midwestern states of the United States.
T25674 906258-906299 Sentence denotes Experimental inoculation of sheep with S.
T19997 906300-906347 Sentence denotes Arizonae produces infection but rarely disease.
T30381 906348-906532 Sentence denotes Under natural conditions this host-adapted organism is frequently considered to be an infection secondary to some other disease, or an incidental finding in apparently healthy animals.
T26717 906533-906656 Sentence denotes Most serovars produce the same sort of disease, which closely resembles that seen in cattle both clinically and at autopsy.
T12129 906657-906830 Sentence denotes The major findings are fibrinohemorrhagic enteritis and septicemia. autopsy, with interstitial thickening of pulmonary alveolar septa by mononuclear cells in tissue section.
T93817 906831-906948 Sentence denotes There may be thrombosis of septal capillaries, and some effusion of edema fluid and macrophages into alveolar spaces.
T40558 906949-907065 Sentence denotes In subacute salmonellosis of calves, there may be cranial bronchopneumonia, usually with adhesions and abscessation.
T19367 907066-907201 Sentence denotes Purulent exudate is in synovial cavities, and the organism is recoverable in pure culture from such affected joints and tendon sheaths.
T94385 907202-907273 Sentence denotes It may be mixed with Trueperella pyogenes and Pasteurella in the lungs.
T19061 907274-907436 Sentence denotes Salmonellosis in adult cattle may occur in outbreaks as it does in calves, but more often it is sporadic, and it may cause chronic diarrhea and loss of condition.
T6180 907437-907491 Sentence denotes The source of infection is usually the carrier animal.
T10498 907492-907642 Sentence denotes Other sources, such as feed containing protein of animal origin, or bone meal, should be considered when the disease is caused by an uncommon serovar.
T2469 907643-907676 Sentence denotes Abortions are most common with S.
T3998 907677-907716 Sentence denotes Dublin, but may occur with any serovar.
T23579 907717-907857 Sentence denotes In some herds, this may be the only clinical evidence of infection, although other animals often excrete the offending serovar in the feces.
T35714 907858-907881 Sentence denotes The carrier state of S.
T18859 907882-908037 Sentence denotes Dublin infection in adult cattle may persist for years, sometimes for life, in contrast to infections with other serovars, which rarely persist >18 months.
T63812 908038-908096 Sentence denotes Dairy cows may persistently shed Salmonella, especially S.
T86833 908097-908163 Sentence denotes Dublin, in milk and cause infections in humans who drink raw milk.
T85295 908164-908342 Sentence denotes In cattle admitted to a teaching hospital a higher risk for shedding was identified in those that were admitted to the hospital in the fall, suggesting a seasonality to shedding.
T51239 908343-908509 Sentence denotes The morbid changes in adult cattle correspond to those in calves except that there is more pleural hemorrhage and the enteritis may be more hemorrhagic and fibrinous.
T44943 908510-908600 Sentence denotes The histologic changes in the liver and other organs are the same as those seen in calves.
T39748 908601-908819 Sentence denotes The multidrug-resistant strain Salmonella Typhimurium definitive phage type 104 (DT104), first seen in the UK in the late 1980s, has now spread worldwide and in some parts epididymitis-orchitis, mastitis and pneumonia.
T38600 908820-908897 Sentence denotes Y. pestis, the cause of plague in animals and humans, is not considered here.
T96230 908898-908963 Sentence denotes The epidemiology of yersiniosis is complex and poorly understood.
T63995 908964-909119 Sentence denotes These organisms may be shed in the feces by asymptomatic animals in the herd or flock, and by other species, such as rodents and birds, in the environment.
T20166 909120-909321 Sentence denotes The organisms can survive and grow in the environment at low temperatures, and in cool weather environmental contamination by Yersinia spp. may be considerable, resulting in significant oral challenge.
T35659 909322-909475 Sentence denotes Disease may in part be due to compromise of cell-mediated immunity, permitting establishment of invading organisms, or recrudescence of latent infection.
T53528 909476-909650 Sentence denotes Often, outbreaks occur under stressful circumstances, such as poor weather, flooding, after transport, during the breeding season, or in animals on a poor plane of nutrition.
T59856 909651-909830 Sentence denotes Subsequent to ingestion, the organisms invade through the intestinal epithelium or M cells overlying Peyer's patches and reach the lamina propria or submucosal lymphoid follicles.
T51990 909831-910141 Sentence denotes Enormous recruitment of neutrophils and ensuing destruction of cytoarchitecture of the Peyer's patch and overlying epithelium result in formation of suppurative foci in place of follicles in Peyer's patches, and microabscesses in the lamina propria of the small or large intestine if invasion occurs elsewhere.
T73024 910142-910286 Sentence denotes Yersinia spp. disseminates via lymphatics and hepatic portal venous drainage to mesenteric lymph nodes or to liver and the systemic circulation.
T3039 910287-910448 Sentence denotes Pathogenicity in the main Yersinia species is associated primarily with the 70-kb virulence plasmid, pYV, and with other proteins that are chromosomally encoded.
T2387 910449-910644 Sentence denotes After bacteria are ingested and they reach the terminal ileum, they present on their surface the outer membrane protein invasin; this protein is expressed in stationary phase at low temperatures.
T72042 910645-910843 Sentence denotes Invasin facilitates translocation of the bacteria across the intestinal epithelium, after which invasin binds to β1 integrins in the host tissue, which induces production of chemokines such as IL-8.
T22141 910844-910921 Sentence denotes In the Peyer's patches, bacteria replicate and express another adhesin, YadA.
T66470 910922-911013 Sentence denotes The latter down-regulates expression of invasin and protects bacteria against phagocytosis.
T10334 911014-911183 Sentence denotes YadA and another protein, Ail, protect bacteria against the host immune system enabling bacterial propagation to mesenteric lymph nodes and, occasionally, other tissues.
T1679 911184-911437 Sentence denotes Although Yersinia reside extracellularly as microcolonies in suppurative foci in the lamina propria of the intestine and lymph nodes, at least some appear to reside intracellularly, since a T-cell-mediated immune response is required to clear infection.
T82220 911438-911552 Sentence denotes Giant cells wall off foci of infection in subacute to chronic lesions, hence the specific name pseudotuberculosis.
T33594 911553-911682 Sentence denotes Disease may be gradual in onset, subtle and chronic, producing a syndrome of diarrhea and ill-thrift in cattle, sheep, and goats.
T93630 911683-911803 Sentence denotes Mild diarrhea and enteritis with low mortality has been reported in Australia in weaned pigs with Y. pseudotuberculosis.
T26317 911804-912034 Sentence denotes More fulminant disease, characterized by severe, sometimes hemorrhagic, diarrhea, systemic infection, and prostration, may occur in cattle, some species of deer, especially chital and red deer, water buffalo, and exotic ungulates.
T28716 912035-912193 Sentence denotes Yersiniosis is an apparently uncommon cause of diarrhea, and occasionally fatal enterocolitis, mesenteric lymphadenitis, and systemic infection in carnivores.
T60717 912194-912258 Sentence denotes Yersinia also causes sporadic pneumonia and septicemia in foals.
T10566 912259-912363 Sentence denotes Yersiniosis has been described worldwide, as a cause of disease in sheep, cattle, goats, deer, and pigs.
T49530 912364-912484 Sentence denotes The lesions of Y. pseudotuberculosis and Y. enterocolitica cannot be differentiated reliably grossly or microscopically.
T81206 912486-912558 Sentence denotes Salmonella can often be recovered from apparently healthy dogs and cats.
T30339 912559-912598 Sentence denotes However, primary disease rarely occurs.
T7240 912599-912694 Sentence denotes Salmonella has been recovered in high frequency from normal sled dogs lacking clinical disease.
T73025 912695-912784 Sentence denotes Raw meat fed to dogs has been shown to have a high incidence of Salmonella contamination.
T79391 912785-912894 Sentence denotes In dogs and cats, nosocomial infections are sometimes associated with hospitalization and antibiotic therapy.
T74264 912895-912955 Sentence denotes In dogs, salmonellosis may be secondary to canine distemper.
T95471 912956-913145 Sentence denotes It can cause bronchopneumonia, acute hemorrhagic gastroenteritis, swelling of the spleen and mesenteric lymph nodes, serosal hemorrhages, and foci of necrosis in the liver and other organs.
T29743 913146-913195 Sentence denotes Septicemia in puppies has been associated with S.
T4294 913196-913213 Sentence denotes Dublin infection.
T75803 913214-913319 Sentence denotes Salmonellosis has been reported in dogs with lymphosarcoma, shortly after the initiation of chemotherapy.
T62709 913320-913455 Sentence denotes The immunosuppressive effect of the treatment, or depressed cell-mediated immunity, probably predisposes to the development of disease.
T65967 913456-913559 Sentence denotes Various serovars have been isolated from cats and most of these appear to cause subclinical infections.
T39151 913560-913689 Sentence denotes However, salmonellosis may be a problem in catteries and hospitals, affecting animals that are subjected to stressful conditions.
T8657 913690-913809 Sentence denotes Spillover of Salmonella spp. from wildlife populations to cats through predator/prey relationships has been documented.
T51956 913810-914026 Sentence denotes Immunosuppression associated with feline leukemia virus, feline immunodeficiency virus, Salmonella-contaminated panleukopenia vaccine, or other intercurrent diseases is thought to predispose to salmonellosis in cats.
T19115 914027-914029 Sentence denotes S.
T87889 914030-914090 Sentence denotes Typhimurium is most commonly associated with such outbreaks.
T23153 914091-914235 Sentence denotes The disease is characterized by gastroenteritis and septicemia or a more chronic, nonspecific febrile illness, with neutrophilia and left shift.
T34143 914236-914584 Sentence denotes Because of their close association with humans, especially children and the aged, dogs and cats that are carriers are a potential source of zoonotic infection. pyogranulomas surrounded by macrophages or giant cells, and sometimes containing bacterial microcolonies, may be present in the subcapsular and medullary sinuses of mesenteric lymph nodes.
T58685 914585-914805 Sentence denotes In fulminant Yersinia infection in all species, there is fibrinous or fibrinohemorrhagic enterocolitis, with heavy local mucosal colonization by masses of coccobacilli, and marked neutrophil infiltration ( Fig. 1-142B) .
T4174 914806-914997 Sentence denotes Peyer's patches may be particularly involved, with grossly visible foci or confluent masses of caseous necrotic debris, as may be found in draining mesenteric lymph nodes, which are enlarged.
T35103 914998-915265 Sentence denotes There may be serosal hemorrhages on the gut, fibrinous peritonitis and pleuritis, and foci of necrosis also may be present in the liver, lungs, and occasionally other parenchymatous organs; the characteristic microcolonies of coccobacilli are usually evident in them.
T25375 915266-915512 Sentence denotes Caseous mesenteric lymphadenitis, with mature pyogranulomas containing microcolonies of bacteria, surrounded by neutrophils and giant cells, may occasionally be found as an incidental lesion, or in animals with Yersinia abscesses in other organs.
T61908 915513-915690 Sentence denotes Yersiniosis is diagnosed in tissue section by finding characteristic microcolonies of coccobacilli in microabscesses (see Fig. 1-142B ), and is confirmed by bacterial isolation.
T19126 915691-915857 Sentence denotes Microscopic lesions may not be detected in the intestinal mucosa of some clinically affected animals from which isolates are made, perhaps because lesions are patchy.
T31229 915858-915978 Sentence denotes Because Yersinia spp. are psychrophiles, cold enrichment and culture at temperatures <37° C are used in their isolation.
T76166 915979-916135 Sentence denotes Lawsonia intracellularis infects a variety of species including swine, horses, donkeys, deer, rodents, rabbits, foxes, dogs, ferrets, and nonhuman primates.
T88567 916136-916293 Sentence denotes It causes a characteristic proliferative lesion of cryptal epithelium in distal small and/or large intestine that is associated with diarrhea and ill thrift.
T8700 916294-916397 Sentence denotes L. intracellularis is a microaerophilic nonflagellated gram-negative, curved or S-shaped rod bacterium.
T96473 916398-916491 Sentence denotes Because it is an obligate intracellular organism, cultivation requires use of tissue culture.
T79424 916492-916758 Sentence denotes Formerly referred to as intestinal adenomatosis complex, the conditions in swine now known to be caused by L. intracellularis including porcine intestinal adenomatosis, necrotic In all species, gross lesions in clinically subacute to chronic yersiniosis may be mild.
T42645 916759-916961 Sentence denotes They are usually limited to abnormally fluid intestinal content, with congestion, edema, roughening, and perhaps small foci of pallor, focal hemorrhages, erosion, or mild ulceration and fibrin effusion.
T51011 916962-917090 Sentence denotes Raised nodules up to 5 mm in diameter, with depressed centers, or ulcers may be evident in affected large bowel ( Fig. 1-142A) .
T89641 917091-917184 Sentence denotes Mesenteric lymph nodes are enlarged, congested, and edematous, perhaps with foci of necrosis.
T96372 917185-917277 Sentence denotes There may be mild fibrinous cholecystitis, and pale foci of necrosis scattered in the liver.
T30319 917278-917565 Sentence denotes The infection is characterized histologically by masses of gram-negative coccobacilli forming microcolonies, in the lamina propria of villi and around the necks of crypts in the distal half of the small intestine, in Peyer's patches, and in the superficial mucosa of the large intestine.
T56837 917566-917812 Sentence denotes Intense local infiltrates of inflammatory cells, predominantly neutrophils, accumulate to form microabscesses up to about 300 µm in diameter around the bacteria, and effuse into the lumen through microerosions on the mucosal surface or in crypts.
T62433 917813-917850 Sentence denotes Small crypt abscesses may be present.
T61106 917851-918005 Sentence denotes In small intestine, there may be moderate atrophy of villi and hyperplasia of crypts, associated with increased infiltrates of chronic inflammatory cells.
T91292 918006-918024 Sentence denotes Microabscesses, or
T4042 918026-918147 Sentence denotes A enteritis, and proliferative hemorrhagic enteropathy are collectively known as porcine proliferative enteropathy (PPE).
T80356 918148-918210 Sentence denotes Identification of the etiologic agent was elusive for decades.
T37423 918211-918419 Sentence denotes The intracellular bacterium was initially thought to be Campylobacter spp., then putatively identified as ileal symbiont intracellularis, until the taxonomy was formalized as Lawsonia intracellularis in 1995.
T82835 918420-918482 Sentence denotes PPE is a prevalent and important infection in swine worldwide.
T73957 918483-918590 Sentence denotes The syndrome occurs mostly in postweaned pigs; however, pigs from 3 weeks of age to adults may be affected.
T84517 918591-918728 Sentence denotes Severity of clinical effects varies from mild subclinical disease with reduced growth rate to persistent diarrhea and severe weight loss.
T73624 918729-918777 Sentence denotes Once infected, pigs shed the organism for weeks.
T18858 918778-918956 Sentence denotes Death may follow a period of diarrhea and progressive cachexia, or it may occasionally occur as a result of perforation of an ulcerated intestine, or through peracute hemorrhage.
T57900 918957-918984 Sentence denotes Mortality may be very high.
T66630 918985-919212 Sentence denotes Development of disease is dependent on undefined interactions with other bacteria in the gut, because gnotobiotic pigs inoculated with L. intracellularis fail to develop disease, whereas conventional pigs are quite susceptible.
T27361 919213-919480 Sentence denotes Experimental studies and mild spontaneous cases suggest that infection occurs first in glandular epithelial cells near lymphoid aggregates of the ileocecocolic region, whereas the cecal and colonic cryptal epithelial cells are infected later in the course of disease.
T60965 919481-919619 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis of PPE is related to active uptake of L. intracellularis by epithelial cells, although specific receptors remain unknown.
T8370 919620-919838 Sentence denotes Once endocytosed by the host cell, the entry vacuole breaks down and the bacteria persist and replicate freely within the apical cytoplasm, causing hyperplasia and propagation of the bacteria throughout the epithelium.
T84368 919839-919929 Sentence denotes Cell division is required for bacterial replication, which may explain its tissue tropism.
T16139 919930-920074 Sentence denotes Bacteria are passed on to daughter epithelial cells and exit via extrusion from the cytoplasm of enterocytes on villi or between crypt openings.
T32833 920075-920310 Sentence denotes Disruption of intestinal cell differentiation by the pathogen is theorized to be a central event; however, specific virulence factors of L. intracellularis and molecular details of the host cell-pathogen interaction remain undescribed.
T90429 920311-920423 Sentence denotes Infected epithelium is thus transformed into a population of mitotically active and poorly differentiated cells.
T98538 920424-920566 Sentence denotes Glands are lined by dysplastic pseudostratified columnar epithelial cells with basophilic cytoplasm; goblet cells often are reduced in number.
T39440 920567-920675 Sentence denotes Mucosal glands are elongated, dilated, and branched, resulting in a thickened mucosal layer ( Fig. 1-143A) .
T60918 920676-920908 Sentence denotes Hyperplastic glands may protrude multifocally into the underlying submucosal lymphoid tissue or epithelial cells may form elevated plaques above the mucosal surface; use of the term adenomatosis to describe such a change is obvious.
T86711 920909-921031 Sentence denotes Occasionally, microscopic foci of adenomatous epithelium may be found in submucosal lymphatics or the regional lymph node.
T87059 921032-921155 Sentence denotes Small intestinal villi in infected animals undergo progressive atrophy, and they may be absent in well-established lesions.
T57590 921156-921305 Sentence denotes The proliferative lesion in the crypts is considered a primary lesion, and not a secondary hyperplastic response to increased epithelial exfoliation.
T23362 921306-921525 Sentence denotes L. intracellularis organisms are readily recognized as curved rods within the apical cytoplasm of glandular epithelial cells in silver-stained tissue sections ( Fig. 1-143B ) or by immunohistochemistry ( Fig. 1-143C ).
T98305 921526-921647 Sentence denotes L. intracellularis also have been identified ultrastructurally in degenerate cells and macrophages in the lamina propria.
T71943 921648-921735 Sentence denotes Inflammation in areas of uncomplicated adenomatosis is usually not a prominent feature.
T74734 921736-921909 Sentence denotes In the least complicated forms of the disease, lesions are always found in the terminal portion of the ileum, extending proximally for a variable distance, usually <1 meter.
T58217 921910-922040 Sentence denotes In a significant proportion of cases, lesions occur in the cecum and proximal spiral colon primarily, or in addition to the ileum.
T50754 922041-922281 Sentence denotes In mild cases, only a few ridges or plaque-like thickened areas Microscopically, coagulative necrosis of the mucosal epithelium may be focal and superficial but can involve the full thickness of the mucosa or even extend into the submucosa.
T35836 922282-922439 Sentence denotes A few islands of viable hyperplastic crypts or glands may remain, and masses of bacteria, presumably fecal anaerobes, are observed among the necrotic debris.
T10250 922440-922498 Sentence denotes With time, granulation tissue develops in ulcerated areas.
T48773 922499-922689 Sentence denotes Proximal ileum along the margin of the zone of mucosal necrosis should be examined for hyperplastic epithelium because, in severe cases of necrotic enteritis, few remnants of mucosa persist.
T25551 922690-922889 Sentence denotes Repeated bouts of epithelial proliferation, necrosis, ulceration, and granulation may result in progressive stricture of the lumen that may be accompanied by hypertrophy of the external muscle layer.
T30938 922890-923027 Sentence denotes This should be differentiated from idiopathic ileal muscular hypertrophy of swine, which is known to occur independent of antecedent PPE.
T76590 923028-923202 Sentence denotes Acute or subacute intestinal hemorrhage and anemia also occur in PPE, and is generally considered as a distinct syndrome referred to as proliferative hemorrhagic enteropathy.
T95652 923203-923330 Sentence denotes Some animals exsanguinate and die quickly without hematochezia, whereas others display melena or hematochezia for several days.
T4655 923331-923397 Sentence denotes This syndrome is more common in young adults than in growing pigs.
T6664 923398-923508 Sentence denotes It is usually sporadic and of relatively low morbidity, but up to half of clinically recognized cases may die.
T73703 923509-923617 Sentence denotes Animals that die of massive intestinal hemorrhage are pale, and the perianal area may be smeared with blood.
T1194 923618-923735 Sentence denotes The typical cerebriform pattern is evident on the serosal surface of the distal ileum, which is thickened and turgid.
T15837 923736-923890 Sentence denotes The ileum may contain variable combinations of free blood, fibrin or clotted blood, and the cecum and colon may contain dark bloody digesta (Fig. 1-146) .
T24753 923891-923952 Sentence denotes The ileal mucosa usually resembles that in uncomplicated PPE.
T79916 923953-924081 Sentence denotes Overt regions of hemorrhage or ulceration are rarely discernible grossly, and there appears to be widespread mucosal diapedesis.
T93486 924082-924351 Sentence denotes Microscopically, there is extensive proliferation, erosion, and necrosis of superficial project above the normal mucosa; however, there are typically more widespread lesions with thickened mucosa and irregular longitudinal or transverse folds or ridges ( Fig. 1-144A ).
T77874 924352-924506 Sentence denotes The mucosal surface in proliferative lesions of the small or large intestine may be intact, but small foci of necrosis or fibrin exudation may be evident.
T68121 924507-924791 Sentence denotes In affected small or large intestine, hyperplastic mucosal epithelium and some degree of submucosal edema is reflected in the cerebriform pattern of projections and depressions on the serosal aspect of the intestine, which is virtually pathognomonic for this condition (Fig. 1-144B) .
T5560 924792-924848 Sentence denotes The ileocolic lymph nodes are enlarged and hyperplastic.
T83484 924849-925009 Sentence denotes Coagulative necrosis of adenomatous mucosa commonly occurs and when extensive areas are affected, this form of the disease is referred to as necrotic enteritis.
T19866 925010-925139 Sentence denotes It may be partly the result of pathogenic anaerobic large-bowel flora colonizing the affected terminal ileum and large intestine.
T18222 925140-925367 Sentence denotes Necrotic epithelial cells, neutrophils, and fibrin exudation from superficial lesions contribute to formation of diphtheritic membranes or luminal fibrin casts, which can be found in the small or large intestine ( Fig. 1-145) .
T80747 925368-925444 Sentence denotes The cerebriform pattern of serosal folding is evident in necrotic enteritis.
T9424 925445-925591 Sentence denotes Necrotic enteritis may be a sequel to other enterocolitides in swine, PPE caused by L intracellularis infection is the most common primary lesion.
T85985 925593-925738 Sentence denotes Campylobacter spp. are common causes of gastrointestinal disease in humans, and some species also may be capable of causing enteritis in animals.
T29737 925739-925899 Sentence denotes Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli are the most studied, but recent work has implicated other fastidious Campylobacter species as pathogens in humans and animals.
T34885 925900-926099 Sentence denotes Pathogenic strains penetrate the surface mucus layer, then adhere to and invade the epithelial cells where they avoid delivery to lysosomal compartments and thus prolong their intracellular survival.
T61687 926100-926276 Sentence denotes Central to the pathogenesis of Campylobacter-associated disease are type IV and VI secretion systems and the production of toxins, most notably the cytolethal distending toxin.
T12372 926277-926439 Sentence denotes Many human infections are acquired by ingestion of contaminated milk products, water, meat, or other animal products, making this an important potential zoonosis.
T33886 926440-926585 Sentence denotes Chickens are common asymptomatic shedders of C. jejuni, and C. coli can be frequently isolated from the feces of diarrheic or asymptomatic swine.
T1964 926586-926766 Sentence denotes C. jejuni has been associated with diarrhea characterized by the presence of blood and mucus in some dogs, despite the fact that it can often be isolated from asymptomatic animals.
T7122 926767-926949 Sentence denotes It has also been isolated from dogs with parvoviral enteritis or other viral infections; pre-existing infections may predispose to the development of pathologic effects of C. jejuni.
T34458 926950-927180 Sentence denotes C. jejuni has been implicated as the primary pathogen in some canine cases of mild to moderate lymphoplasmacytic enterocolitis by associating large numbers of the organism with the lesions and by ruling out other known etiologies.
T182 927181-927287 Sentence denotes In experimentally infected gnotobiotic and conventional dogs, lesions are limited to mild mucosal colitis.
T85678 927288-927445 Sentence denotes Mild to moderate inflammatory lesions limited to the colon has been documented in some pigs where Campylobacter sp. was the only potential pathogen isolated.
T94749 927446-927550 Sentence denotes Erosive colitis has been associated with C. jejuni infection in mink, and was reproduced experimentally.
T35339 927551-927610 Sentence denotes Young cats are probably asymptomatic carriers of C. jejuni.
T59754 927611-927868 Sentence denotes Several Campylobacter spp., including C. jejuni, C. coli, and C. fetus subsp. fetus, rarely have been associated with diarrhea and enterocolitis in young foals; the pathogenesis is not clear and infection may be more common in immunocompromised individuals.
T30391 927869-928052 Sentence denotes Weaner colitis of sheep is described in Australia as a diarrheal syndrome of high morbidity and low mortality, and is associated with an unidentified Campylobacter sp., not C. jejuni.
T87671 928053-928203 Sentence denotes Affected sheep have watery colonic content; chronically affected animals may have edema and loss of body condition suggestive of enteric protein loss.
T31472 928204-928345 Sentence denotes Histologically there is mild erosive to ulcerative typhlocolitis with a layer of bacteria adherent to surface epithelial cells and in crypts.
T51695 928346-928369 Sentence denotes The disease epithelium.
T48640 928370-928448 Sentence denotes An acute inflammatory infiltrate is present in the superficial lamina propria.
T62741 928449-928639 Sentence denotes Small blood vessels are frequently thrombosed and there is effusion of neutrophils, fibrin and extensive hemorrhage into intestinal glands, and onto the mucosal surface and intestinal lumen.
T9044 928640-928748 Sentence denotes In horses, the lesions and pathogenesis of equine proliferative enteritis (EPE) are similar to those in PPE.
T28777 928749-928871 Sentence denotes This disease affects mostly weanling foals, and causes fever, lethargy, diarrhea, hypoproteinemia, edema, and weight loss.
T8825 928872-929079 Sentence denotes Thickening of the mucosa is most commonly observed in the distal small intestine near the ileal-cecal junction; however, gross lesions are not always evident, or they are subtle and can be easily overlooked.
T3533 929080-929251 Sentence denotes In severe or long-standing cases, there can be marked irregular hyperplasia and thickening of the mucosa with fibrinonecrotic membrane and variable edema of the submucosa.
T65294 929252-929533 Sentence denotes As for PPE, EPE is definitively diagnosed by documenting adenomatous proliferation of epithelial cells in the crypts of the small intestine and by demonstrating the intracellular curved bacteria in the apical cytoplasm of enterocytes using silver stains or by immunohistochemistry.
T80072 929534-929717 Sentence denotes The epidemiology of EPE remains incompletely understood and the source of infection for horses remains unconfirmed, although rodents and rabbits have been proposed as reservoir hosts.
T93928 929718-929877 Sentence denotes Pigs have been suggested as a potential source of infection for horses; however, in most equine cases no evidence of exposure to pig feces has been documented.
T70129 929878-930113 Sentence denotes In all species, including swine, diarrhea is probably related to loss of functional mucosal surface area in distal small intestine and large bowel, whereas ill-thrift or wasting syndromes are attributable to protein-losing enteropathy.
T48657 930114-930315 Sentence denotes A presumptive diagnosis of proliferative enteritis in any species can be based on typical gross and histologic lesions, and supported by Warthin-Starry staining to visualize the intracellular bacteria.
T73619 930316-930450 Sentence denotes Confirmation can be obtained by immunohistochemistry using a specific antibody for L. intracellularis or by polymerase chain reaction.
T18328 930451-930798 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis of swine dysentery is still incompletely understood, but gene studies have identified virulence traits for Brachyspira that include hemolysins, cytotoxins, outer membrane proteins, motility factors such as flagella, and NADH oxidase that is thought to be required for the bacterium to successfully colonize the colonic epithelium.
T71830 930799-931020 Sentence denotes B. hyodysenteriae first colonizes mucus on the luminal surface of the large bowel before invading the cytoplasm of enterocytes and goblet cells; spirochetes can be observed by electron microscopy or in situ hybridization.
T30357 931021-931152 Sentence denotes This process is likely mediated by flagella and outer membrane proteins that enable the pathogen to successfully colonize the host.
T15997 931153-931360 Sentence denotes Following invasion by the pathogen, there is enhanced and altered mucin secretion, degeneration, and necrosis of epithelial cells and hemorrhage, which are thought to be mediated by cytotoxins and endotoxin.
T16307 931361-931498 Sentence denotes Exfoliation of surface epithelial cells has been associated with large numbers of spirochetes and other anaerobic bacteria on the mucosa.
T42714 931499-931761 Sentence denotes Brachyspira do not usually invade beyond the epithelial cells, and the result is mucosal colitis characterized by superficial erosion with hyperplasia of cells in colonic glands, hypersecretion of mucus, and a mixed inflammatory infiltrate in the lamina propria.
T52132 931762-931929 Sentence denotes Thrombosis of capillaries and venules in the superficial areas of the colonic mucosa is probably due to absorption of endotoxin through the damaged mucosal epithelium.
T97659 931930-932145 Sentence denotes Diarrhea is due to malabsorption of fluids and electrolytes in the colon; this presumably results from damage to the superficial epithelium of the colon, which in the pig normally has tremendous absorptive capacity.
T95051 932146-932278 Sentence denotes Active fluid secretion by the colon, associated with bacterial enterotoxins, probably does not play a major role in swine dysentery.
T90206 932279-932488 Sentence denotes Transmission occurs by ingestion of feces, and introduction of asymptomatic carrier pigs into a herd usually precedes an outbreak; the involvement of vectors including rodents is also considered a risk factor.
T38702 932489-932679 Sentence denotes Once established in a herd, the infection tends to remain enzootic, and although treatment can effect a rapid clinical amelioration, relapses often occur cyclically in individuals or groups.
T38036 932680-932744 Sentence denotes The morbidity and mortality may reach 90% and 30%, respectively.
T74679 932745-932927 Sentence denotes Immunity is variable following bouts of dysentery, and recovered pigs are apparently protected against subsequent challenge for several months though some animals remain susceptible.
T70815 932928-933029 Sentence denotes The disease occurs in pigs of all ages >2 or 3 weeks old, but particularly in pigs 8-14 weeks of age.
T19085 933030-933080 Sentence denotes Once initiated, it spreads rapidly by pen contact.
T30385 933081-933192 Sentence denotes The disease is initially febrile, and the initial diarrheic feces are thin, semisolid, and lack blood or mucus.
T60798 933193-933319 Sentence denotes After 1-2 days, blood and copious mucus appear in the feces and this progresses to watery feces with blood, mucus, and fibrin.
T82546 933320-933442 Sentence denotes Some pigs die peracutely without showing diarrhea, but most pigs recover slowly, although their rate of growth is reduced.
T64108 933443-933606 Sentence denotes Experimentally, the severity of disease depends on overall stress on the animals, diet, body weight, group size, and the quantity and growth phase of the inoculum.
T323 933607-933793 Sentence denotes Early intestinal lesions can be subtle and include hyperemia and edema of the colonic walls and mesentery with mucosal exudate containing small amounts of fibrin or blood ( Fig. 1-147) .
T2340 933794-934013 Sentence denotes Mucosal lesions become more severe as the disease progresses, and there is increased mucus, fibrin, hemorrhage, and perhaps a fibrinonecrotic membrane forming along the mucosal surfaces of the large intestine and cecum.
T11335 934014-934087 Sentence denotes Lesions can be multifocal, patchy, or involve the entire large intestine.
T38873 934088-934289 Sentence denotes The colonic content in these cases is usually scant, and has been reproduced by inoculation of the thermophilic catalase-negative Campylobacter-like organism previously isolated from spontaneous cases.
T2062 934290-934307 Sentence denotes Backert S, et al.
T57025 934309-934593 Sentence denotes Swine dysentery caused by Brachyspira (formerly Serpulina, Treponema) hyodysenteriae, family Spirochaetaceae, is a historically well-recognized and now re-emergent productionlimiting disease of swine worldwide, characterized by moderate to severe mucohemorrhagic to fibrinous colitis.
T20107 934594-934719 Sentence denotes Porcine spirochetal colitis refers to a less severe nonhemorrhagic colitis caused by B. pilosicoli, which is discussed later.
T87603 934720-934856 Sentence denotes Additional Brachyspira species, such as B. murdochii, B. intermedia, and B. innocens, have been associated with variably severe disease.
T15526 934857-935007 Sentence denotes Strains have traditionally been distinguished by morphologic and phenotypic features, including biochemical properties and strength of beta-hemolysis.
T67296 935008-935405 Sentence denotes Recent work in Canada and the United States has documented mucohemorrhagic diarrhea in pigs, indistinguishable from classic swine dysentery caused by B. hyodysenteriae, that is caused by emergent, strongly betahemolytic but phylogenetically distinct strains of the proposed novel species "B. hampsonii." The virulence of these novel species has been experimentally confirmed in both mice and pigs.
T80240 935406-935518 Sentence denotes Since 1921, classical swine dysentery has been recognized as a highly infectious disease, mainly of weaned pigs.
T17147 935519-935620 Sentence denotes B. hyodysenteriae is a gram-negative, anaerobic, oxygen-tolerant, strongly beta-hemolytic spirochete.
T24236 935621-935686 Sentence denotes The loosely coiled motile organism has 7-13 periplasmic flagella.
T35966 935687-935939 Sentence denotes Although the bacterial genus Brachyspira includes several species capable of colonizing a wide spectrum of hosts, B. hyodysenteriae is predominantly a pathogen of pigs, although the bacterium has been associated with necrotizing typhlocolitis in rheas.
T96161 935940-936246 Sentence denotes Experimental reproduction of swine dysentery in gnotobiotic pigs requires the presence of anaerobic bacteria indigenous to the normal colon, along with B. hyodysenteriae; there is apparently a synergistic action between B. hyodysenteriae and the intestinal microbiota, mainly Bacteroides and Fusobacterium.
T27869 936247-936447 Sentence denotes Several studies have implicated dietary factors, specifically an elevated protein : carbohydrate ratio in the hindgut, as a predisposing factor for enhanced pathogenicity of B. hyodysenteriae in pigs.
T73152 936448-936724 Sentence denotes The mechanisms remain poorly understood; however, alterations in fermentation activity and altered microbiota in the hindgut likely are important. exudation of fibrin, which intermixes with necrotic debris and hemorrhage on the mucosal surface forming a diphtheritic membrane.
T50564 936725-936846 Sentence denotes Virulence factors of B. pilosicoli are also still poorly defined, but motility and chemotaxis for mucus may be important.
T1094 936847-937108 Sentence denotes The organism is capable of polar attachment by one end of the bacterium to the apical membrane of colonic or rectal epithelial cells, resulting in a palisade of upright bacteria perpendicular to the epithelial cells and displacement or effacement of microvilli.
T47326 937109-937342 Sentence denotes Thus spirochetes can often be observed histologically as a false brush border on the luminal surface early in infection; visualization of the bacteria is enhanced by Warthin-Starry silver stains or fluorescence in-situ hybridization.
T62743 937343-937518 Sentence denotes Although the molecular receptors for attachment have not been identified, the organism can invade paracellularly, especially at the extrusion zone between colonic crypt units.
T40925 937519-937684 Sentence denotes B. pilosicoli can be observed within colonic crypts, goblet cells, or invading tight junctions into the lamina propria, but is not disseminated systemically in pigs.
T21969 937685-937828 Sentence denotes In chronic infections, there are large numbers of inflammatory cells in the lamina propria, including lymphocytes, plasma cells, and monocytes.
T45609 937829-937960 Sentence denotes There is also goblet cell hyperplasia and crypt hyperplasia so that porridge-like dirty gray to red-brown and greasy in appearance.
T27572 937961-938053 Sentence denotes The most severe lesions can appear similar to those of salmonellosis in extent and severity.
T82282 938054-938181 Sentence denotes The production of mucus in swine dysentery becomes copious in many chronic cases because of remarkable goblet cell hyperplasia.
T72348 938182-938255 Sentence denotes The earliest microscopic lesions are also limited to the colon and cecum.
T4411 938256-938361 Sentence denotes Lesions are characterized by discrete areas of epithelial erosion and necrosis of the superficial mucosa.
T4951 938362-938497 Sentence denotes Thin layers of exudate composed of mucus, fibrin, neutrophils, and erythrocytes cover the areas of damaged epithelium ( Fig. 1-148A) .
T37613 938498-938623 Sentence denotes In more advanced cases these areas become more diffuse and exudation is more copious; however, deep ulceration is not common.
T19981 938624-938750 Sentence denotes There may be minor bleeding or small fibrin thrombi in the superficial vessels of the lamina propria underlying eroded mucosa.
T19357 938751-938824 Sentence denotes There is usually some edema of the lamina propria, submucosa, and serosa.
T40084 938825-938893 Sentence denotes Initially mucus is expelled from the basilar portions of the crypts.
T96046 938894-939080 Sentence denotes In concert with the increased turnover of epithelial cells associated with the superficial erosion, there is hyperplasia of goblet cells as well as epithelial cells deeper in the glands.
T46535 939081-939231 Sentence denotes The crypts are elongated and lined by proliferative basophilic epithelial cells with large hyperchromatic nuclei, and few differentiated goblet cells.
T63555 939232-939374 Sentence denotes Crypts often subsequently become dilated and contain necrotic debris; some have marked goblet cell hyperplasia, and copious mucus production..
T4628 939375-939503 Sentence denotes Large delicate spirochetes can be observed within dilated crypts and goblet cells using Warthin-Starry staining ( Fig. 1-148B) .
T16288 939504-939674 Sentence denotes Porcine intestinal spirochetosis is caused by Brachyspira pilosicoli (formerly Anguillina coli), which differs from B. hyodysenteriae in that it is weakly beta-hemolytic.
T77843 939675-939836 Sentence denotes B. pilosicoli has a wide host range and has been isolated from a number of other animal species with lesions of intestinal spirochetosis, and it may be zoonotic.
T44839 939837-939933 Sentence denotes Porcine intestinal spirochetosis has been seen in most major swine-producing areas of the world.
T21830 939934-940026 Sentence denotes The disease is characterized by generally transient watery to mucoid diarrhea without blood.
T52437 940027-940081 Sentence denotes Reduced weight gain is a significant clinical finding.
T80530 940082-940175 Sentence denotes As for B. hyodysenteriae, gross lesions are limited to the colon and cecum and may be subtle.
T83711 940176-940312 Sentence denotes Mesocolonic edema, swollen lymph nodes, variable mucosal erosion, and abundant watery large intestinal contents are early gross lesions.
T37518 940313-940434 Sentence denotes Later, the mucosa becomes thickened and in severe cases there is which are also critical for virulence of a given strain.
T19548 940435-940521 Sentence denotes There is not always a clear distinction between the different types of C. perfringens.
T61855 940522-940732 Sentence denotes Some strains lose their ability to produce one or more of their toxins when stored or cultured, and this complicates the identification of isolates and the assessment of their significance in disease outbreaks.
T15809 940733-940901 Sentence denotes Additionally, plasmid conjugation occurs both in vitro and in vivo and it is now thought that previously avirulent strains may become virulent by acquiring toxin genes.
T46721 940902-940962 Sentence denotes The 4 major typing toxins are produced during active growth.
T17569 940963-941069 Sentence denotes • The alpha toxin is a lecithinase that acts on cell membranes, producing hemolysis and necrosis of cells.
T73598 941070-941408 Sentence denotes The role of alpha toxin in intestinal disease of mammals is controversial, although most evidence indicates that this toxin on its own does not produce significant intestinal damage. • The beta toxin is a pore-forming toxin that induces intestinal necrosis and occasionally a variety of neurologic effects through a yet unknown mechanism.
T1182 941409-941739 Sentence denotes This toxin is exquisitely sensitive to the action of trypsin, which inactivates it in a few minutes; this property is very important for the pathogenesis of beta toxin-related diseases as explained later in this chapter. • The epsilon toxin is produced as a relatively inactive prototoxin that is activated by enzymatic digestion.
T29265 941740-941898 Sentence denotes Intestinal trypsin and chymotrypsin, and lambda toxin produced by C. perfringens itself are the main enzymes responsible for activation of epsilon prototoxin.
T94686 941899-942765 Sentence denotes Epsilon toxin is also a pore-forming toxin that induces mainly neurologic and respiratory effects, which are mostly the result of increased vascular permeability, although there is evidence that this toxin can also produce a direct effect on neurons in the brain. • The iota toxin is a binary toxin with 2 components, iota a and iota b, which is also elaborated as a prototoxin and activated by proteolytic enzymes. • Beta2 toxin, which despite its name is not related to beta toxin, has been associated with enteric disease in swine and horses caused by C. perfringens type A, although its pathogenicity is uncertain. • Some strains of C. perfringens, especially type A, produce enterotoxin, which is a specific toxin; the name enterotoxin should therefore not be used to refer to all C. perfringens crypts are lined by immature basophilic mitotically active cells.
T19025 942766-943029 Sentence denotes The diarrhea and ill-thrift characteristic of infection may be related to loss of absorptive function, secondary to disruption of the brush border of enterocytes, and increased exfoliation of poorly differentiated cells and perhaps enteric loss of plasma protein.
T29589 943030-943242 Sentence denotes Given the existence of long-term colonization by B. pilosicoli in pigs, it is unlikely that protective immunity develops after infection; however, the immune responses against this organism are poorly understood.
T92381 943243-943461 Sentence denotes In dogs, colonic spirochetosis with mucosal colitis has also been described, in association with B. pilosicoli and perhaps with other Brachyspira spp., but a causal relationship has not been established experimentally.
T4187 943463-943634 Sentence denotes Most of the important enteric clostridial diseases occur in herbivores and are caused by 1 of the 5 toxigenic types of Clostridium perfringens or by Clostridium difficile.
T10504 943635-943704 Sentence denotes Enteritis in dogs is associated with C. perfringens and C. difficile.
T73315 943705-943906 Sentence denotes Clostridium piliforme (formerly Bacillus piliformis) causes Tyzzer's disease, characterized by multifocal necrotic hepatitis and occasionally enteritis, colitis and myocarditis, in many animal species.
T96942 943907-943981 Sentence denotes C. chauvoei may affect the tongue causing blackleglike glossitis (see Vol.
T72003 943982-944004 Sentence denotes 1, Muscle and tendon).
T20807 944005-944089 Sentence denotes Enteritis produced by C. chauvoei has also been described in an outbreak in heifers.
T72823 944090-944216 Sentence denotes C. septicum causes clostridial abomasitis (braxy) in sheep and calves, discussed in the earlier section, Stomach and abomasum.
T11148 944217-944333 Sentence denotes C. botulinum causes botulism in horses, cattle, and several other species by ingestion of preformed toxins (see Vol.
T88278 944334-944353 Sentence denotes 1, Nervous system).
T74134 944354-944632 Sentence denotes The virulence of C. perfringens is mostly attributable to its capacity to produce up to 16 toxins, including 4 so-called major (typing) toxins (i.e., alpha, beta, epsilon, and iota) , which are used to classify this microorganism into 5 toxinotypes, designated A-E (Table 1 -2).
T79149 944633-944690 Sentence denotes However, no single strain produces this entire toxin set.
T35325 944691-945027 Sentence denotes Besides producing 1 or more of the 4 typing toxins (see Table 1 -2), some C. perfringens strains produce additional toxins, such as enterotoxin, beta 2, necrotic enteritis B-like toxin (NetB), kappa, and lambda, some of that in the alimentary tract infects small intestinal or colonic epithelial cells causing necrosis and inflammation.
T49556 945028-945163 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis of Tyzzer's disease is not clearly dependent on toxin production, although some strains do produce cytotoxic proteins.
T26864 945164-945354 Sentence denotes Diagnosis of disease because of the toxin-producing clostridia is mostly dependent on demonstration of toxin in gut content or feces of affected animals, by the most specific test available.
T56141 945355-945611 Sentence denotes Although the presence of large numbers of a particular type of C. perfringens suggests causation of the disease, some types of this organism are commonly present in the gut in a variety of circumstances, where they cannot be implicated as etiologic agents.
T30320 945612-945791 Sentence denotes C. perfringens type A is by far the most ubiquitous toxinotype in the intestine of animals, and isolation of this type alone is the least significant from a diagnostic standpoint.
T2577 945792-945966 Sentence denotes However, other types (e.g., type B and C) are less frequently found in the intestine of healthy animals, which makes isolation of these types more diagnostically significant.
T19074 945967-945998 Sentence denotes Clostridium perfringens type A.
T67663 945999-946129 Sentence denotes C. perfringens type A is the toxinotype most commonly found in the environment and in the intestine of clinically healthy animals.
T86844 946130-946278 Sentence denotes Its major toxin is the alpha toxin; and some strains may also produce beta 2 toxin and enterotoxin in addition to a variable number of other toxins.
T61546 946279-946361 Sentence denotes This is one of several clostridia that produce gas gangrene in humans and animals.
T39450 946362-946497 Sentence denotes The production of gas gangrene in wound and puerperal infections is mostly mediated by alpha toxin with assistance by perfringolysin O.
T1495 946498-946880 Sentence denotes C. perfringens type A is responsible for necrotic enteritis in chickens, and it has been associated with several alimentary syndromes in mammals, including enteritis in foals; enterocolitis in horses; necrotizing enterocolitis in neonatal piglets; enterotoxemia and hemorrhagic enteritis in lambs and neonatal calves and older cattle; and diarrhea and hemorrhagic enteritis in dogs.
T45164 946881-946997 Sentence denotes However, absolute proof of involvement of C. perfringens type A in these alimentary syndromes of mammals is lacking.
T52241 946998-947257 Sentence denotes Many strains of C. perfringens type A produce beta2 (CPB2) toxin and recent information suggests a role for this toxin in porcine clostridial enteritis, as nearly all type A strains isolated from pigs with enteric disease carried the cpb2 gene for CPB2 toxin.
T34321 947258-947360 Sentence denotes Involvement of CPB2 toxin-producing C. perfringens in enterocolitis of horses also has been suggested.
T28770 947361-947569 Sentence denotes A very rare disease of lambs characterized by acute intravascular hemolysis, known as yellow lamb disease, has also been associated with type A infections and, at least in one occasion, with type D infection.
T69022 947570-947690 Sentence denotes Affected animals may be found dead or moribund, and jaundice and hemoglobinuria may be toxins produced in the intestine.
T46296 947691-947792 Sentence denotes The enterotoxin is only elaborated during sporulation and is released upon lysis of vegetative cells.
T63996 947793-947882 Sentence denotes It may be produced by most strains, but most cases of disease are associated with type A.
T51675 947883-948049 Sentence denotes Enterotoxin-producing C. perfringens type A is the second and third most important cause of human food poisoning in humans in the United States over the past decades.
T24447 948050-948154 Sentence denotes Enterotoxigenic type A strains are also associated with antibiotic treatment-related diarrhea in humans.
T45151 948155-948216 Sentence denotes The significance of enterotoxin in animal disease is limited.
T61793 948217-948249 Sentence denotes It is also a pore-forming toxin.
T71309 948250-948505 Sentence denotes Clostridial diseases originating in the intestine are often called enterotoxemias, which by definition are diseases produced by toxins generated in the intestine and absorbed into the circulation and that act on distant organs such as the brain and lungs.
T26074 948506-948616 Sentence denotes However, although several clostridial diseases of the intestine are true enterotoxemias, some of them are not.
T75725 948617-948853 Sentence denotes For instance, disease produced in sheep by C. perfringens type D, whose epsilon exotoxin is elaborated in the intestine but in this species exerts its important effects on distant organs such as brain and lungs, is a true enterotoxemia.
T96008 948854-949020 Sentence denotes The same toxinotype can produce an enterocolitis in goats with, in the chronic cases, no systemic absorption of epsilon toxin, in which case, no enterotoxemia occurs.
T5978 949021-949370 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis of enteric infection with C. perfringens and C. difficile requires: (1) the presence of these microorganisms in the intestine (sometimes they can be normal inhabitants of the gut), and (2) a change in the enteric microenvironment favorable to massive expansion of luminal populations of clostridia and/or production of their toxins.
T576 949371-949604 Sentence denotes Such changes may include a change in feed, abnormally nutrient-rich digesta, antimicrobial therapy, altered pancreatic exocrine function or trypsin inhibitors, reduced motility, and/or primary infections with agents such as coccidia.
T9516 949605-949922 Sentence denotes C. perfringens bacteria alone are most likely nonpathogenic; exotoxins are required to induce disease, as it has been recently demonstrated in several animal experiments using so-called reverse genetics, in which bacterial strains genetically engineered to remove one or more toxin genes were inoculated into animals.
T23171 949923-950065 Sentence denotes The absence of a particular toxin gene eliminated the virulence, which was, however, restored when that gene was reintroduced into the genome.
T32613 950066-950181 Sentence denotes C. difficile produces 2 exotoxins: A, which is an enterotoxin, and B, which is a cytotoxin but also an enterotoxin.
T81268 950182-950337 Sentence denotes Tissue damage is probably due to the effects one or of both toxins, which glycosylate and inactivate Ras GTPases, disabling signaling pathways in the cell.
T68273 950338-950430 Sentence denotes As well, they glycosylate Rho and interfere with its ability to regulate cytoskeletal actin.
T17005 950431-950555 Sentence denotes Under the influence of these toxins, the cytoskeleton condenses, tight junctions open, cells round up and undergo apoptosis.
T461 950556-950698 Sentence denotes They also cause release of proinflammatory mediators, attracting neutrophils, and activate secretion stimulated by the enteric nervous system.
T32213 950699-950922 Sentence denotes Hence, disease is characterized by fluid intestinal content, with focal or diffuse small intestinal or colonic epithelial necrosis, through which neutrophils may exude into the lumen, producing a so-called "volcano" lesion.
T25619 950923-951086 Sentence denotes Not all isolates of C. difficile are toxigenic; 34 toxinotypes, based on sequence variations in the genes for the A and B toxin molecules, have now been described.
T33422 951087-951178 Sentence denotes Molecular epidemiologic investigation may permit associations of toxinotype with virulence.
T94942 951179-951482 Sentence denotes C. piliforme, the cause of Tyzzer's disease and the only gram-negative clostridia, is an obligate intracellular pathogen causes "lamb dysentery," usually in lambs up to 10-14 days of age, dysentery in calves of approximately the same age, and rarely dysentery in foals within the first few days of life.
T98860 951483-951680 Sentence denotes In lambs, death may occur without premonitory signs, but there is usually abdominal pain, especially when animals are forced to rise, and passage of semifluid dark feces mixed or coated with blood.
T99441 951681-951713 Sentence denotes The abdomen is often tympanitic.
T77229 951714-951990 Sentence denotes A more chronic form in older lambs, which among other diseases is known as "pine" in England, is characterized by unthriftiness and depression, reluctance to suckle, and a peculiar stretching when the animal rises; such cases are reputed to respond well to specific antiserum.
T65755 951991-952092 Sentence denotes Typical gross lesions are usually present, although in exceptional peracute cases they may be absent.
T82980 952093-952159 Sentence denotes The characteristic lesion is extensive necrohemorrhagic enteritis.
T6492 952160-952245 Sentence denotes The peritoneal cavity often contains a small amount of serous or blood-stained fluid.
T58597 952246-952423 Sentence denotes In cases with more severe and deeply penetrating mucosal ulcerations, there may be overlying peritonitis with red fibrin strands on the local mesentery and intestinal adhesions.
T18003 952424-952640 Sentence denotes On the mucosal surface, the ulcers are irregular but are well defined by a sharp margin and rim of intense hyperemia, and they contain a yellow necrotic deposit; they may coalesce to form extensive areas of necrosis.
T48042 952641-952818 Sentence denotes Usually the intestinal contents are blood stained and may appear to be composed of pure blood, but in lambs that live for 3-4 days, there may be little or no hemorrhage evident.
T78894 952819-953010 Sentence denotes Histologically, the wall of the intestine is hemorrhagic, and the areas of necrosis extend deeply into the mucous membrane, in some cases penetrating to the external muscle layers and serosa.
T81998 953011-953105 Sentence denotes There are large numbers of typical bacilli in the necrotic tissue, but few inflammatory cells.
T19557 953106-953170 Sentence denotes The lesions present in other organs are those of severe toxemia.
T74927 953171-953231 Sentence denotes The liver is usually pale and friable, but may be congested.
T92557 953232-953284 Sentence denotes The spleen is normal or slightly enlarged and pulpy.
T81856 953285-953364 Sentence denotes The kidneys may be enlarged, edematous, pale, and soft from toxic degeneration.
T76260 953365-953523 Sentence denotes The pericardial sac contains abundant clear gelatinous fluid, the myocardium is pale and soft, and epicardial and endocardial hemorrhages are almost constant.
T84777 953524-953582 Sentence denotes The lungs are often slightly congested and very edematous.
T6410 953583-953722 Sentence denotes Occasionally foci of symmetrical encephalomalacia similar to those observed in cases of type D enterotoxemia are observed in chronic cases.
T10983 953723-953924 Sentence denotes The disease in calves caused by type B C. perfringens closely resembles that in lambs, usually affecting sucklings <10 days of age, with a course of 2-4 days characterized by prostration and dysentery.
T41516 953925-953983 Sentence denotes Older calves up to 10 weeks of age are sometimes affected.
T87952 953984-954065 Sentence denotes It appears that calves are more likely to recover, albeit slowly, than are lambs.
T73421 954066-954220 Sentence denotes The intestinal lesion is acute hemorrhagic enteritis with extensive mucosal necrosis and patchy diphtheritic membrane formations, especially in the ileum.
T35502 954221-954326 Sentence denotes Information on the disease in foals is very scant as only a few cases in this species have been reported.
T12098 954327-954358 Sentence denotes Clostridium perfringens type C.
T566 954359-954524 Sentence denotes Clostridium perfringens type C is present worldwide, and causes disease mostly in neonatal individuals of several species, including particularly evident clinically.
T59428 954525-954654 Sentence denotes At autopsy, icterus, anemia, hemoglobinuric nephrosis, and other changes of severe, acute, intravascular hemolysis are prominent.
T65578 954655-954836 Sentence denotes Microscopically the most prominent changes are centrilobular hepatic necrosis and hemoglobinuric nephrosis, both presumably associated with acute intravascular hemolysis and anemia.
T86499 954837-955081 Sentence denotes This hemolytic disease must be distinguished from other causes of acute intravascular hemolysis such as leptospirosis, necrotic hepatitis, and bacillary hemoglobinuria caused by C. novyi type B and D, respectively, and chronic copper poisoning.
T83878 955082-955177 Sentence denotes Presumably, the hemolytic effect of alpha toxin is responsible for the intravascular hemolysis.
T16847 955178-955518 Sentence denotes Given that type A strains and alpha toxin are commonly found in the intestines of ruminants, diagnosis of this condition cannot be confirmed by detection of either of these and it has to be established presumptively based on clinical, gross, and microscopic findings coupled with ruling out other possible causes of intravascular hemolysis.
T41343 955519-955657 Sentence denotes It has been suggested that the disease is associated with unusually high alpha toxin type A strains, although this has not been confirmed.
T6268 955658-955799 Sentence denotes Strains of C. perfringens type A, some determined to be enterotoxin producers, have been associated with diarrhea, sometimes bloody, in dogs.
T32637 955800-956049 Sentence denotes Hemorrhagic canine gastroenteritis (canine gastrointestinal hemorrhage syndrome) is a sporadic, peracute, hemorrhagic gastroenteritis, associated in some cases with C. perfringens type A, although in other cases the etiology has not been identified.
T81609 956050-956202 Sentence denotes Dogs with the peracute hemorrhagic disease are often found dead lying in a pool of bloody excreta; sometimes hemorrhagic diarrhea is noted before death.
T83225 956203-956301 Sentence denotes Autopsy reveals hemorrhagic enteritis and colitis, and sometimes hemorrhagic gastritis is present.
T97178 956302-956341 Sentence denotes Colonic lesions tend to be more severe.
T31542 956342-956475 Sentence denotes Microscopically there is hemorrhagic necrosis of the gastrointestinal mucosa, which extends from the luminal surface into the mucosa.
T82840 956476-956621 Sentence denotes Numerous clostridia may line the necrotic intestinal structures or be distributed through the detritus, but they do not invade the intact tissue.
T63628 956622-956722 Sentence denotes Recurrent diarrhea, sometimes bloody, has been associated with enterotoxin-secreting type A strains.
T28415 956723-956838 Sentence denotes Multiple serotypes of clostridia have been associated with nosocomial, usually nonfatal, cases of diarrhea in dogs.
T84879 956839-956983 Sentence denotes C. perfringens enterotoxin has been demonstrated twice as frequently in hospitalized dogs with diarrhea compared with controls without diarrhea.
T41837 956984-957036 Sentence denotes Giannitti F, et al., Clostridium perfringens type B.
T87867 957037-957176 Sentence denotes Clostridium perfringens type B has been reported from Europe, South Africa, and the Middle East, but not from the Americas and Australasia.
T88146 957177-957179 Sentence denotes It
T36277 957180-957218 Sentence denotes Further reading Gkiourtzidis K, et al.
T38156 957219-957386 Sentence denotes PCR detection and prevalence of alpha-, beta-, beta 2-, epsilon-, iota-and enterotoxin genes in Clostridium perfringens isolated from lambs with clostridial dysentery.
T91706 957387-957494 Sentence denotes Vet Microbiol 2001; 82:39-43. distribution of gram-positive bacilli free in the intestinal lumen is common.
T42935 957495-957685 Sentence denotes Although they may be in close contact with the mucosa and attachment has been suggested, no definitive evidence of attachment has been demonstrated in C. perfringens infections in ruminants.
T72122 957686-957820 Sentence denotes In adult sheep, C. perfringens type C causes "struck," a disease of pastured animals that has a mortality rate of 5-15% in some areas.
T11396 957821-957983 Sentence denotes Death usually occurs suddenly with terminal convulsive episodes, but less acute cases may adopt a straining position that probably indicates acute abdominal pain.
T18082 957984-958037 Sentence denotes In adult sheep, diarrhea or convulsions rarely occur.
T95344 958038-958300 Sentence denotes Gross and microscopic lesions are similar to those described in lambs except that small intestinal ulceration may be prominent and the mucosal necrosis is deeper, with a peripheral leukocytic rim separating the more or less normal deeper layers of the intestine.
T19701 958301-958436 Sentence denotes Calves with type C disease show abdominal pain, some show diarrhea of sudden onset, and death may be preceded by spasmodic convulsions.
T19594 958437-958506 Sentence denotes Occasionally, sudden death occurs without premonitory clinical signs.
T84839 958507-958587 Sentence denotes Gross and microscopic lesions in calves are similar to those described in lambs.
T67188 958588-958663 Sentence denotes Type C disease can apparently also occur, albeit rarely, in feedlot cattle.
T26426 958664-958819 Sentence denotes The condition is similar to "struck." Animals are found either dead or moribund, and congestion and hemorrhage of the gastrointestinal tract are prominent.
T45449 958820-958899 Sentence denotes The jejunal and ileal content are bloody with fibrin clots and necrotic debris.
T44607 958900-959013 Sentence denotes Excessive straw-colored pleural and pericardial fluid and petechiation of epicardium and endocardium are present.
T39190 959014-959145 Sentence denotes Autolysis and postmortem bloat occur rapidly, and differentiation from ruminal tympany and other clostridial diseases is necessary.
T72784 959146-959234 Sentence denotes C. perfringens type C also causes necrohemorrhagic enteritis mostly in neonatal piglets.
T87886 959235-959292 Sentence denotes Rarely, epizootics occur in 2-4 week-old and weaned pigs.
T17858 959293-959386 Sentence denotes The disease occurs as epizootics in affected herds and regions, and may then remain enzootic.
T41961 959387-959509 Sentence denotes Poor hygienic conditions, overcrowding, and antibiotic treatment are thought to be predisposing factors in some outbreaks.
T63291 959510-959741 Sentence denotes Clinical disease can be peracute, acute, or chronic, with signs of the acute and peracute condition including intense abdominal pain, depression, and bloody diarrhea, which begins 8-22 hours after exposure to C. perfringens type C.
T45736 959742-959939 Sentence denotes Sow feces contain small numbers of type C organisms, and these multiply rapidly in the small intestine of piglets, outcompeting other bacteria and becoming the dominant organisms in the population.
T83091 959940-960172 Sentence denotes The course of the disease is usually 24 hours or less in 1- to 2-day-old piglets, but chronic disease (usually in older animals) can persist for 1 or 2 weeks and is characterized by persistent diarrhea without blood and dehydration.
T81896 960173-960261 Sentence denotes Marked anal hyperemia can be observed just before death in both acute and chronic forms.
T90153 960262-960374 Sentence denotes Beta toxin has been shown to bind to small intestinal mucosa endothelial cells of piglets with type C infection.
T32356 960375-960549 Sentence denotes It was therefore suggested that beta toxin-induced endothelial cell damage plays an important role in the early lesion development of C. perfringens type C enteritis in pigs.
T41219 960550-960740 Sentence denotes The predominant lesions occur in the small intestine, especially the jejunum, but the cecum and spiral colon are often involved, and occasionally lesions are confined to the large intestine.
T60011 960741-961002 Sentence denotes Gross lesions are similar in all areas of the intestine, and in acute cases consist of intestinal and mesenteric hyperemia, extensive necrosis of the intestinal mucosa, which may be covered by a pseudomembrane (Fig. 1-149A) , and blood-staining of the contents.
T69172 961003-961088 Sentence denotes There may be emphysema of the intestinal wall, which sheep, cattle, horses, and pigs.
T31682 961089-961163 Sentence denotes Occasionally, type C disease occurs in adult individuals of these species.
T90955 961164-961337 Sentence denotes The main virulence factor of C. perfringens type C is beta toxin as demonstrated in animal experiments using toxin mutants of this microorganism in rabbits, mice, and goats.
T76978 961338-961548 Sentence denotes Beta toxin is trypsinlabile, and circumstances such as low trypsin levels in neonatal animals, trypsin inhibitors in the diet and/or very high levels of toxin are critical in the pathogenesis of type C disease.
T29160 961549-962056 Sentence denotes The high susceptibility of neonatal animals to type C disease is considered to be a consequence of the trypsin inhibitor effect of colostrum, a mechanism apparently aimed to protect immunoglobulins present in the colostrum. "Pig-bel," also known as "enteritis necroticans," is a necrotizing enteritis of humans caused by C. perfringens type C, which was the most important cause of human deaths in the 1960s in Papua New Guinea and still occurs sporadically in that island and other countries of the region.
T53181 962057-962203 Sentence denotes The disease has been associated with consumption of trypsin inhibitors in sweet potatoes, a significant component of the diet in Papua New Guinea.
T6139 962204-962365 Sentence denotes This, coupled with the low level of protein in the diet, results in low trypsin in the intestine, which allows persistence of beta toxin in the intestinal lumen.
T91014 962366-962560 Sentence denotes Intraduodenal inoculation of C. perfringens type C in combination with trypsin inhibitor produces acute necrohemorrhagic enteritis and/or enterotoxemia in guinea pigs, rabbits, lambs, and goats.
T23552 962561-962656 Sentence denotes The diseases caused by type C in lambs, calves, piglets, goat kids, and foals are very similar.
T30620 962657-962791 Sentence denotes Affected animals are usually neonates, which contract the disease within the first few days of life, often within the first few hours.
T91015 962792-962913 Sentence denotes Sick lambs may shiver, show abdominal pain, abdominal distention, diarrhea, and prostration, and die in 12 hours or less.
T40203 962914-963011 Sentence denotes Frequently, lambs with type C disease are found dead without clinical signs having been observed.
T62689 963012-963187 Sentence denotes In lambs, the gross intestinal changes are characterized by acute necrohemorrhagic enteritis that may be segmental and can sometimes be confused with intestinal strangulation.
T9621 963188-963335 Sentence denotes The most prominent changes occur in the jejunum and ileum, the lumen of which may contain free blood, which forms a clotted cast in fresh cadavers.
T32930 963336-963501 Sentence denotes Sometimes there is merely acute hyperemia of a segment of jejunum with edema of the wall, scant creamy intestinal content, and a few small ulcerations of the mucosa.
T39884 963502-963584 Sentence denotes A fibrinous pseudomembrane may be observed over the mucosa of the small intestine.
T85993 963585-963774 Sentence denotes The peritoneal cavity contains a small quantity of serous blood-stained fluid, and the local mesentery and peritoneum are often mildly to severely hyperemic, and bear red strands of fibrin.
T83220 963775-963835 Sentence denotes The mesenteric nodes are enlarged, edematous, and congested.
T87999 963836-963911 Sentence denotes There is usually excess pericardial fluid and pulmonary interstitial edema.
T40562 963912-964089 Sentence denotes Ecchymoses on the serous membranes are nearly constant, and in a few cadavers all tissues, but especially the meninges and brain, are liberally sprinkled with small hemorrhages.
T55143 964090-964186 Sentence denotes There might be terminal bacteremia by C. perfringens with bacterial embolism in multiple organs.
T36719 964187-964305 Sentence denotes Histopathologic changes in lambs with type C disease are not specific, but can be highly suggestive of this infection.
T51574 964306-964446 Sentence denotes The changes consist of acute necrosis that involves mostly the intestinal mucosa, although it can progress to be transmural in severe cases.
T47531 964447-964591 Sentence denotes In most cases this is coagulative necrosis, but in animals that survive longer, the mucosa is completely replaced by a fibrinous pseudomembrane.
T56508 964592-964763 Sentence denotes Thrombosis of mucosal and submucosal vessels is a common finding, and inflammation is usually not a striking component, although it might be more marked in subacute cases.
T15701 964764-964821 Sentence denotes Diffuse or multifocal lymphatics and in the interstitium.
T94190 964822-964962 Sentence denotes Diffuse edema with variable amounts of protein and inflammatory cell exudate can be seen throughout all intestinal layers, including serosa.
T74433 964963-965030 Sentence denotes The mucosa is severely thickened by edema and inflammatory exudate.
T92687 965031-965161 Sentence denotes As the infection progresses, necrosis becomes deeper, including epithelium of crypts and glands and, later, all intestinal layers.
T27187 965162-965253 Sentence denotes Severe congestion of subserosal vessels is observed throughout the course of the infection.
T51602 965254-965315 Sentence denotes Lesions are usually diffuse, although they can be multifocal.
T85384 965316-965403 Sentence denotes Mucosal necrosis without hemorrhage may be observed in older pigs with chronic disease.
T54283 965404-965549 Sentence denotes The disease caused by C. perfringens type C in foals has been reported from the United States, Canada, Australia, and several European countries.
T24055 965550-965666 Sentence denotes It usually occurs in foals <4 days of age, although occasional cases in older foals and adult horses may also occur.
T65228 965667-965764 Sentence denotes Typical clinical signs include weakness, yellow to brown watery diarrhea, colic, and dehydration.
T77353 965765-965805 Sentence denotes Affected foals usually die in <24 hours.
T46447 965806-965885 Sentence denotes Sudden death without clinical signs being observed may also occasionally occur.
T90487 965886-966107 Sentence denotes Gross lesions are those of acute hemorrhagic necrotizing enteritis, usually in the distal two thirds of the small intestine ( Fig. 1-150A, B) , although in some cases most of the small and large intestine may be affected.
T3645 966108-966349 Sentence denotes The microscopic lesions are similar to those described previously for C. perfringens type C infection in other species (Fig. 1-151 ) and in foals, histologically the lesions are very similar to those caused by C. difficile and Salmonella sp.
T33219 966350-966612 Sentence denotes In a series of cases of combined infection with C. perfringens Histologically, the hallmark of acute disease in young piglets is hemorrhagic necrosis of the intestinal wall, which starts in the mucosa but usually progresses to affect all layers of the intestine.
T94325 966613-967017 Sentence denotes Lesions are morphologically similar in all segments of intestine; the luminal surface is covered by a pseudomembrane composed of degenerate and necrotic desquamated epithelial cells, cell debris, inflammatory cells including neutrophils, lymphocytes, plasma cells, and macrophages, fibrin ( Fig. 1-149B) , and a variable number of large, thick bacilli with square ends with occasional subterminal spores.
T89164 967018-967133 Sentence denotes These bacteria occur singly or in clusters, free in the lumen, or lining the margin of the denuded mucosal surface.
T7095 967134-967309 Sentence denotes Although the bacterial population is usually greater in the central intestinal lumen, a few bacilli also can be seen in crypts and glands and invading necrotic lamina propria.
T63129 967310-967563 Sentence denotes Superficial epithelium and superficial layers of lamina propria are necrotic, showing a homogeneous acidophilic appearance with scattered pyknotic or karyorrhectic nuclei and an inflammatory cell infiltrate composed of neutrophils and mononuclear cells.
T75696 967564-967693 Sentence denotes Fibrin thrombi occluding superficial arteries and veins of the lamina propria and submucosa are characteristic of this condition.
T34023 967694-967817 Sentence denotes Fibrin also can be seen in mucosal and submucosal manifestations of the subacute and chronic forms of type D enterotoxemia.
T65322 967818-967956 Sentence denotes By definition, type D isolates must produce both alpha and epsilon toxins, although some type D isolates can express several other toxins.
T21627 967957-968170 Sentence denotes However, it has been demonstrated by the use of reverse genetic experiments in animal models that epsilon toxin is sufficient to cause all the clinical signs and lesions of type D enterotoxemia in sheep and goats.
T62686 968171-968367 Sentence denotes Epsilon toxin is the third most potent clostridial toxin (after botulinum and tetanus toxins) and, until recently it was considered a class B select agent by the USDA and CDC in the United States.
T91805 968368-968557 Sentence denotes Activated epsilon toxin apparently facilitates its own absorption through the intestinal mucosa and it is then transported to several target organs, including the brain, lungs, and kidneys.
T95832 968558-968685 Sentence denotes In the brain and possibly also in other organs, epsilon toxin affects endothelial cells, producing the lesions described later.
T17748 968686-968774 Sentence denotes It also has been suggested that epsilon toxin acts directly on neurons within the brain.
T99618 968775-968902 Sentence denotes Lambs and goats suddenly fed large amounts of grain or concentrate are highly susceptible; thus the synonym overeating disease.
T93185 968903-969005 Sentence denotes The manner in which overeating leads to clostridial enterotoxemia is complex and not fully understood.
T52144 969006-969101 Sentence denotes Cultures of C. perfringens type D given orally are largely destroyed in the rumen and abomasum.
T36491 969102-969238 Sentence denotes However, when the intestinal environment is favorable, the few organisms that reach the intestine proliferate rapidly and produce toxin.
T84323 969239-969613 Sentence denotes It was accepted traditionally that the critical factor for type D enterotoxemia to occur is the presence of undigested starch in the small intestine, providing a suitable substrate for these saccharolytic bacteria, which allows them to proliferate to immense numbers-perhaps >10 9 organisms per gram of intestinal contents-and produce correspondingly large amounts of toxin.
T38622 969614-969741 Sentence denotes However, it has been demonstrated in vitro that the absence of glucose in a culture medium stimulates epsilon toxin production.
T55050 969742-969927 Sentence denotes Therefore it is possible that the presence of starch in the intestine stimulates the growth of C. perfringens type D, whereas the absence of glucose stimulates epsilon toxin production.
T74113 969928-970083 Sentence denotes When the animal is suddenly provided with excessive quantities of food, particularly starch-rich food, there is a delay before the ruminal flora can adapt.
T98370 970084-970231 Sentence denotes In this period, undigested or partially digested starch may escape into the intestine, and C. perfringens type D is likely to take advantage of it.
T33312 970232-970340 Sentence denotes The lack of digestion of starch also would be responsible for the absence of glucose in the small intestine.
T54514 970341-970577 Sentence denotes The epsilon prototoxin is produced as a relatively inactive prototoxin, which is fully activated by digestive enzymes, especially the combination of trypsin and chymotrypsin, but also by some proteases produced by C. perfringens itself.
T7530 970578-970705 Sentence denotes Epsilon toxin facilitates its own absorption from the intestine, probably in part by increasing the permeability of the mucosa.
T3045 970706-970920 Sentence denotes No damage to the intestinal mucosa, except for occasional congestion and mild hemorrhage, is observed in sheep, as opposed to goats, in which severe necrotizing colitis and/ or enterocolitis is frequently observed.
T4652 970921-971115 Sentence denotes The acute disease in goats likely has a similar pathogenesis as in sheep, but the chronic disease, with lesions confined to the intestine, appears to be caused by local effects of type D toxins.
T32310 971116-971241 Sentence denotes Although very little information is available in cattle, probably the disease develops in the same way in cattle as in sheep.
T5180 971242-971306 Sentence denotes Type D enterotoxemia may occur in lambs >2 weeks or adult sheep.
T41078 971307-971532 Sentence denotes In most lambs with type D enterotoxemia, the type C and C. difficile in foals, both the gross and microscopic pathology were indistinguishable from those in foals infected with either of these two microorganisms individually.
T25071 971533-971706 Sentence denotes A disease clinically and pathologically identical to that described in sheep has been experimentally produced in goats inoculated intraduodenally with C. perfringens type C.
T18827 971707-971913 Sentence denotes A presumptive diagnosis of type C disease can be established based on clinical and pathologic findings, but confirmation of the disease relies on detection of beta toxin in intestinal contents and/or feces.
T92649 971914-972086 Sentence denotes However, because this toxin is so sensitive to trypsin, failure to detect this toxin in intestinal content does not preclude a diagnosis of C. perfringens type C infection.
T9835 972087-972229 Sentence denotes Because this microorganism is infrequently found in the intestine of normal animals, isolation is considered to be diagnostically significant.
T92421 972230-972273 Sentence denotes Diab SS, et Clostridium perfringens type D.
T44710 972274-972449 Sentence denotes Enterotoxemia ("pulpy kidney" disease, "overeating" disease) caused by Clostridium perfringens type D is an important disease of sheep and goats with a worldwide distribution.
T26982 972450-972483 Sentence denotes It occurs occasionally in cattle.
T20865 972484-972731 Sentence denotes The rarely observed subacute and chronic forms of the disease in sheep have been called focal symmetrical encephalomalacia (FSE), because for many years they were thought to be a different disease, but FSE is only one of pathologic Diab SS, et al.
T45939 972732-972834 Sentence denotes Vet Pathol 2012; 49:255-263.) small intestine occasionally may be distended with gas and be hyperemic.
T83337 972835-973033 Sentence denotes The so-called "pulpy kidney" (softening of the renal parenchyma) may be present in a small proportion of cases, but it is of little diagnostic significance because its occurrence is so inconsistent.
T83866 973034-973159 Sentence denotes It is best regarded as a poorly understood example of accelerated autolysis because it is not seen in freshly dead carcasses.
T17833 973160-973327 Sentence denotes Glucosuria is present in a relatively small percentage of animals with type D enterotoxemia and it is a useful, though nonspecific, diagnostic indicator when detected.
T65831 973328-973408 Sentence denotes The absence of glucosuria does not preclude a diagnosis of type D enterotoxemia.
T12376 973409-973517 Sentence denotes In adult sheep, the gross lesions are the same as those in lambs, but are more consistent and more advanced.
T61923 973518-973679 Sentence denotes Brain gross lesions may occur in lambs and older sheep with subacute or chronic enterotoxemia and these are sufficiently unique to be of diagnostic significance.
T98623 973680-973804 Sentence denotes They include herniation of the cerebellar vermis (Fig. 1-153) and/or focal symmetrical encephalomalacia (FSE) (Fig. 1-154) .
T47415 973805-974184 Sentence denotes The commonest distribution of FSE involves the corpus striatum, thalamus, and cerebellar peduncles; there are some minor variations of the pattern, but course is acute and the animal is found dead without clinical signs being observed or after a short period of acute neurological and respiratory signs, including convulsions and tachypnea, and often bawling as from severe pain.
T244 974185-974335 Sentence denotes Animals that survive longer may show drooling, rapid breathing, hyperesthesia, wide stance, blindness, opisthotonos, and terminal coma or convulsions.
T53133 974336-974435 Sentence denotes In older sheep or younger but vaccinated sheep, subacute or chronic cases are most frequently seen.
T77003 974436-974595 Sentence denotes Neurologic clinical signs are characteristic of the subacute and chronic forms of type D disease and include blindness, ataxia, head pressing, and paraparesis.
T35015 974596-974703 Sentence denotes Diarrhea occasionally may be observed, although this is not a common clinical sign in sheep type D disease.
T6392 974704-974774 Sentence denotes In goats, type D produces acute, subacute, or chronic disease as well.
T86562 974775-974960 Sentence denotes The acute form occurs more frequently in young, unvaccinated animals and is clinically similar to the acute disease in sheep and characterized by sudden death or acute neurologic signs.
T40701 974961-975147 Sentence denotes The subacute form is more frequently seen in adult goats, vaccinated or not, and is characterized by hemorrhagic diarrhea, abdominal discomfort, tachypnea, opisthotonos, and convulsions.
T67262 975148-975227 Sentence denotes The disease may result in death 2-4 days after onset, but some animals recover.
T26804 975228-975454 Sentence denotes Adult animals, often vaccinated, can also exhibit chronic disease, which is characterized by profuse, watery diarrhea (often containing blood and mucus), abdominal discomfort, weakness, anorexia, and agalactia in milking does.
T83294 975455-975546 Sentence denotes This chronic form may last for days or weeks and may culminate in either death or recovery.
T10229 975547-975632 Sentence denotes Grossly, in sheep dead of acute enterotoxemia, the carcass is usually well nourished.
T61349 975633-975765 Sentence denotes In those with a course of 1-2 days, there may be occasional evidence of scours about the rump, although diarrhea is rarely observed.
T39247 975766-976129 Sentence denotes Often there is excessive straw-colored pericardial, thoracic, and abdominal fluid with strands of fibrin ( Fig. 1-152 ) that clots on exposure to air, and congestion and edema of the lungs that may be severe enough to produce froth in all the respiratory passages; and hemorrhage beneath the endocardium of the left and occasionally right ventricles of the heart.
T48295 976130-976285 Sentence denotes There may be hemorrhages beneath other serous membranes such as the epicardium, and blotchy hemorrhages beneath the parietal peritoneum are characteristic.
T34372 976286-976353 Sentence denotes Sometimes the liver is congested and the spleen enlarged and pulpy.
T66827 976354-976627 Sentence denotes There is no gastrointestinal inflammation visible at autopsy, although the content of the small and large intestine may be moderately fluid and short lengths of the surrounding areas of vasculopathy, suggesting that neuronal stress is an early event in ovine enterotoxemia.
T64086 976628-976690 Sentence denotes Type D enterotoxemia may be seen in both adult goats and kids.
T78742 976691-976781 Sentence denotes As in sheep, 3 forms of the disease are recognized in goats: acute, subacute, and chronic.
T13109 976782-976872 Sentence denotes The acute disease is similar to that seen in lambs, and usually manifests as sudden death.
T3393 976873-976985 Sentence denotes The subacute form is characterized by diarrhea and severe abdominal discomfort with or without neurologic signs.
T22905 976986-977062 Sentence denotes Affected animals usually die within 1-2 days of the onset of clinical signs.
T46423 977063-977128 Sentence denotes The chronic form of the disease may last for a few days or weeks.
T14074 977129-977185 Sentence denotes Weight loss and diarrhea are its main clinical features.
T82735 977186-977326 Sentence denotes The principal gross lesions in the acute form of the disease are similar to those seen in sheep, except that gross brain lesions are absent.
T80872 977327-977529 Sentence denotes In the subacute and chronic disease, there is mild to severe mesocolonic edema, hyperemia, and ulceration of the mucosa (Fig. 1-156A) , especially of the distal small intestine, cecum, and spiral colon.
T4220 977530-977589 Sentence denotes The affected areas the lesions are always of the same type.
T39338 977590-977725 Sentence denotes Less frequently FSE can be seen also in substantia nigra, white matter of the frontal gyri, rostral cerebral peduncles and other areas.
T98488 977726-977792 Sentence denotes The white matter is preferentially affected in all of these areas.
T25775 977793-977988 Sentence denotes The histologic changes in the brains of sheep with type D enterotoxemia are unique and pathognomonic, and although they are present in the vast majority of cases, occasionally they may be absent.
T22825 977989-978274 Sentence denotes The most consistent change, observed in ∼90% of acute and subacute cases, is perivascular proteinaceous edema, also known as microangiopathy, which is seen mostly as homogeneous acidophilic accumulations of protein surrounding small-and medium-sized arteries and veins ( Fig. 1-155) .
T10260 978275-978364 Sentence denotes Occasionally, accumulation of protein hyaline droplets around small vessels is also seen.
T64854 978365-978439 Sentence denotes These lesions are first evident a few hours after onset of clinical signs.
T99326 978440-978643 Sentence denotes Apparently, no other conditions of sheep produce this highly proteinaceous perivascular edema in brain, and this change therefore should be considered diagnostic for type D enterotoxemia in this species.
T21539 978644-978697 Sentence denotes In subacute and chronic disease, FSE can be observed.
T5490 978698-978829 Sentence denotes This lesion is usually multifocal and characterized by degeneration of white matter, hemorrhage, and astrocyte and axonal swelling.
T56042 978830-979051 Sentence denotes Perivascular edema and FSE in the brain are always bilateral and roughly symmetrical, and they have been described most frequently in corpus striatum, thalamus, midbrain, cerebellar peduncles, and cerebellar white matter.
T5519 979052-979188 Sentence denotes These areas are not exclusively affected, and lesions sometimes can be seen in other parts of the brain, such as cortex and hippocampus.
T33902 979189-979290 Sentence denotes Usually, no significant histologic changes are found in intestines of sheep dying from enterotoxemia.
T27256 979291-979480 Sentence denotes Histologic changes were not observed in kidneys of experimentally inoculated lambs autopsied immediately after death, supporting suggestions that these lesions are due to postmortem change.
T92990 979481-979587 Sentence denotes Thus microscopic lesions in kidney should not be considered a diagnostic indicator of ovine enterotoxemia.
T63148 979588-979706 Sentence denotes Ultrastructurally, severe damage to vascular endothelium is apparent and there is swelling of protoplasmic astrocytes.
T94099 979707-979806 Sentence denotes The foot processes around blood vessels and the processes around neurons are most severely swollen.
T63661 979807-979917 Sentence denotes Immunohistochemistry has revealed that Alzheimer precursor protein 1 (APP1) is very early upregulated in axons
T60633 979919-979950 Sentence denotes Clostridium perfringens type E.
T64 979951-980046 Sentence denotes Clostridium perfringens type E has been blamed for enterotoxemia of lambs, calves, and rabbits.
T47638 980047-980173 Sentence denotes Pathogenesis of type E infections is not very well understood, although it is assumed that iota toxin plays an important role.
T49241 980174-980371 Sentence denotes In the few reported cases of this condition in calves, the animals died acutely and had a congested ulcerated abomasum and hemorrhagic enteritis that occurred segmentally along the small intestine.
T98525 980372-980476 Sentence denotes Mesenteric nodes were enlarged and red, and pericardial effusion and serosal hemorrhages may be present.
T77994 980477-980601 Sentence denotes No comprehensive descriptions of clinical disease, gross and microscopic lesions of type E enterotoxemia in other ruminants.
T24153 980602-980757 Sentence denotes The few diagnoses of type E enteritis that have been reported were based on isolation of C. perfringens type E from the intestinal content of sick animals.
T88660 980758-980933 Sentence denotes This procedure, however, is not universally accepted as a diagnostic criterion for C. perfringens intestinal diseases because this organism is present in many healthy animals.
T45382 980934-981182 Sentence denotes Although C. perfringens type E also has been suspected as a cause of enterotoxemia in rabbits, cross-reactivity of the iota toxin with the toxins of C. spiroforme, has created doubt regarding the role of C. perfringens type E in disease in rabbits.
T36961 981183-981212 Sentence denotes Songer Clostridium difficile.
T38238 981213-981318 Sentence denotes Clostridium difficile is a grampositive rod that may be found in the soil and gut of many animal species.
T92431 981319-981657 Sentence denotes C. difficile is the most commonly identified cause of antibiotic-associated and nosocomial diarrhea in humans but, in the past few years, it has also been associated with cases of colitis and diarrhea in people that have not been treated with antibiotics or exposed to hospital environments (community-associated C. difficile infections).
T98359 981658-981838 Sentence denotes C. difficile disease occurs spontaneously in several animal species including horses, hares, rabbits, pigs, nonhuman primates, dogs, cats, ostriches, and black-tailed prairie dogs.
T24766 981839-981959 Sentence denotes C. difficile has been may be covered by a layer of fibrin that reveals multifocal to diffuse ulceration when peeled off.
T13523 981960-982059 Sentence denotes The intestinal contents are olive-green to red and mucoid and frequently contain strands of fibrin.
T3572 982060-982114 Sentence denotes The mesenteric lymph nodes are enlarged and edematous.
T96882 982115-982238 Sentence denotes Hydropericardium, ascites, and pulmonary edema can be seen in the subacute form but not in the chronic form of the disease.
T24286 982239-982343 Sentence denotes FSE similar to that describe in sheep has been described in one case of subacute enterotoxemia in goats.
T91437 982344-982486 Sentence denotes Microscopic changes are usually absent in acute cases, but perivascular edema similar to that described in sheep occasionally may be observed.
T18537 982487-982632 Sentence denotes The main microscopic lesions in subacute and chronic forms are seen in the colon and, occasionally in the caudal segments of the small intestine.
T85174 982633-982816 Sentence denotes These lesions vary from a mild pleocellular leukocytic reaction in the lamina propria to a suppurative and fibrinonecrotizing enteritis, colitis, and/or enterocolitis ( Fig. 1-156B) .
T58567 982817-982907 Sentence denotes Changes in the lungs may be similar to, but are less consistent than, those seen in lambs.
T25728 982908-982985 Sentence denotes Only rarely has FSE been described in subacute type D enterotoxemia of goats.
T86164 982986-983079 Sentence denotes The reasons for the different manifestations of enterotoxemia in sheep and goats are unknown.
T93055 983080-983195 Sentence denotes Information on type D enterotoxemia in cattle is sparse and the disease seems to occur very rarely in this species.
T32473 983196-983316 Sentence denotes A spontaneous disease with gross brain lesions similar to those observed in FSE of sheep occasionally is seen in cattle.
T74215 983317-983528 Sentence denotes However, a causal relationship between the lesions and C. perfringens type D or its epsilon toxin has not been established in any of these cases, and the etiology of these lesions in cattle remains undetermined.
T45354 983529-983686 Sentence denotes Experimentally, a disease very similar to the acute form of type D enterotoxemia in sheep was observed in calves inoculated intravenously with epsilon toxin.
T94771 983687-983791 Sentence denotes These animals developed severe respiratory and neurologic clinical signs very shortly after inoculation.
T99734 983792-983860 Sentence denotes Gross findings included severe pulmonary edema and hydropericardium.
T61782 983861-983941 Sentence denotes Histologic changes were proteinaceous perivascular edema of the brain and lungs.
T77434 983942-984362 Sentence denotes Intraduodenal inoculation of calves with C. perfringens type D also resulted in a disease similar to the acute form of type D enterotoxemia in sheep, with clinical and pathologic findings similar to those seen in epsilon toxin inoculated calves in most animals; one animal developing chronic neurologic disease with gross and microscopic lesions of FSE as described in the subacute and chronic ovine form of the disease.
T43544 984363-984484 Sentence denotes These experimental results indicate that cattle are susceptible to C. perfringens type D infection and its epsilon toxin.
T40927 984485-984563 Sentence denotes However, natural type D disease in this species seems to be a rare occurrence.
T87826 984564-984771 Sentence denotes Microangiopathy similar to that described in in sheep and goat enterotoxemia was described in the brain of two 1-day-old calves and in a heifer, in which epsilon toxin was detected in the intestinal content.
T63135 984772-984898 Sentence denotes A diagnosis of type D disease in sheep can be established based on the presence of FSE and/or perivascular edema in the brain.
T80572 984899-984979 Sentence denotes The same applies for goats in the rare cases in which these lesions are present.
T65129 984980-985070 Sentence denotes Absence of these lesions in either species does not preclude a diagnosis of enterotoxemia.
T12526 985071-985326 Sentence denotes Although it has been suggested that epsilon toxin may be produced in the intestine after death, this has never been proved, and demonstration of epsilon toxin in intestinal content is therefore considered diagnostic for the disease in both animal species.
T80044 985327-985547 Sentence denotes It is likely that the same diagnostic criteria apply for enterotoxemia in cattle, although much less information is available about the disease in this species and diagnostic criteria have not been established in cattle.
T16251 985548-985557 Sentence denotes severity.
T54544 985558-985761 Sentence denotes The main clinical sign is diarrhea, which may be accompanied by hyperemic mucous membranes, prolonged capillary refill time, pyrexia, tachycardia, tachypnea, dehydration, abdominal distention, and colic.
T4905 985762-985822 Sentence denotes The mortality rate in foals and adults varies from 0 to 42%.
T97600 985823-985978 Sentence denotes A syndrome known as duodenitis-proximal jejunitis, characterized clinically by large volumes of enterogastric reflux, has been known since the early 1980s.
T13813 985979-986142 Sentence denotes Although an association has been suggested between C. difficile and duodenitis-proximal jejunitis, a conclusive relationship has been neither proved nor ruled out.
T58470 986143-986412 Sentence denotes C. difficile gross and microscopic lesions may be characteristic but are not pathognomonic, as other infectious (C. perfringens type C, Salmonella sp., and Neorickettsia risticii) and noninfectious (NSAIDs) causes of intestinal disease can produce very similar lesions.
T22041 986413-986562 Sentence denotes Grossly, the serosa of the small and large intestine is multifocally red or blue as the result of intense hyperemia and/or hemorrhage ( Fig. 1-157) .
T87926 986563-986729 Sentence denotes The wall of the small intestine can be slightly thickened; the mucosa is often diffusely reddened and may have an overlying, multifocal, tan to orange pseudomembrane.
T26846 986730-987019 Sentence denotes The wall of the colon and cecum is typically diffusely and severely thickened by clear to hemorrhagic, gelatinous submucosal and mucosal edema; the mucosa is multifocally or diffusely dull green or red and may be multifocally covered by a tan or light green pseudomembrane ( Fig. 1-158) .
T39102 987020-987133 Sentence denotes The intestinal content in young foals is often hemorrhagic but may be yellow and pasty or green/brown and watery.
T6092 987134-987358 Sentence denotes In older foals and adult horses, the colon and cecum are characteristically filled with large amounts of green or light brown, watery contents, and occasionally dark brown or red, hemorrhagic, watery contents ( Fig. 1-159) .
T15544 987359-987428 Sentence denotes Bloody content may be present caudally to the small colon and rectum.
T94633 987429-987728 Sentence denotes When present, gross lesions outside the gastrointestinal tract are those of endotoxic shock and/or disseminated intravascular coagulation, including serous or serosanguineous pericardial effusion, pulmonary edema and congestion, and multifocal subendocardial and subserosal petechiae and ecchymoses.
T66553 987729-987872 Sentence denotes Microscopic lesions in horses are mostly restricted to the gastrointestinal tract and they can be present in the small and/ or large intestine.
T52122 987873-988254 Sentence denotes They are almost identical to those seen in horses with C. perfringens type C infection and consist mainly of multifocal to diffuse, often hemorrhagic, coagulative isolated from cattle with enteritis but also infected by other pathogens, and although it is very likely that this microorganism plays a role in enteritis of cattle, final evidence to support this assertion is lacking.
T12535 988255-988444 Sentence denotes C. difficile disease has been reproduced experimentally in several animal species that are used as models for human disease, including Syrian hamsters, guinea pigs, mice, rats, and rabbits.
T41176 988445-988594 Sentence denotes Lesions in most nonhuman mammals are similar to those in humans, but vary extensively in severity and distribution within the gastrointestinal tract.
T74543 988595-988735 Sentence denotes Differences in distribution of lesions within the gastrointestinal tract also exist between different age groups of the same animal species.
T68846 988736-988988 Sentence denotes Over the past few years, highly virulent ribotypes responsible for severe human outbreaks (i.e., 027 and 078) have been associated with disease in several animal species, prompting speculation that animal-to-human transmission and/or vice versa occurs.
T80376 988989-989138 Sentence denotes Pathogenesis of C. difficile disease in domestic animals is likely mediated by toxins A (an enterotoxin) and B (a cytotoxin and also an enterotoxin).
T12522 989139-989263 Sentence denotes Much controversy exists about the relative importance of each of these toxins in the pathogenesis of C. difficile infection.
T94697 989264-989459 Sentence denotes However, animal experiments using toxin mutant strains of C. difficile (i.e., strains that do not produce toxin A or B or both), have shown that both toxins are able to cause lesions and disease.
T48532 989460-989608 Sentence denotes The major predisposing factors for C. difficile disease in most species are antibiotic therapy and, at least for humans and horses, hospitalization.
T32218 989609-989915 Sentence denotes Although clindamycin and vancomycin therapy pose a higher risk than other antibiotics for many animal species, disturbance of normal flora with development of C. difficile disease can occur after administration of almost any antibiotic, including antibiotics that are effective against C. difficile itself.
T1487 989916-990076 Sentence denotes However, in horses the disease has been most frequently associated with administration of β-lactam antibiotics, probably because of the prevalence of their use.
T47456 990077-990273 Sentence denotes Confirmation of a diagnosis of C. difficile disease should be based on identification of toxins A, B, or both in gut content or feces by tests with high sensitivity and specificity, mostly ELISAs.
T51493 990274-990552 Sentence denotes However, because of the lower carrier rate of this microorganism in some animal species (e.g., horses), isolation of toxigenic strains of this microorganism from intestinal content and/or feces is considered diagnostically significant for C. difficile infection by some authors.
T1227 990553-990676 Sentence denotes Typing of isolates is necessary because nontoxic strains can occur and isolation of those is of no diagnostic significance.
T43411 990677-990749 Sentence denotes In horses, C. difficile causes enteritis, enterocolitis, and/or colitis.
T82283 990750-990857 Sentence denotes Diarrhea and colic have been reproduced in foals using inocula of C. difficile spores and vegetative cells.
T4558 990858-991063 Sentence denotes Horses of any age can be affected and although there are exceptions, it is generally accepted that the distribution of lesions throughout the intestinal tract seems to be dependent on the age of the horse.
T46949 991064-991183 Sentence denotes In foals <1 month old, the small intestine is invariably affected, whereas colon and cecum may or may not have lesions.
T43857 991184-991348 Sentence denotes In older foals and adult horses, the disease has a more caudal distribution, affecting the colon and sometimes the cecum, and generally sparing the small intestine.
T5419 991349-991583 Sentence denotes Although this age-related distribution of lesions within the gastrointestinal tract is seen in the majority of cases, exceptions do occur and lesion distribution should not be used to confirm/rule out C. difficile infection in horses.
T44483 991584-991830 Sentence denotes The clinical signs of C. difficile disease in horses are highly variable, not specific and may occur with highly variable necrosis of the mucosa, which may be covered by a pseudomembrane, frequently accompanied by submucosal edema and congestion.
T64099 991831-992064 Sentence denotes Thrombosis of small to mid-size blood vessels in the mucosa and/or submucosa is a very frequent, although not constant, finding, and it is especially useful in those cases in which autolysis has partially masked the mucosal necrosis.
T50630 992065-992216 Sentence denotes Mild to moderate mucosal and submucosal fibrino-neutrophilic infiltration with fewer plasma cells, lymphocytes, and macrophages is frequently observed.
T5017 992217-992629 Sentence denotes The so-called "volcano" lesions, as described in the human disease and characterized by patchy focal erosions on the small intestinal or colonic mucosa through which fibrin and neutrophils exude, are not very frequently seen in horses and it has been speculated that the reason is that, at the time of autopsy and sample collection, the lesions are usually too advanced to show the delicate volcano-like lesions.
T64156 992630-992786 Sentence denotes Few to numerous clusters of short and thick, gram-positive rods can be observed in the intestinal lumen and/or on the surface or within the necrotic mucosa.
T41722 992787-992868 Sentence denotes Co-infection of foals with C. difficile and C. perfringens type C can also occur.
T49852 992869-992998 Sentence denotes The clinical signs, gross and microscopic lesions are almost identical to those produced by either of these microorganisms alone.
T32466 992999-993232 Sentence denotes C. difficile is increasingly being recognized as a cause of diarrhea resulting from fibrinous colitis in neonatal pigs under about a week of age, and the disease has been reproduced experimentally using pure cultures of the organism.
T42783 993233-993310 Sentence denotes Piglets have diarrhea, dyspnea, scrotal edema, and mild abdominal distention.
T50414 993311-993400 Sentence denotes Affected litters experience lost productivity (mainly shown as decreased weaning weight).
T88890 993401-993661 Sentence denotes Grossly, hydrothorax and characteristic although not pathognomonic, edema of the mesocolon (Fig. 1-160 ) are evident grossly, usually in association with patchy to extensive fibrinous typhlocolitis ( Fig. 1-161A) , with yellow pasty to fluid content and feces.
T8159 993662-993884 Sentence denotes Microscopically, fibrinous colitis similar to that described in horses is a common lesion, with colonic serosal and mesenteric edema and infiltration of mononuclear inflammatory cells and neutrophils in the lamina propria.
T52138 993885-994037 Sentence denotes Segmental erosion and ulceration of colonic mucosal epithelium is common, and volcano lesions may be seen in acute cases of the disease ( Fig. 1-161B ).
T41783 994038-994108 Sentence denotes Occasionally deeper necrosis of the mucosa and colonic wall may occur.
T14152 994109-994275 Sentence denotes Information on C. difficile infection in domestic dogs and cats is scant and the role of this microorganism in canine and feline enteric disease is currently unclear.
T39121 994276-994507 Sentence denotes Although a possible association between the detection of C. difficile toxins in feces of dogs and disease has been reported in multiple studies, diagnostic criteria for C. difficile infection in these species have not been defined.
T48452 994508-994704 Sentence denotes This is complicated by the fact that prevalence of C. difficile in normal dogs and cats may be up to 50% and C. difficile toxins also have been detected in a small percentage of asymptomatic dogs.
T74740 994705-994790 Sentence denotes Descriptions of lesions of C. difficile infections in dogs or cats are not available.
T12770 994791-994968 Sentence denotes The role of C. difficile in enteric disease of cattle has been proposed in several studies, but no conclusive evidence has been provided to confirm or rule out this possibility.
T78384 994969-995125 Sentence denotes This microorganism, including the highly virulent ribotypes 027 and 078, and its toxins, has been detected in the intestine of healthy and diarrheic calves.
T92911 995126-995206 Sentence denotes Ribotype 078 has been found to be predominant strain in cattle in North America.
T44784 995207-995381 Sentence denotes The fact that several of the highly virulent ribotypes of C. difficile for humans have been found in cattle suggests that zoonotic transmission (and/or vice versa) may occur.
T76757 995382-995461 Sentence denotes There is growing concern that some C. difficile infections may be acquired from
T7570 995463-995537 Sentence denotes A ingestion of C. difficile spores in contaminated foods of animal origin.
T70608 995538-995902 Sentence denotes Although a correlation between the presence of fecal C. difficile and its toxins and calf diarrhea was found, frequently this microorganism is detected in diarrheic calves together with other enteropathogens (e.g., bovine coronavirus, bovine rotavirus, Cryptosporidium spp.), and ascribing the enteropathogenic effects to one of these pathogens alone is difficult.
T54517 995903-996021 Sentence denotes One study failed in the attempt to provoke diarrhea in calves by oral administration of virulent C. difficile strains.
T51891 996022-996176 Sentence denotes Tyzzer's disease is caused by the obligate intracellular bacterium Clostridium piliforme, the only gram-negative organism among the pathogenic clostridia.
T30608 996177-996373 Sentence denotes It is a disease of many species of mammals, among them horses, cats, dogs, rabbits, hamsters, and cattle, although there seem to be bacterial strain differences that determine host susceptibility.
T59114 996374-996458 Sentence denotes Affected animals are often very young or appear to be immunocompromised in some way.
T91042 996459-996571 Sentence denotes The classical triad of lesions in most animal species include changes in the heart, intestinal tract, and liver.
T92852 996572-996710 Sentence denotes However, frequently lesions are observed only in the liver, which is the organ most frequently affected in the majority of animal species.
T96248 996711-996887 Sentence denotes Animals become infected initially through the epithelium of the ileum, cecum, and colon, where, when present, inflammation may vary from subtle catarrhal to fibrinohemorrhagic.
T20941 996888-997093 Sentence denotes Bacilli can be observed faintly in hematoxylin and eosin preparations but are better demonstrated using silver stains, often forming characteristic "pick-up-sticks" arrays, in the cytoplasm of enterocytes.
T3140 997094-997248 Sentence denotes Ultimately, in most cases they disseminate elsewhere in the body, especially to liver and myocardium, where they cause acute to subacute necrotic lesions.
T66507 997249-997416 Sentence denotes The organism cannot be cultured in conventional media and diagnosis is usually based on histologic examination by demonstration of the classical intracellular bacilli.
T15912 997417-997460 Sentence denotes The disease is discussed more fully in Vol.
T66597 997461-997489 Sentence denotes 2, Liver and biliary system.
T28804 997490-997579 Sentence denotes Johne's disease is caused by Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) infection.
T70157 997580-997753 Sentence denotes The etiologic agent of Johne's disease is classified as a subspecies within the M. avium complex based on DNA hybridization studies and other genotypic and phenotypic tests.
T3653 997754-997907 Sentence denotes MAP in culture is slow growing, and its dependence on the iron chelator mycobactin classically has been the key distinguishing phenotypic characteristic.
T9570 997908-998048 Sentence denotes Genetically, the IS900 insertion sequence element seems unique to MAP, and has been used broadly as a diagnostic tool in animals and humans.
T5495 998049-998147 Sentence denotes Highly homologous but not identical IS900-like sequences have been detected in other mycobacteria.
T26836 998148-998372 Sentence denotes At least 2 distinct MAP strains are known to cause paratuberculosis in various hosts, and these are generally referred to as type I, or S strain first isolated from sheep, and type II, or C strain first isolated from cattle.
T95804 998373-998515 Sentence denotes Type I strains have been isolated mostly from sheep, particularly in Australia; there are rare reports of cattle infected with type I strains.
T96187 998516-998684 Sentence denotes Type II strains, on the other hand, are the most common; they have a broad host range and have been isolated from domestic and wildlife species as well as nonruminants.
T50250 998685-998814 Sentence denotes The strains have distinct phenotypic, genotypic, host preference, virulence, and pathogenic traits that continue to be clarified.
T9192 998815-999034 Sentence denotes Paratuberculosis is most common in domestic ruminants, but spontaneous disease also occurs rarely in a number of free-ranging and captive nondomestic ruminants, camelids and rabbits, equids, swine, and captive primates.
T85649 999035-999201 Sentence denotes Wild mammals including lagomorphs, rodents, and carnivores, and several species of wild birds are naturally infected with MAP, but do not necessarily develop disease.
T89701 999202-999383 Sentence denotes MAP has been recovered from clinical disease, the population of MAP within the intestinal mucosa increases and live MAP are shed in the feces more frequently and in greater numbers.
T98338 999384-999558 Sentence denotes Appetite often remains normal, and intermittent to progressive diarrhea may persist for weeks before eventual development of hypoproteinemia, cachexia, emaciation, and death.
T32569 999559-999867 Sentence denotes The major lesions of Johne's disease are usually confined to the ileum, large intestine, and draining lymph nodes; however, the infection is generalized and the organism is widely distributed in lymph nodes, and can be cultured from a variety of parenchymatous organs or even blood in fulminating infections.
T9070 999868-1000048 Sentence denotes Diarrhea during Johne's disease is related to the granulomatous inflammatory response in the lamina propria of the small intestine, and the associated villus atrophy that develops.
T60342 1000049-1000204 Sentence denotes Malabsorption and filtration secretion caused by the inflamed small intestinal mucosa overloads the capacity of the colon to resorb electrolytes and fluid.
T95625 1000205-1000314 Sentence denotes The function of the colon itself may be compromised by MAP infection, especially in severe or advanced cases.
T27973 1000315-1000541 Sentence denotes There is malabsorption of amino acids, enteric loss of plasma protein, and hypoproteinemia causing reduced productive efficiency, and when negative nitrogen balance occurs, a decline in body condition, and ultimate emaciation.
T69243 1000542-1000712 Sentence denotes The gross lesions of Johne's disease include small intestinal mucosal lesions that may be segmental or continuous, and can be distributed from the duodenum to the rectum.
T94535 1000713-1000793 Sentence denotes Lesions are usually best developed in the lower ileum and upper large intestine.
T14916 1000794-1000956 Sentence denotes The ileocecal valve is considered by some to be the site that is earliest and most consistently affected; however, lesions in the ileocecal valve can be variable.
T61079 1000957-1001115 Sentence denotes The classic intestinal change is diffuse thickening of the mucosa, which is folded into transverse rugae, the crests of which may be congested ( Fig. 1-162) .
T90129 1001116-1001240 Sentence denotes Mucosal thickening is due to accumulation of predominantly macrophages, as well as edema fluid, in the mucosa and submucosa.
T86169 1001241-1001349 Sentence denotes The mucosa and/or serosa may have a slightly granular appearance because of increased cellularity and edema.
T90328 1001350-1001425 Sentence denotes The ileocecal and mesenteric lymph nodes are enlarged, pale, and edematous.
T56942 1001426-1001730 Sentence denotes Lymphangitis is common, and the lymphatic vessels can often be traced as thickened cords from tissue and blood samples of human patients inflicted with Crohn's disease, a chronic granulomatous enteritis of importance in humans that shares several pathologic and immunologic features with Johne's disease.
T75707 1001731-1001950 Sentence denotes These findings are suggestive of a causal relationship; however, Koch's postulates have not yet been fulfilled, so it seems more likely that MAP is coincidental, or plays a potentially opportunistic role in these cases.
T37826 1001951-1002082 Sentence denotes The epidemiology and pathogenesis of Johne's disease are best understood in cattle, and are assumed to be similar in other species.
T90697 1002083-1002239 Sentence denotes MAP is transmitted predominantly by the fecaloral route, either directly by ingestion in feces or indirectly via MAP-contaminated milk, colostrum, or water.
T17795 1002240-1002349 Sentence denotes Organisms may be present in semen or urine, and may cross the placenta, particularly during advanced disease.
T39381 1002350-1002492 Sentence denotes A distinct age-dependent susceptibility to MAP infection is observed; the infectious dose for adults is considerable higher than for neonates.
T13263 1002493-1002619 Sentence denotes The basis for this is unknown, and control programs aimed at blocking transmission are almost exclusively focused on neonates.
T41145 1002620-1002891 Sentence denotes Johne's disease is often categorized into 3 (or 4) stages: silent infection, subclinical infection, clinical disease (and advanced clinical disease), based on severity of clinical signs, potential for shedding of MAP organisms into the environment, and ease of diagnosis.
T35379 1002892-1003016 Sentence denotes Of particular importance is the subclinical period, which can last 2-5 years before infected animals develop clinical signs.
T85775 1003017-1003206 Sentence denotes Because shedding of MAP into the environment by subclinical cows is variable and progressive, this period represents a significant risk for spread of the infection to susceptible herdmates.
T68389 1003207-1003463 Sentence denotes This long and unpredictable incubation period has given rise to the concept of the iceberg effect because in any infected herd, although few animals may be showing clinical signs of Johne's disease, a much greater number of animals are likely MAP infected.
T16384 1003464-1003641 Sentence denotes Sheep, goats, and cervids are considered to be more susceptible to MAP infection compared with cattle, and have a shorter incubation period before development of clinical signs.
T99310 1003642-1003868 Sentence denotes Survivability of MAP in the environment is proposed to have a significant effect on the epidemiology of MAP infection in animals; however, the biologic relevance of these factors for transmission of infection is still unclear.
T1878 1003869-1004021 Sentence denotes MAP gains access to the small intestinal mucosa and subepithelial dome via microfold (M cells) or epithelial cells overlying submucosal Peyer's patches.
T79826 1004022-1004228 Sentence denotes Macrophages are the preferred host cell for MAP, and the ability of pathogenic mycobacteria including MAP to inhibit phagosome-lysosome fusion is fundamental to its survival and persistence within the host.
T9805 1004229-1004493 Sentence denotes Experimental in vitro and in vivo work indicates that MAP-infected cattle develop a proinflammatory immune response early after intestinal infection, which is probably driven by innate intestinal T lymphocytes including gammadelta T cells and natural killer cells.
T76986 1004494-1004675 Sentence denotes However, in animals that fail to clear the infection, the early proinflammatory response eventually gives way to an apparently ineffective but robust MAP-specific antibody response.
T71759 1004676-1004832 Sentence denotes This transition correlates with the progression from subclinical to clinical disease in affected adults, but the mechanisms for this remain largely unknown.
T42640 1004833-1005003 Sentence denotes The rate of disease progression and the length of the subclinical period of Johne's disease are irregular and can be protracted; clinical cows are rarely <2 years of age.
T62804 1005004-1005217 Sentence denotes The reasons for this remain unclear, although there is likely a complex interplay of factors, including age of initial exposure, dose, re-exposure over time, environment, nutrition, production stage, and genetics.
T57560 1005218-1005332 Sentence denotes As an animal progresses toward the intestinal serosa through the mesentery to the mesenteric nodes ( Fig. 1-163) .
T22897 1005333-1005549 Sentence denotes In some cases mucosal lesions are subtle and lymphangitis is the only readily recognizable gross lesion, which is specific enough to justify a presumptive diagnosis of Johne's disease at gross postmortem examination.
T34866 1005550-1005701 Sentence denotes Additionally, there is marked loss of muscle mass and serous atrophy of fat depots, intermandibular edema, and fluid effusion in various body cavities.
T18092 1005702-1005786 Sentence denotes Plaques of intimal fibrosis and mineralization may be evident in the thoracic aorta.
T83761 1005787-1005938 Sentence denotes When gross lesions are well developed, the characteristic microscopic lesions of transmural granulomatous enteritis and lymphangitis are obvious (Figs.
T70912 1005939-1006049 Sentence denotes 1-164 and 1-165) , although in cattle with minimal gross lesion, microscopic abnormalities can be more subtle.
T12740 1006050-1006305 Sentence denotes Depending on the severity and stage of the infection, villi are moderately to markedly atrophic; macrophages are increased in number and are focally or diffusely distributed in the lamina propria, submucosa, muscular layers or the serosa of the intestine.
T581 1006306-1006425 Sentence denotes Epithelioid macrophages and Langhans-type multinucleated giant cells are often present in aggregates or diffuse sheets.
T91362 1006426-1006561 Sentence denotes The inflammatory infiltrate may abnormally separate and displace crypts, which are elongate and lined by hyperplastic epithelial cells.
T18600 1006562-1006715 Sentence denotes Crypts may be distended with mucus and exfoliated cells, probably because of compression and obstruction of their mouths by inflammatory cells and edema.
T54588 1006716-1006894 Sentence denotes Foci of necrosis may occur within these aggregates of macrophages, but in cattle formation of classic tuberculoid granulomas with caseation and mineralization are extremely rare.
T66639 1006895-1007074 Sentence denotes Granulomatous lymphangitis is one of the most consistent changes, and inflammatory cells can be observed along the lacteal vessels of villi, or in the submucosa (see Fig. 1-165) .
T42401 1007075-1007204 Sentence denotes Initially the lymphatics are surrounded by lymphocytes and plasma cells and many contain plugs of epithelioid cells in the lumen.
T90257 1007205-1007264 Sentence denotes Granulomas may form in the wall and project into the lumen.
T78438 1007265-1007313 Sentence denotes These nodules may undergo some central necrosis.
T48342 1007314-1007406 Sentence denotes Granulomatous lymphadenitis occurs in ileocecal or mesenteric lymph nodes in advanced cases.
T38169 1007407-1007688 Sentence denotes In the early stages, there are increased numbers of macrophages within the subcapsular sinuses; with time, these progress to nodular or diffuse infiltrates of epithelioid macrophages and giant cells that replace much of the lymph node cortex and infiltrate the medullary sinusoids.
T7134 1007689-1007875 Sentence denotes Of the other organs and tissues from which MAP can be isolated in cattle, focal granulomas attributable to MAP have only been described in the liver, hepatic lymph nodes, and very nodes.
T98699 1007876-1007946 Sentence denotes These nodules may be grossly visible as white foci 1-4 mm in diameter.
T67462 1007947-1008094 Sentence denotes Scattered lymph nodes elsewhere in the body, and liver, lung, spleen, and other organs, may contain focal granulomatous lesions in sheep and goats.
T62406 1008095-1008221 Sentence denotes Pigmented strains of MAP have been described in sheep, and in these cases the mucosa and lymph nodes may be discolored orange.
T65965 1008222-1008413 Sentence denotes The organism is usually readily demonstrable by acid-fast staining within macrophages and giant cells in the lesions, especially in diffuse multibacillary forms of the disease (Fig. 1-166) .
T24303 1008414-1008615 Sentence denotes However, some clinical cases may have multifocal paucibacillary lesions in sheep, so an extensive search must be made for individual macrophages or giant cells bearing low numbers of acid-fast bacilli.
T77096 1008616-1008794 Sentence denotes Antibodies with well-defined specificity for MAP have allowed the development of immunohistochemical tests, but these are typically not helpful when there are very few organisms.
T12925 1008795-1008892 Sentence denotes Polymerase chain reaction techniques are useful for confirming the diagnosis in individual cases.
T92333 1008893-1009092 Sentence denotes Culture can be reliable to detect MAP in goats, because they tend to be infected with the cattle strain; however, culture of MAP from sheep is difficult because of its fastidious growth requirements.
T18988 1009093-1009224 Sentence denotes Rhodococcus equi is an intracellular pathogen found in soil and as part of the normal intestinal flora of horses and other animals.
T86066 1009225-1009321 Sentence denotes This microorganism is a major pathogen of horses, and it also causes disease in pigs and cattle.
T71086 1009322-1009435 Sentence denotes In the past few years, R. equi pneumonia in HIV-infected or otherwise immunocompromised humans has become common.
T19277 1009436-1009548 Sentence denotes R. equi isolated from foals and many recovered from humans carry an approximately 81-kb plasmid named pVAPA1037.
T82992 1009549-1009693 Sentence denotes This plasmid is essential for disease in horses; removal of this plasmid results in loss of the capacity of R. equi to replicate in macrophages.
T77105 1009694-1009889 Sentence denotes The genes on the virulence plasmid are divided into 4 groups, but only the genes within 1 of those groups, the PAI region, have been evaluated and reported to play significant roles in virulence.
T34343 1009890-1009938 Sentence denotes In particular, the rarely, the kidney and lungs.
T67078 1009939-1010058 Sentence denotes Granulomas are most common in the liver, and are found in portal triads or scattered throughout the hepatic parenchyma.
T75899 1010059-1010119 Sentence denotes Acid-fast bacilli are usually demonstrable in these lesions.
T30443 1010120-1010318 Sentence denotes In sheep and goats, Johne's disease mainly occurs in adults and is characterized by chronic wasting; there may be breaks in the wool in sheep, and submandibular edema resulting from hypoproteinemia.
T81245 1010319-1010460 Sentence denotes Feces are often normal and may be soft and unpelleted, but overt diarrhea is unusual except intermittently in the terminal stages of disease.
T61423 1010461-1010609 Sentence denotes The reason for this is unknown, but may relate to the innately greater efficiency of electrolyte and fluid absorption in the colon of these species.
T30251 1010610-1010731 Sentence denotes In farmed deer, Johne's disease is clinically similar, but there are reports of disease in animals well under a year old.
T39983 1010732-1010947 Sentence denotes In sheep, goats, and deer, a distinct age and dose susceptibility pattern has been described such that animals exposed to higher doses of MAP at earlier ages probably progress faster and develop more severe disease.
T94696 1010948-1011036 Sentence denotes Goats are thought to be more susceptible to MAP infection compared with sheep or cattle.
T70092 1011037-1011135 Sentence denotes Enteric gross lesions in sheep and goats tend to be more sporadic and subtle compared with cattle.
T62655 1011136-1011403 Sentence denotes Lesions appear to occur most commonly in the distal jejunum, and can range from focal or multifocal subtle lesions that are easily missed at postmortem examination, to diffuse and severe intestinal thickening with prominent transverse ridges and mesenteric adhesions.
T10834 1011404-1011469 Sentence denotes There may be lymphadenomegaly and lymphangitis as seen in cattle.
T87680 1011470-1011635 Sentence denotes Microscopically, there can be focal or multifocal accumulations of epithelioid cells and lymphocytes, with relatively few organisms; this is the paucibacillary form.
T96561 1011636-1011763 Sentence denotes Others may have a dense transmural intestinal inflammatory infiltrate with abundant organisms; this is the multibacillary form.
T66000 1011764-1011861 Sentence denotes Microscopic lesions also tend to be most severe in the distal jejunum and/or the ileocecal valve.
T20333 1011862-1012058 Sentence denotes Goats and sometimes sheep develop foci of tubercle-like caseation necrosis, often with mineralization and fibrosis in the mucosa, submucosa, serosa, and lymphatics of the intestine or in the lymph
T91605 1012060-1012234 Sentence denotes Enterococcus spp. are gram-positive cocci, which are common inhabitants of the environment and gastrointestinal tract of clinically healthy humans and several animal species.
T29397 1012235-1012513 Sentence denotes However, some enterococci, mainly Enterococcus hirae and Enterococcus durans, may colonize extensively the mucosal surface of the small intestine in piglets, puppies, foals, calves, and suckling rats, in a manner similar to that of enteropathogenic E. coli and produce diarrhea.
T1978 1012514-1012603 Sentence denotes These bacteria adhere to the microvillus surface of enterocytes by fine filamentous pili.
T883 1012604-1012741 Sentence denotes In tissue section they form a layer of small cocci crowded on the entire surface of epithelial cells, from the tips to the base of villi.
T66514 1012742-1012821 Sentence denotes There may be mild to moderate villus atrophy and some desquamating enterocytes.
T76129 1012822-1012999 Sentence denotes The organisms from rats have been described, on genetic grounds, as E. ratti, whereas those from piglets have been described as E. villorum or E. porcini, which may be synonyms.
T68407 1013000-1013173 Sentence denotes E. faecalis that had numerous virulence traits and was resistant to multiple antimicrobials was isolated from young kittens with enteritis, diarrhea and up to 15% mortality.
T50349 1013174-1013241 Sentence denotes These kittens had been given probiotics that contained enterococci.
T51731 1013242-1013352 Sentence denotes Malabsorption associated with reduced brush border enzyme activity may explain diarrhea in all animal species.
T37551 1013353-1013550 Sentence denotes Although in spontaneous cases in piglets, Enterococcus is frequently associated with other pathogens, the organism isolated from foals produced diarrhea when inoculated alone into gnotobiotic pigs.
T36716 1013551-1013736 Sentence denotes PAI-encoded, virulence-associated protein A (vapA) and its positive regulators (virR and ORF8) are critical for resistance to macrophage attack and for bacterial multiplication in vivo.
T53498 1013737-1013897 Sentence denotes A R. equi vapA knockout mutant is incapable of intracellular replication and unable to establish a persistent infection in severe combined immunodeficient mice.
T9534 1013898-1014064 Sentence denotes There are both virulent and avirulent strains in nature, and on farms where disease caused by R. equi is endemic, there is a much higher proportion of virulent forms.
T25113 1014065-1014159 Sentence denotes Virulence factors may not be necessary for production of disease in an immunocompromised host.
T8000 1014160-1014233 Sentence denotes R. equi is usually associated with suppurative bronchopneumonia of foals.
T6112 1014234-1014562 Sentence denotes Abdominal lesions are identified in ∼50% of foals with R. equi pneumonia that are presented for autopsy, and include any of the following, alone or in combination(s): pyogranulomatous enterotyphylocolitis, pyogranulomatous lymphadenitis of the mesenteric or colonic lymph nodes, large intra-abdominal abscesses, and peritonitis.
T69306 1014563-1014710 Sentence denotes The development of intestinal lesions appears to be doserelated, in that experimental reproduction of the disease requires repeated oral infection.
T11069 1014711-1014872 Sentence denotes In natural disease, continual exposure to bacteria in swallowed respiratory exudate is probably an important source of infection in those animals with pneumonia.
T88091 1014873-1015070 Sentence denotes Gross lesions may occur throughout the small and large intestines, but are usually most severe over Peyer's patches in small intestine, and in the cecum, large colon, and related lymph nodes (Figs.
T97943 1015071-1015086 Sentence denotes 1-167, 1-168) .
T11015 1015087-1015279 Sentence denotes Mucosal lesions consist of multifocal irregular, elevated, and crateriform lesions with central ulcers up to 1-2 cm in diameter, often covered by purulent or necrotic debris (see Fig. 1-167) .
T48780 1015280-1015323 Sentence denotes Edema of the wall of the gut may be severe.
T46562 1015324-1015471 Sentence denotes Mesenteric or colonic lymph nodes often are massively enlarged by edema and caseous or purulent foci that may obliterate the structure of the node.
T57673 1015472-1015608 Sentence denotes Occasionally, massively enlarged abscessed lymph nodes (see Fig. 1 -168) are found without evidence of concurrent enteritis or colitis.
T46602 1015609-1015750 Sentence denotes Microscopically, infection seems to occur by penetration of the specialized epithelium over Peyer's patches or intestinal lymphoid follicles.
T9881 1015751-1015843 Sentence denotes An initial neutrophilic response occurs and erosions of the epithelium develop subsequently.
T84904 1015844-1015905 Sentence denotes Macrophages and neutrophils accumulate in the lamina propria.
T52593 1015906-1015976 Sentence denotes The macrophages contain aggregates of R. equi but do not destroy them.
T41093 1015977-1016081 Sentence denotes Later necrosis of lymphoid follicles occurs, and deep ulcers develop that contain masses of neutrophils,
T62058 1016083-1016156 Sentence denotes Members of the family Chlamydiaceae are obligate intracellular parasites.
T79730 1016157-1016239 Sentence denotes The order Chlamydiales has been re-classified several times over the last decades.
T76332 1016240-1016592 Sentence denotes The latest revision led to the separation of the family Chlamydiaceae into the genera Chlamydophila and Chlamydia, with a total of 9 species, namely, Chlamydophila abortus, Chlamydophila pecorum, Chlamydophila psittaci, Chlamydophila pneumoniae, Chlamydophila felis, Chlamydophila caviae, Chlamydia trachomatis, Chlamydia suis, and Chlamydia muridarum.
T28011 1016593-1016780 Sentence denotes However, this division into 2 Chlamydiaceae genera has been widely criticized, and it was recently proposed that all Chlamydiaceae species should be grouped into a single Chlamydia genus.
T9797 1016781-1016917 Sentence denotes Among all the Chlamydiaceae species, only Chlamydia pecorum and C. suis are associated with enteritis, in cattle and pigs, respectively.
T29170 1016918-1017159 Sentence denotes Other syndromes associated with Chlamydiaceae in domestic animals include respiratory disease, polyarthritis, orchitis, hepatitis, conjunctivitis, abortion, and encephalomyelitis, discussed in appropriate chapters elsewhere in these volumes.
T28304 1017160-1017219 Sentence denotes The intestinal tract is the natural habitat for C. pecorum.
T41453 1017220-1017431 Sentence denotes Most infections are probably inapparent, but the intestine may be an important portal of entry in the development of systemic infections leading to hepatitis, arthritis, encephalitis, and pneumonia in ruminants.
T38950 1017432-1017551 Sentence denotes Enteritis may accompany or presage these diseases, and occasionally C. pecorum causes severe enteric disease in calves.
T56314 1017552-1017663 Sentence denotes Also, asymptomatic calves with C. pecorum intestinal infections may suffer up to 48% reduction in growth rates.
T3404 1017664-1017810 Sentence denotes This is associated with increased conjunctival reddening, increased serum globulin, and decreased plasma albumin and insulin-like growth factor-1.
T94207 1017811-1017994 Sentence denotes Based on these results, it was suggested that suppression of chlamydial asymptomatic infections may be a major contributor to the growth promoting effect of feed-additive antibiotics.
T9183 1017995-1018090 Sentence denotes Following oral infection, C. pecorum infects mainly the enterocytes on the tips of ileal villi.
T68914 1018091-1018193 Sentence denotes These cells are in the G 1 phase of the cell cycle, which is required by Chlamydia for multiplication.
T72860 1018194-1018389 Sentence denotes C. pecorum also infects other cells, including goblet cells, enterochromaffin cells, and macrophages, and the latter cells may transport the organisms systemically before being destroyed by them.
T35724 1018390-1018479 Sentence denotes C. pecorum adsorbs to the brush border of enterocytes and enters the cell by pinocytosis.
T53244 1018480-1018567 Sentence denotes Following multiplication of organisms in the supranuclear region, the cells degenerate.
T92058 1018568-1018727 Sentence denotes C. pecorum is released into the gut lumen and the lamina propria, where it infects endothelial cells of lacteals, whence they are released and become systemic.
T35135 1018728-1018886 Sentence denotes Gastrointestinal disease caused by C. pecorum is usually a problem of calves <10 days old, but it may affect older calves, and can produce recurrent diarrhea.
T76158 1018887-1019045 Sentence denotes Watery diarrhea, dehydration, and death are often accompanied by lesions, although not necessarily signs, of hepatitis, interstitial pneumonia, and arthritis.
T69618 1019046-1019179 Sentence denotes Gross lesions may occur in the abomasum and throughout the intestinal tract but are most consistent and severe in the terminal ileum.
T82862 1019180-1019270 Sentence denotes Mucosal edema, congestion, and petechiae, sometimes with ulceration, are usually observed.
T36136 1019271-1019323 Sentence denotes Serosal hemorrhages and focal peritonitis may occur.
T82249 1019324-1019447 Sentence denotes Histologically, chlamydial inclusions may be demonstrable with Giemsa, Jimenez, Macchiavello, or immunoperoxidase staining.
T93270 1019448-1019554 Sentence denotes Central lacteals and capillaries are dilated, and neutrophils and monocytes infiltrate the lamina propria.
T58555 1019555-1019680 Sentence denotes Occasionally, granulomatous inflammation occurs in the intestinal submucosa and extends into the mesentery and to the serosa,
T49136 1019682-1019785 Sentence denotes Bacteroides fragilis is a non-spore-forming obligate anaerobe that is part of the normal enteric flora.
T98984 1019786-1019900 Sentence denotes Some enterotoxinsecreting strains have been associated with diarrhea in piglets, calves, lambs, foals, and humans.
T7844 1019901-1020016 Sentence denotes This enterotoxin is a protease, and probably damages the zonula adherens at the tight junction between enterocytes.
T8394 1020017-1020215 Sentence denotes Enterotoxigenic strains or cell-free culture filtrates cause secretion in ligated lamb or calf intestinal loops, and bacterial inocula cause diarrhea when administered orally to gnotobiotic piglets.
T36229 1020216-1020254 Sentence denotes Bacteria do not adhere to the surface.
T11555 1020255-1020352 Sentence denotes Enterocytes round up and exfoliate, with villus attenuation and crypt elongation and hyperplasia.
T79190 1020353-1020391 Sentence denotes Infiltration of neutrophils is common.
T64136 1020392-1020446 Sentence denotes Damage may be seen in both small and large intestines.
T81553 1020447-1020594 Sentence denotes Ultrastructurally, affected cells lose their intercellular interdigitations, microvilli are shortened or absent, and the terminal web is disrupted.
T82122 1020596-1020826 Sentence denotes The genus Anaerobiospirillum, small spiral gram-negative bacteria, comprises 2 species, A. succiniciproducens and A. thomasii, which have been isolated from dogs and cats, although only a few studies have related them to diarrhea.
T25522 1020827-1020892 Sentence denotes In cats, ileocolitis has been associated with Anaerobiospirillum.
T81319 1020893-1020974 Sentence denotes Cats may be asymptomatic, lethargic, and anorexic, or have vomiting and diarrhea.
T43416 1020975-1021205 Sentence denotes Microscopically, exfoliated epithelial cells and neutrophils are in dilated crypts in the ileum and colon, and bacteria stained with silver can be found in the lumen of crypts, in goblet cells, and sometimes in the lamina propria.
T64014 1021206-1021330 Sentence denotes Septicemia may occur, and renal failure has been associated. infected adult insects that may accumulate in water containers.
T71240 1021331-1021432 Sentence denotes Insectivorous birds and bats are definitive hosts, which themselves become infected with N. risticii.
T35242 1021433-1021563 Sentence denotes Experimental infection has been produced with oral administration of infected insects and subcutaneous inoculation of N. risticii.
T92654 1021564-1021625 Sentence denotes All attempts to transmit the disease using ticks have failed.
T65460 1021626-1021661 Sentence denotes The disease may be highly variable.
T20942 1021662-1021704 Sentence denotes Many infected horses seem not to get sick.
T53065 1021705-1021822 Sentence denotes Others develop severe colic, subcutaneous edema, laminitis, and shock: mortality can be up to 30% in untreated cases.
T62923 1021823-1021897 Sentence denotes Abortions of pregnant mares have been attributed to N. risticii infection.
T78441 1021898-1022016 Sentence denotes The incubation period in experimental infections is ∼9-14 days, and diarrhea begins 1-3 days after the onset of fever.
T29273 1022017-1022073 Sentence denotes Not all experimentally infected animals develop disease.
T74758 1022074-1022266 Sentence denotes At autopsy of spontaneous cases, small vesicles are reported in the oral cavity, and epicardial hemorrhages and pulmonary congestion and hemorrhage, compatible with endotoxemia, are described.
T51252 1022267-1022330 Sentence denotes These are not reported in experimental cases, nor is laminitis.
T57036 1022331-1022442 Sentence denotes The lesions of the gastrointestinal tract are the most significant, in both spontaneous and experimental cases.
T32397 1022443-1022571 Sentence denotes In some animals there may be focal or more extensive erosions in the gastric mucosa, sometimes with overlying fibrinous exudate.
T82163 1022572-1022798 Sentence denotes Lesions in the small intestine are generally limited to segmental areas of mucosal congestion or hyperemia, with occasional focal ulcers or hemorrhage, and are much less consistent and severe than those in the cecum and colon.
T99701 1022799-1022906 Sentence denotes The content of the large bowel is abnormally fluid, and may have a brown or red-brown color, and foul odor.
T23031 1022907-1023070 Sentence denotes In the cecum and colon, there may be patches of hyperemia 5-10 cm in diameter, aggregates of small ulcers a few millimeters in diameter, and petechial hemorrhages.
T8103 1023071-1023132 Sentence denotes Sometimes the mucosa of the entire cecum is widely hyperemic.
T88143 1023133-1023222 Sentence denotes Ulcers and petechial hemorrhage are more severe and consistent in the right dorsal colon.
T77799 1023223-1023269 Sentence denotes The small colon is usually unaffected grossly.
T89646 1023270-1023384 Sentence denotes Microscopic lesions are most consistent in the large intestine; similar changes may be evident in the small bowel.
T93850 1023385-1023482 Sentence denotes In areas of gross hyperemia, there is marked congestion and superficial hemorrhage in the mucosa.
T7907 1023483-1023579 Sentence denotes Associated with these lesions are superficial epithelial necrosis, erosion, and fibrin effusion.
T55461 1023580-1023716 Sentence denotes The mucosal surface is denuded, or perhaps covered by fibrinocellular exudate, and epithelium in the upper half of crypts is attenuated.
T28371 1023717-1023811 Sentence denotes Deeper parts of crypts are dilated and may contain necrotic epithelium and inflammatory cells.
T93081 1023812-1023924 Sentence denotes An abnormally intense mixed inflammatory cell population is in the lamina propria, and sometimes, the submucosa.
T50858 1023925-1024075 Sentence denotes Lymphoid tissue in the gut, mesenteric lymph nodes, and spleen is moderately involuted, compatible with the effects of the stress of systemic illness.
T61835 1024076-1024141 Sentence denotes Organisms are not evident in hematoxylin and eosinstained tissue.
T83706 1024142-1024277 Sentence denotes They are visible in large colon, and less consistently, in cecum, small colon, and small intestine, with modified Steiner silver stain.
T16883 1024278-1024579 Sentence denotes They appear as small clusters of 10-15 fine brown dots, <1 µm in diameter, in the apical cytoplasm of epithelial cells deep in crypts, or as more numerous, smaller black structures distributed in the cytoplasm of macrophages in the periglandular lamina propria, or in a few glandular epithelial cells.
T10801 1024580-1024828 Sentence denotes Ultrastructurally, small dense elementary bodies may be found, alone or in small clusters in vacuoles in the cytoplasm of macrophages, mast cells, and crypt epithelium, or as morulae-aggregates of larger, more open organisms, in the same locations.
T19521 1024829-1024988 Sentence denotes N. risticii can be identified in feces or peripheral blood buffy coat by polymerase chain reaction, providing a more sensitive and specific means of diagnosis.
T31267 1024989-1025032 Sentence denotes producing the peritonitis observed grossly.
T61930 1025033-1025153 Sentence denotes Crypts in the small and large intestine may be dilated, lined by flattened epithelium, and contain inflammatory exudate.
T24239 1025154-1025220 Sentence denotes The centers of lymphoid follicles in Peyer's patches are necrotic.
T24138 1025221-1025363 Sentence denotes C. suis in swine has been associated with conjunctivitis, rhinitis, pneumonia, enteritis, reproductive disorders, and asymptomatic infections.
T89530 1025364-1025500 Sentence denotes C. suis has been recognized in the intestinal mucosa of swine, with approximately equal frequency in diarrheic and nondiarrheic animals.
T14969 1025501-1025587 Sentence denotes Enteric chlamydial infections of pigs with C. suis are frequent and often subclinical.
T2859 1025588-1025726 Sentence denotes After experimental inoculation of C. suis into gnotobiotic piglets, there was moderate diarrhea, anorexia, weakness, and body weight loss.
T63646 1025727-1025904 Sentence denotes Microscopic changes consisted of necrosis and exfoliation of enterocytes on the apical half of villi, resulting in mild to severe villus atrophy in the distal jejunum and ileum.
T5338 1025905-1025973 Sentence denotes Lymphangitis and perilymphangitis were also evident in affected gut.
T3666 1025974-1026114 Sentence denotes Chlamydial replication was particularly marked at 2-4 days postinoculation and primarily located in the small intestinal villus enterocytes.
T8656 1026115-1026241 Sentence denotes Further sites of replication included large intestinal enterocytes, lamina propria, submucosa, and the mesenteric lymph nodes.
T96316 1026242-1026307 Sentence denotes In weanling pigs, similar lesions, but no diarrhea, were induced.
T71871 1026309-1026571 Sentence denotes This condition, also described as equine monocytic ehrlichiosis, equine ehrlichial colitis, and equine neorickettsiosis, was first defined clinically in 1979, and is characterized by fever, leukopenia, depression, loss of appetite, colic, diarrhea, and lameness.
T6350 1026572-1026723 Sentence denotes It is caused by Neorickettsia (formerly Ehrlichia) risticii, a member of the order Rickettsiales, which are obligate intracellular bacterial pathogens.
T58622 1026724-1026775 Sentence denotes Potomac horse fever typically occurs in the summer.
T57507 1026776-1027033 Sentence denotes It was first described in the Potomac river valley of Maryland, Virginia, and Pennsylvania but it is now found in most areas of the United States and Canada, with cases also reported in Brazil and Uruguay, where it has been known for many years as churrido.
T53532 1027034-1027206 Sentence denotes Considering the current distribution of the disease, the name Potomac horse fever is probably no longer appropriate, and the term equine neorickettsiosis has been proposed.
T63062 1027207-1027303 Sentence denotes Neorickettsia spp. replicate within the phagosome in the host cell, and use trematodes as hosts.
T75550 1027304-1027501 Sentence denotes The life cycle of the fluke includes freshwater snails from where it goes back into water, where it is ingested by the larval stages of several aquatic insects, including caddis flies and mayflies.
T49607 1027502-1027634 Sentence denotes The main mode of infection is most likely by accidental ingestion of tract; however, the rumen and omasum are the most common sites.
T40970 1027635-1027687 Sentence denotes Aspergillus tends to be most common in the abomasum.
T98875 1027688-1027805 Sentence denotes These organisms have a propensity to invade mucosal and submucosal veins, producing thrombosis and venous infarction.
T57301 1027806-1027941 Sentence denotes Characteristic gross lesions are focal or multifocal areas of edema and red-black discoloration caused by venous stasis and hemorrhage.
T15866 1027942-1028100 Sentence denotes Histologic lesions include mucosal to transmural necrosis of the gastrointestinal wall, and there may be a relatively mild inflammatory response to the fungi.
T75140 1028101-1028209 Sentence denotes Dissemination to the liver and more distant organs via the portal and systemic circulations is not uncommon.
T14349 1028210-1028362 Sentence denotes Mycotic ileitis and colitis in cats (Aspergillus spp.) has been described, and may be associated with feline parvovirus infection or antibiotic therapy.
T68612 1028363-1028624 Sentence denotes Intestinal lesions can be subtle, particularly in the face of concurrent intestinal pathogens, but are hemorrhagic and necrotizing with a cellular immune response; dissemination to other organs can also occur and the lung appears to be the favored site in cats.
T43622 1028625-1028720 Sentence denotes Mycotic enteritis with dissemination is a rare sequel to canine parvovirus-2 enteritis in dogs.
T6969 1028721-1028858 Sentence denotes The gastrointestinal tract is probably a common portal of entry for many sporadic, disseminated zygomycoses and aspergillosis in animals.
T13206 1028859-1029016 Sentence denotes Fungi may produce a localized granulomatous lesion in the Peyer's patches or be carried to the regional mesenteric lymph node while the mucosal lesion heals.
T58627 1029017-1029263 Sentence denotes The presence of zygomycete fungal hyphae in mesenteric lymph node granulomas of clinically normal feedlot cattle is recognized, and indicates that invasion by these agents across the intestinal mucosa does not lead invariably to systemic disease.
T43192 1029264-1029379 Sentence denotes Grossly, affected lymph nodes are variably enlarged with areas of necrosis and fibrosis evident on the cut surface.
T54309 1029380-1029489 Sentence denotes Histologically, there is granulomatous inflammation with numerous foreign body and Langhans-type giant cells.
T22270 1029490-1029655 Sentence denotes The lesions also contain areas of mineralization, variable degrees of fibrosis and PAS and/or GMS-positive fungal hyphae free or within the cytoplasm of giant cells.
T71660 1029656-1029720 Sentence denotes Asteroid bodies may form around Aspergillus spp. or zygomycetes.
T86476 1029721-1029849 Sentence denotes Entomophthoromycosis involving the gastrointestinal tract is far less common and sporadic, but has been rarely reported in dogs.
T10051 1029850-1030141 Sentence denotes Basidiobolus ranarum has been associated with subcutaneous, respiratory, or intestinal infections involving the stomach and small intestine, whereas Condiobolus sp. has been more commonly associated with cutaneous or rhinofacial and nasopharyngeal lesions in humans, horses, dogs, and sheep.
T90464 1030142-1030250 Sentence denotes Histologically, there is granulomatous inflammation with thinwalled non- or poorly septate hyphal organisms.
T89440 1030251-1030385 Sentence denotes Definitive diagnosis of mycotic lesions requires culture, which may be difficult, and molecular genetic identification of the isolate.
T66754 1030386-1030521 Sentence denotes Granulomatous lesions of the gut should be cultured for fungi as well as bacteria, to increase the frequency of an etiologic diagnosis.
T51480 1030522-1030624 Sentence denotes Mycotic lymphadenitis must be differentiated from a mycobacterial, actinomycotic, or nocardial lesion.
T82825 1030625-1030725 Sentence denotes A presumptive diagnosis may be based on morphologic characteristics of organisms in tissue sections.
T87839 1030726-1030829 Sentence denotes Immunochemical procedures using specific antibody may add to the confidence of a morphologic diagnosis.
T77669 1030830-1030845 Sentence denotes Njaa BL, et al.
T50246 1030846-1030859 Sentence denotes Gross lesions
T27817 1030861-1030881 Sentence denotes Baird JD, Arroyo LG.
T30832 1030882-1030956 Sentence denotes Historical aspects of Potomac horse fever in Ontario (1924 Ontario ( -2010
T41126 1030958-1031170 Sentence denotes Formerly referred to as phycomycosis, the term zygomycosis denotes infections caused by one of several genera of fungi in the class Zygomycetes, which is divided into the orders of Mucorales and Entomophthorales.
T46714 1031171-1031351 Sentence denotes The gastrointestinal mucosa is the main portal of entry; fungal invasion is a common sequel to many mucosal diseases and lesions, and it may be the precursor to systemic infection.
T88039 1031352-1031533 Sentence denotes Heavy fungal challenge, disruption of the normal flora, a primary local lesion, and/or lowered host resistance are probably required for establishment of mycotic disease in the gut.
T4048 1031534-1031723 Sentence denotes Spores are probably normally carried across the mucosa by macrophages, and only if host immunity is compromised in some way will they establish in the deeper tissues or become disseminated.
T96374 1031724-1032174 Sentence denotes The most common organisms associated with alimentary tract mycoses are zygomycetes of the family Mucoraceae (Lichtheimia, Mortierella, Mucor, Rhizomucor, and Rhizopus) ; other organisms that also may be involved include family Entomophthoraceae (Basidiobolus and Conidiobolus) and rarely Aspergillus sp., Candida spp., and Histoplasma capsulatum also may invade the wall of the alimentary canal; these are considered separately later in this chapter.
T23678 1032175-1032395 Sentence denotes Mucoraceae are characterized in their invasive mycelial form by broad (6-25 µm), coarse irregular hyphae, with infrequent septation and random branching, sometimes surrounded by an eosinophilic sleeve in tissue sections.
T2721 1032396-1032537 Sentence denotes Entomophthoraceae hyphae vary from 5 to 25 µm in diameter, with thin irregularly parallel walls, infrequent septa, and rare random branching.
T19272 1032538-1032647 Sentence denotes They are characteristically surrounded by a wide sheath or sleeve of eosinophilic material in tissue section.
T66670 1032648-1032772 Sentence denotes Aspergillus has relatively uniform narrow (3-6 µm) septate hyphae; it typically displays acute angled dichotomous branching.
T42736 1032773-1032902 Sentence denotes Lesions occur anywhere in the gastrointestinal tract, including the forestomachs of ruminants, and in the mesenteric lymph nodes.
T43927 1032903-1033044 Sentence denotes Clinical signs may be related to the location of lesions (vomition, bloody diarrhea), nonspecific (malaise, weight loss), or entirely absent.
T48594 1033045-1033150 Sentence denotes Two primary types of lesion are produced: (1) necrosis and hemorrhage; or (2) granulomatous inflammation.
T75050 1033151-1033225 Sentence denotes Mucorales fungi and Aspergillus typically cause hemorrhage and infarction.
T82193 1033226-1033421 Sentence denotes Cases in cattle are mostly seen following rumen acidosis caused by grain overload, mastitis, downer cow syndrome, parturition, or subsequent to immunosuppression or prolonged antimicrobial usage.
T44954 1033422-1033633 Sentence denotes Fungi have been reported in cattle secondary to erosive viral diseases including infectious bovine rhinotracheitis and bovine viral diarrhea, and can cause mycotic abomasitis in calves with bacterial septicemia.
T84199 1033634-1033749 Sentence denotes These fungi can be found at any level of the gastrointestinal prolonged survival of calves with alimentary lesions.
T46989 1033750-1033858 Sentence denotes Candidiasis in calves with prominent ulcers should be differentiated from alimentary herpesviral infections.
T53035 1033859-1033993 Sentence denotes Gastroesophageal candidiasis in foals also involves the squamous epithelium, and lesions are typically adjacent to the margo plicatus.
T4538 1033994-1034130 Sentence denotes Colic and anorexia can be observed, and are probably related to the development of the ulcers, which may perforate, causing peritonitis.
T45416 1034131-1034333 Sentence denotes In dogs, Candida spp. have been described as the cause of mycotic stomatitis (thrush), peritonitis, and rarely systemic disease or sepsis; these cases have occurred mostly in immunocompromised patients.
T43888 1034334-1034558 Sentence denotes In tissues, identification of appropriate lesions composed of foci of necrosis, neutrophilic inflammation, and the presence of one or more of the yeast's polymorphic forms permits a provisional identification of Candida spp.
T41254 1034559-1034630 Sentence denotes Silver or periodic acid-Schiff stain enhances the organisms in section.
T72185 1034631-1034794 Sentence denotes Although it develops mycelium as do fungi, Pythium insidiosum is a fungus-like aquatic oomycete more closely related to diatomeae and algae, and not a true fungus.
T35681 1034795-1034935 Sentence denotes It has relatively narrow (up to 9-10 µm), thick-walled hyphae, with almost parallel walls, near right-angle branching, and occasional septa.
T65243 1034936-1035112 Sentence denotes Pythiosis (oomycosis) occurs most commonly in apparently immunocompetent individuals in tropical and subtropical areas, but on occasion can be found in more temperate climates.
T10751 1035113-1035246 Sentence denotes P. insidiosum zoospores display chemotaxis toward animal hair, intestinal mucosa, and wounds, including those caused by insect bites.
T70057 1035247-1035345 Sentence denotes Therefore lesions commonly involve body parts with direct contact with water containing zoospores.
T95040 1035346-1035624 Sentence denotes Best recognized as a cause of cutaneous lesions in horses (see Vol. l, Integumentary system), P. insidiosum can cause distinct disease forms including vascular, ocular, gastrointestinal, and rarely systemic disease mostly in dogs and horses but sporadically in calves and sheep.
T24402 1035625-1035754 Sentence denotes In contrast to horses, the gastrointestinal form is the most common form in dogs, likely acquired by drinking contaminated water.
T19356 1035755-1035833 Sentence denotes Concurrent cutaneous and gastrointestinal lesions in the same animal are rare.
T97028 1035834-1036014 Sentence denotes There is segmental thickening and ulceration of the stomach, small intestine, and/or colon, and mesenteric lymph nodes are enlarged and frequently embedded in a granulomatous mass.
T94920 1036015-1036142 Sentence denotes Small firm white or yellow necrotic coagula, known as leeches or kunkers, may be embedded in the firm fibrotic reactive tissue.
T78220 1036143-1036329 Sentence denotes Histologically, there is multifocal to transmural pyogranulomatous inflammation that may cause obstruction, lymphangitis, lymphadenitis, and sometimes peritonitis with omental adhesions.
T50215 1036330-1036435 Sentence denotes Granulomas and a local mixed inflammatory infiltrate, including eosinophils, are prominent in some cases.
T9976 1036436-1036718 Sentence denotes In contrast to zygomycetes, characteristic hyphae are difficult to see with hematoxylin and eosin stain; 3-7 µm-wide hyphae with nondichotomous irregular branching and rarely septate filaments are best exposed, in the areas of necrosis or centers of granulomas, using silver stains.
T20579 1036719-1036775 Sentence denotes Similar lesions are reported in horses, sheep, and cats.
T94740 1036776-1036878 Sentence denotes A diagnosis of pythiosis should be confirmed by identifying the agent using culture, serology, or PCR.
T42530 1036879-1036893 Sentence denotes lining glands.
T78597 1036894-1037109 Sentence denotes In sheep infected with T. circumcincta, mucous metaplasia and hyperplasia occur in infected and surrounding glands early in infection, reaching a peak about the time of emergence of larvae on to the mucosal surface.
T42650 1037110-1037300 Sentence denotes In cattle with O. ostertagi, only glands infected with larvae undergo significant mucous change until about the time larvae leave the glands for the surface of the mucosa ( Fig. 1-170A, B) .
T5215 1037301-1037421 Sentence denotes Mucosal change then becomes more widespread, involving uninfected glands in the vicinity of those that contained larvae.
T2749 1037422-1037455 Sentence denotes Affected areas of mucosa thicken.
T5154 1037456-1037602 Sentence denotes In infected glands, in many cases the lining is flattened adjacent to worms, but is composed of tall columnar mucous cells elsewhere in the gland.
T23214 1037603-1037724 Sentence denotes The undifferentiated mucous cells lining uninfected glands also eventually differentiate into tall columnar mucous cells.
T97446 1037725-1037851 Sentence denotes If infection is not heavy, lesions are limited to a radius of a few millimeters around infected or previously infected glands.
T35422 1037852-1037943 Sentence denotes These form raised nodular pale areas in the mucosa, often with a slightly depressed center.
T96964 1037944-1038163 Sentence denotes Confluence of these lesions in heavily infected animals leads to the development of widespread areas of irregularly thickened mucosa with a may cause lesions in a variety of extraintestinal sites in the definitive host.
T98584 1038164-1038313 Sentence denotes Larval ascarids and taeniid metacestodes may cause lesions or signs because of migration in nonenteric locations in accidental or intermediate hosts.
T49661 1038314-1038651 Sentence denotes A diagnosis of helminthosis should be reserved for cases in which, ideally, 3 criteria are met: (1) the helminth is present, in numbers consistent with disease; (2) the lesions (if any) typically caused by the agent, are evident; and (3) there is a syndrome compatible with the pathogenic mechanisms known to be associated with the worm.
T98861 1038652-1038660 Sentence denotes Anderson
T21259 1038662-1038676 Sentence denotes Ostertagiosis.
T43378 1038677-1038807 Sentence denotes A complex of related genera and species of trichostrongylid nematodes, including Ostertagia, parasitize the abomasum of ruminants.
T85832 1038808-1038948 Sentence denotes The nomenclature of these worms is in a state of flux; for the sake of simplicity, the disease that they cause will be termed ostertagiosis.
T54869 1038949-1039082 Sentence denotes Ostertagiosis is probably the most important parasitism in grazing sheep and cattle in temperate climatic zones throughout the world.
T54532 1039083-1039207 Sentence denotes It causes subclinical loss in production, and clinical disease characterized by diarrhea, wasting, and in many cases, death.
T72140 1039208-1039272 Sentence denotes Ostertagia ostertagi and the associated O. lyrata infect cattle.
T1579 1039273-1039366 Sentence denotes Sheep and goats are infected by Teladorsagia circumcincta (formerly Ostertagia circumcincta).
T65040 1039367-1039466 Sentence denotes Some cross-infection by these genera occurs between sheep and cattle, but is of minor significance.
T28966 1039467-1039690 Sentence denotes Other species of Ostertagia and related genera, including Marshallagia, Spiculopteragia, and Camelostrongylus, infect wild ruminants, including farmed deer; some may also parasitize the abomasum of cattle, sheep, and goats.
T5780 1039691-1039763 Sentence denotes Their behavior in general resembles that of Ostertagia and Teladorsagia.
T60279 1039764-1039789 Sentence denotes The life cycle is direct.
T43330 1039790-1039895 Sentence denotes Third-stage larvae ex-sheath in the rumen and enter glands in the abomasum, where they undergo two molts.
T42964 1039896-1040102 Sentence denotes Normally early fifth-stage larvae emerge to mature on the mucosal surface, beginning 8-12 days after infection in T. circumcincta infections in sheep, and ∼17-21 days after O. ostertagi infection in cattle.
T95117 1040103-1040297 Sentence denotes However, a proportion of larvae ingested may persist in glands in a hypobiotic state at the early fourth stage, only to resume development and emerge at a future time, perhaps many months hence.
T97032 1040298-1040331 Sentence denotes The prepatent period is ∼3 weeks.
T51887 1040332-1040632 Sentence denotes During the course of larval development, the normal architecture of the gastric mucosa is altered by interstitial inflammation, and mucous metaplasia and hyperplasia of the epithelium Mucous metaplasia and hyperplasia are accompanied by a mixed population of inflammatory cells in the lamina propria.
T5303 1040633-1040802 Sentence denotes Lymphocytes, plasma cells, eosinophils, and a few neutrophils are present between glands in the infected abomasum, and globule leukocytes are common in gland epithelium.
T21265 1040803-1040808 Sentence denotes There
T7159 1040810-1040896 Sentence denotes A may be edema of the lamina propria associated with permeability of proprial vessels.
T10086 1040897-1041043 Sentence denotes Lymphoid response in local lymph nodes has been characterized as primarily B-cell-oriented, which is a surprising reaction to a nematode parasite.
T63767 1041044-1041181 Sentence denotes Mucosal lesions lead to achlorhydria, elevation of plasma pepsinogen levels, and local vascular permeability with loss of plasma protein.
T46804 1041182-1041363 Sentence denotes Widespread replacement of parietal cells by mucous neck cells results in progressive and massive decline in hydrogen ion secretion, with severe cases having a pH of up to 7 or more.
T26193 1041364-1041448 Sentence denotes This increased abomasal pH results in elevated levels of gastrin in the circulation.
T390 1041449-1041624 Sentence denotes The permeability of the mucosa is also increased, which is reflected in backdiffusion of pepsinogen from the lumen of glands to the propria, and ultimately to the circulation.
T2671 1041625-1041822 Sentence denotes Intercellular junctions between poorly differentiated mucous neck cells are also permeable to plasma protein in tissue fluids, emanating from the leaky small vessels in the inflamed lamina propria.
T41284 1041823-1041889 Sentence denotes Significant loss of protein occurs into the lumen of the abomasum.
T17892 1041890-1041990 Sentence denotes The cardinal signs of ostertagiosis in sheep and cattle are loss of appetite, diarrhea, and wasting.
T4633 1041991-1042262 Sentence denotes Plasma protein loss into the gastrointestinal tract, in combination with reduced feed intake, seems largely responsible for the weight loss and hypoproteinemia that occur in clinical ostertagiosis, and for loss in productive efficiency that occurs in subclinical disease.
T1987 1042263-1042323 Sentence denotes Clinical ostertagiosis occurs under 2 sets of circumstances.
T3114 1042324-1042465 Sentence denotes The first, "type I" disease, is seen in lambs or calves at pasture during or shortly after a period of high availability of infective larvae.
T76551 1042466-1042642 Sentence denotes It is due to the direct development, from ingested larvae, of large numbers of adult worms, over a relatively short period of time and it is characterized by chronic gastritis.
T26128 1042643-1042878 Sentence denotes In contrast, "type II" disease is characterized by acute gastritis due to the synchronous maturation and emergence of large numbers of hypobiotic larvae from the mucosa, and it occurs when intake of larvae is likely low or nonexistent.
T85960 1042879-1043009 Sentence denotes It may occur in yearlings during the winter in the northern hemisphere, or during the dry summer period in Mediterranean climates.
T38155 1043010-1043162 Sentence denotes Heifers about the time of parturition may succumb, and this syndrome also is seen occasionally in animals experiencing environmental stress of any type.
T96564 1043163-1043319 Sentence denotes The diagnosis of ostertagiosis is indicated at autopsy by an abnormally elevated abomasal pH (>4.5) in association with typical gross lesions on the mucosa.
T99666 1043320-1043443 Sentence denotes The adult worms are brown and thread-like, up to 1.5 cm long, but very difficult to see on the mucosa with the unaided eye.
T47711 1043444-1043578 Sentence denotes Abomasal contents and washings should be quantitatively examined for the presence of emergent or adult Ostertagia and other nematodes.
T58813 1043579-1043681 Sentence denotes A portion of the mucosa should be digested to permit recovery and quantitation of pre-emergent stages.
T19440 1043682-1043758 Sentence denotes Significant worm burdens in sheep are in the range of 10,000-50,000 or more.
T33251 1043759-1043934 Sentence denotes In cattle >40,000-50,000 adult worms may be present, and in outbreaks of type II disease, hundreds of thousands of hypobiotic larvae are often detected in the abomasal mucosa.
T63056 1043935-1044041 Sentence denotes Typically there is widespread mucous metaplasia and hyperplasia in dilated glands in sections of abomasum.
T35383 1044042-1044244 Sentence denotes Ostertagia are recognized in sections, on the mucosal surface or in glands, by the presence of prominent longitudinal cuticular ridges (synlophe) that project from the surface of worms cut transversely.
T48446 1044245-1044416 Sentence denotes In some cases the worm burden may have been lost through attrition or recent treatment, and the diagnosis must be presumptive, based on the characteristic mucosal lesions.
T39977 1044417-1044703 Sentence denotes A positive association between O. ostertagi antibodies and the presence of abomasal lesions was found in cattle and it has been suggested that measurement of O. ostertagi serum whatever its manifestation, is the result of blood-sucking activity, which causes anemia and hypoproteinemia.
T95709 1044704-1044785 Sentence denotes Individual Haemonchus worms in sheep cause the loss of ∼0.05 mL of blood per day.
T35082 1044786-1044973 Sentence denotes Of the order of one tenth to one fourth of the erythrocyte volume may be lost per day by heavily infected lambs; the plasma loss is concomitant and may be several hundreds of milliliters.
T67681 1044974-1045086 Sentence denotes The potential for the rapid onset of profound anemia and hypoproteinemia in heavily infected animals is obvious.
T82049 1045087-1045168 Sentence denotes Such animals succumb quickly, some even before the maturation of the worm burden.
T74780 1045169-1045276 Sentence denotes Less heavily infected animals may be able to withstand the anemia and hypoproteinemia for a period of time.
T74817 1045277-1045390 Sentence denotes They compensate by expanding erythropoiesis 2-fold to 3-fold, and increasing hepatic synthesis of plasma protein.
T1430 1045391-1045629 Sentence denotes However, they are unable to compensate adequately for the enteric iron loss, despite intestinal reabsorption of a proportion of the excess, and they ultimately succumb some weeks later to iron-loss anemia, when iron reserves are depleted.
T85673 1045630-1045760 Sentence denotes Low-level infections may contribute to subclinical loss of production or ill-thrift through chronic enteric protein and iron loss.
T9996 1045761-1045814 Sentence denotes Low protein rations compound the effect of infection.
T69178 1045815-1045855 Sentence denotes The clinical syndrome may vary somewhat.
T81679 1045856-1045921 Sentence denotes Some animals are found dead, without the owner observing illness.
T32996 1045922-1046036 Sentence denotes Others lack exercise tolerance, fall when driven, or are reluctant to stand or move, so weak are they from anemia.
T92927 1046037-1046160 Sentence denotes Edema of dependent portions, especially the submandibular area or head in grazing animals, is often observed (Fig. 1-172) .
T73685 1046161-1046313 Sentence denotes In primary hemonchosis there is no diarrhea; diarrhea may occur if intercurrent infection with large numbers of other gastrointestinal helminths occurs.
T79228 1046314-1046478 Sentence denotes The postmortem appearance of animals with hemonchosis is dominated by the extreme pallor of anemia, apparent on the conjunctiva and throughout the internal tissues.
T88312 1046479-1046509 Sentence denotes The liver is pale and friable.
T95898 1046510-1046660 Sentence denotes There is usually edema of subcutaneous tissues and mesenteries, with hydrothorax, hydropericardium, and ascites reflecting the severe hypoproteinemia.
T10815 1046661-1046752 Sentence denotes The abomasal content is usually fluid, and dark red-brown because of the presence of blood.
T78412 1046753-1046876 Sentence denotes The abomasal rugae may be edematous because of hypoproteinemia, and focal areas of hemorrhage are evident over the surface.
T24347 1046877-1047063 Sentence denotes In animals that are not decomposing, the worms will be evident to the naked eye ( Fig. 1-173) : if alive, writhing on the mucosal surface; if dead, less obvious and free in the content.
T36105 1047064-1047162 Sentence denotes Lymph nodes draining antibodies may be a useful indicator of parasite-associated abomasal lesions.
T50126 1047163-1047364 Sentence denotes Abomasal lesions produced by Ostertagia are accompanied by a marked hypergastrinemia and increased level of plasma pepsinogen, both of which are occasionally used as diagnostic tools for ostertagiosis.
T58480 1047365-1047377 Sentence denotes Hemonchosis.
T58988 1047378-1047448 Sentence denotes Hemonchosis is a common and severe disease in some parts of the world.
T7878 1047449-1047550 Sentence denotes Haemonchus species require a period of minimum warmth and moisture for larval development on pasture.
T37838 1047551-1047650 Sentence denotes As a result, they tend to be most important in tropical or temperate climates with hot wet summers.
T34613 1047651-1047746 Sentence denotes Haemonchus contortus infects mainly sheep and goats, whereas H. placei occurs mainly in cattle.
T14874 1047747-1047935 Sentence denotes Although H. contortus and H. placei will infect the heterologous host, the host-parasite relationship appears to be less well adapted, and the species do appear to be genetically distinct.
T52392 1047936-1048043 Sentence denotes Other species of Haemonchus can infect several ruminant species but they are of less clinical significance.
T9559 1048044-1048179 Sentence denotes Mecistocirrus digitatus causes disease very similar to hemonchosis in cattle, buffalo, and sheep in Southeast Asia and Central America.
T68734 1048180-1048385 Sentence denotes By exploitation of hypobiosis or retardation of larvae, populations of H. contortus are able to persist in the abomasum of the host through periods of climatic adversity, such as excessive cold or dryness.
T46258 1048386-1048673 Sentence denotes Disease can be expected in animals, especially females, experiencing the synchronous "spring rise" or periparturient development and maturation of previously hypobiotic larvae, and in young animals heavily stocked at pasture during periods of optimal larval development and availability.
T3018 1048674-1048761 Sentence denotes Haemonchus, commonly called the large stomach worm, or barber pole worm, is ∼2 cm long.
T81930 1048762-1048876 Sentence denotes Females give the species its common name by their red color, against which the white ovaries and uterus stand out.
T70995 1048877-1048927 Sentence denotes The male is a little shorter and uniform deep red.
T86080 1048928-1049028 Sentence denotes These worms are equipped with a buccal tooth or lancet, and fourth-stage and adult worms suck blood.
T13140 1049029-1049248 Sentence denotes Ingested third-stage larvae enter glands in the abomasum, where they molt to the fourth stage and persist as hypobiotic larvae, or from which they emerge as late fourth-stage larvae to continue development in the lumen.
T4724 1049249-1049385 Sentence denotes The prepatent period for H. contortus in sheep is ∼15 days; for H. placei in cattle is ∼26-28 days; and for M. digitatus is ∼61-79 days.
T10013 1049386-1049505 Sentence denotes Hemonchosis may occur as peracute or acute disease, resulting from the maturation or intake of large numbers of larvae.
T45499 1049506-1049576 Sentence denotes It may cause more insidious chronic disease if worm burdens are lower.
T88286 1049577-1049744 Sentence denotes The pathogenicity of Haemonchus infection, Infections with T. axei are usually part of a mixed gastrointestinal helminthosis, mostly with Ostertagia spp. in ruminants.
T61371 1049745-1049851 Sentence denotes However, in all hosts this species alone is capable of inducing disease, if present in sufficient numbers.
T27786 1049852-1049970 Sentence denotes After a period of several weeks, mucous metaplasia and hyperplasia are seen in glands in infected areas of the mucosa.
T78981 1049971-1050159 Sentence denotes In severely affected animals, flattening of surface epithelium with desquamation, or erosion of the mucosa, develops, accompanied by effusion of neutrophils, eosinophils, and tissue fluid.
T75791 1050160-1050225 Sentence denotes Fibroplasia may occur in the superficial propria in eroded areas.
T76948 1050226-1050333 Sentence denotes In light infestations, there may be no changes visible in the abomasum other than congestion of the mucosa.
T38686 1050334-1050447 Sentence denotes The gross lesions present in heavy T. axei infections reflect the hypertrophy of glands, and superficial erosion.
T75082 1050448-1050578 Sentence denotes Circular or irregular raised white plaques or nodules of thickened infected mucosa are present, often with a thick layer of mucus.
T16248 1050579-1050621 Sentence denotes Erosions or shallow ulcers may be present.
T35701 1050622-1050694 Sentence denotes In severe infections, the entire mucosa appears edematous and congested.
T12501 1050695-1050790 Sentence denotes Infection in horses is uncommon and is usually related to sharing pasture with sheep or cattle.
T20870 1050791-1050965 Sentence denotes In chronically infected horses, white raised plaques or nodular areas of mucosa are present, covered by tenacious mucus and surrounded by a zone of congestion ( Fig. 1-174) .
T80639 1050966-1051087 Sentence denotes Mucosal lesions may be confluent in heavily infected animals, and erosions and superficial ulceration may be encountered.
T67753 1051088-1051218 Sentence denotes Infection may extend into the proximal duodenum, where polypoid masses of hypertrophic glandular mucosa are occasionally observed.
T67060 1051219-1051260 Sentence denotes Plasma pepsinogen levels may be elevated.
T79255 1051261-1051382 Sentence denotes Achlorhydria develops in heavily infected sheep and cattle, associated with diarrhea, particularly in the latter species.
T1320 1051383-1051431 Sentence denotes Dehydration may prove severe in scouring calves.
T36397 1051432-1051564 Sentence denotes Plasma pepsinogen and gastrin levels increase, and hypoproteinemia and the abomasum may double in weight within 5 days of infection.
T89203 1051565-1051691 Sentence denotes Microscopically, there is abomasitis with increased numbers of mucosal and submucosal lymphocytes, eosinophils and mast cells.
T27774 1051692-1051823 Sentence denotes Leukocyte levels in the abomasal mucosa peak 5 days after infection, and then may decrease; however, mast cell numbers remain high.
T20554 1051824-1051907 Sentence denotes Sheep that are resistant to H. contortus may have more numerous mucosal mast cells.
T6554 1051908-1051982 Sentence denotes Abomasal lymph nodes undergo rapid lymphocyte (CD4+ T cell) proliferation.
T85114 1051983-1052089 Sentence denotes Edema in many organs and centrilobular hepatic necrosis owing to anemia and resultant hypoxia can be seen.
T72285 1052090-1052167 Sentence denotes In clinically affected sheep and goats, usually 1,000-12,000 worms are found.
T64612 1052168-1052406 Sentence denotes The severity of the disease is a function of the number of worms and to some extent, the size of the animal In lambs, 2,000-3,000 worms is a heavy burden, whereas in adult sheep and goats, 8,000-10,000 are associated with fatal infection.
T8732 1052407-1052503 Sentence denotes A high egg count is usually found on fecal flotation because Haemonchus is a prolific egg-layer.
T69940 1052504-1052580 Sentence denotes However, in peracute prepatent infections, no eggs will be present in feces.
T70008 1052581-1052680 Sentence denotes In recently treated animals, no worms may be present, and the diagnosis may have to be presumptive.
T38337 1052681-1052793 Sentence denotes On the other hand, treated animals returned to contaminated pasture may succumb to reinfection within 2-3 weeks.
T5261 1052794-1052906 Sentence denotes A serologic test targeting a somatic antigen has been developed. narrow rim of hyperplastic squamous epithelium.
T59524 1052907-1053024 Sentence denotes Usually the number of epithelial defects exceeds the number of larvae, suggesting that they move about on the mucosa.
T18056 1053025-1053144 Sentence denotes Severe infestations produce a dense pock-marked appearance of the pars esophagea, with chronic inflammatory thickening.
T46125 1053145-1053261 Sentence denotes Ulcers may occur in the glandular mucosa and, rarely, a large proportion of the affected pyloric mucosa may be lost.
T88369 1053262-1053361 Sentence denotes Healing occurs when the larvae migrate on, but may be complicated by secondary bacterial infection.
T94718 1053362-1053444 Sentence denotes Histologically, the ulcers penetrate the submucosa, which is chronically inflamed.
T53503 1053445-1053584 Sentence denotes The deep layers of eroded epithelium and the epithelial margins of ulcers in the squamous mucosa become hyperplastic and develop rete pegs.
T86973 1053585-1053704 Sentence denotes There seems to be no relationship between bot infestations and the development of gastric ulcers in the pars esophagea.
T14098 1053705-1053823 Sentence denotes The spirurid nematodes Draschia megastoma, Habronema majus, and H. muscae are also parasitic in the stomach of horses.
T30911 1053824-1053861 Sentence denotes The adult worms are 1-2 cm in length.
T54648 1053862-1053997 Sentence denotes The latter two species lie on the mucosal surface and are probably insignificant except possibly for a few erosions and mild gastritis.
T42812 1053998-1054089 Sentence denotes D. megastoma burrows into the submucosa to produce large tumor-like nodules ( Fig. 1-176) .
T71277 1054090-1054251 Sentence denotes H. majus mainly uses Stomoxys calcitrans as its intermediate host and the other two species use various muscid flies, including the common fly (Musca domestica).
T62921 1054252-1054403 Sentence denotes The Habronema larvae in the feces are swallowed by maggots of the appropriate intermediate host and persist through pupation and maturation of the fly.
T63289 1054404-1054496 Sentence denotes They leave the host fly via the proboscis when it seeks moisture, for instance, on the lips.
T41698 1054497-1054704 Sentence denotes Larvae deposited on or in cutaneous wounds, or in the eye, invade the skin or conjunctiva and provoke an intense local reaction, which becomes granulomatous and densely infiltrated with eosinophils (see Vol.
T66100 1054705-1054730 Sentence denotes 1, Integumentary system).
T27076 1054731-1054868 Sentence denotes Occasionally Draschia and Habronema larvae may be found in the brain, or in the lungs, where they may become encapsulated and mineralize.
T69030 1054869-1055028 Sentence denotes The only one of concern in the stomach is D. megastoma, which burrows into the submucosa of the fundus, usually within a few centimeters of the margo plicatus.
T79696 1055029-1055173 Sentence denotes Within the submucosa, the worms provoke a surrounding granulomatous reaction that contains them in a central core of necrotic and wasting occur.
T97775 1055174-1055339 Sentence denotes This suggests that the mucous metaplasia in the glands is associated with increased permeability and that plasma protein loss occurs into the gastrointestinal tract.
T8059 1055340-1055509 Sentence denotes Although T. axei is not commonly seen as a primary cause of disease in any species, it should be sought at autopsy of animals with signs of wasting and perhaps diarrhea.
T73212 1055510-1055577 Sentence denotes The typical gross lesions in the stomach are distinctive in horses.
T97202 1055578-1055703 Sentence denotes In ruminants, they must be differentiated from those caused by Ostertagia, with which animals may be infected intercurrently.
T76288 1055704-1055805 Sentence denotes The worms are very fine, and gastric washes or digestion are required to recover them quantitatively.
T36573 1055806-1055971 Sentence denotes The distinctive intraepithelial location of T. axei in section differentiates it from other nematodes inhabiting the abomasum of ruminants and the stomach of horses.
T36902 1055972-1056006 Sentence denotes Herd Gastric parasitism in horses.
T46339 1056007-1056105 Sentence denotes The most common parasites of the equine stomach are larvae of botflies of the genus Gasterophilus.
T80307 1056106-1056178 Sentence denotes Although they are not helminths, it is convenient to consider them here.
T58636 1056179-1056364 Sentence denotes There are 6 species of the genus, the most common ones being G. intestinalis, G. nasalis, and G. haemorrhoidalis, and the uncommon ones being G. pecorum, G. nigricornis, and G. inermis.
T61534 1056365-1056488 Sentence denotes The flies deposit the ova on the ends of the coat hairs in the face, intermandibular region, or on the lower body and legs.
T8465 1056489-1056549 Sentence denotes The eggs hatch spontaneously, or when stimulated by licking.
T28913 1056550-1056652 Sentence denotes The first-stage larvae penetrate the oral mucosa, molt, emerge, and migrate down the alimentary canal.
T96391 1056653-1056935 Sentence denotes Gasterophilus intestinalis usually wander about in tunnels in the superficial mucosa of the cheeks, tongue, or gums for 3-4 weeks before moving to periodontal pockets containing purulent exudate in the gingival sulcus on the lingual aspect of molars, especially in the upper arcade.
T13614 1056936-1057014 Sentence denotes Here they molt before moving on to the base of the tongue, and to the stomach.
T46521 1057015-1057156 Sentence denotes This is the most common species, and in the stomach it attaches itself to the squamous mucosa of the cardia to complete its subsequent molts.
T89493 1057157-1057379 Sentence denotes G. nasalis first invade the gums, where they may be associated with pockets of purulent exudate in the interdental spaces, then pass to the stomach and settle on the pyloric mucosa and in the first ampulla of the duodenum.
T76787 1057380-1057618 Sentence denotes Members of any of these species occasionally may be found attached to the pharynx and esophagus but, except for G. pecorum, which congregates in the pharynx and causes pharyngitis, these preliminary migrations are uneventful for the host.
T57710 1057619-1057731 Sentence denotes In the summer after the deposition of the ova, the larvae leave the stomach and pass out in the feces to pupate.
T99951 1057732-1057841 Sentence denotes Those of G. pecorum and G. haemorrhoidalis may attach themselves for a short while to the wall of the rectum.
T99528 1057842-1057932 Sentence denotes It is generally assumed that the larvae of Gasterophilus have little effect on their host.
T12804 1057933-1058045 Sentence denotes The larvae fasten themselves to the mucosa by chitinous oral hooks and they bore into the mucosa ( Fig. 1-175 ).
T72463 1058046-1058168 Sentence denotes They apparently subsist on blood, exudate, and detritus, producing focal erosions and ulcerations at the point of contact.
T50313 1058169-1058297 Sentence denotes These defects in the cardia are surrounded by a epithelium into dilated glands, the lining of which may become quite attenuated.
T53004 1058298-1058330 Sentence denotes There may be extensive erosions.
T70655 1058331-1058487 Sentence denotes During the course of development of the worms, the mucous metaplasia and hyperplasia cause the formation of pale nodules in the vicinity of infected glands.
T89434 1058488-1058670 Sentence denotes In heavy infections these may become confluent, causing the development of an irregularly thickened convoluted mucosa, most notable in the fundic area and along the lesser curvature.
T81886 1058671-1058781 Sentence denotes Adult worms are fine, red, and thread-like in the gastric mucus; they are difficult to see with the naked eye.
T44898 1058782-1058885 Sentence denotes Experimental infections of moderate degree do not produce obvious clinical signs or loss of production.
T5790 1058886-1058972 Sentence denotes However, loss of plasma protein has been documented in heavy Hyostrongylus infections.
T26821 1058973-1059075 Sentence denotes Inappetence, diarrhea, and reduced weight gains and feed efficiency also occur in these circumstances.
T90585 1059076-1059244 Sentence denotes In the field, hyostrongylosis is mainly associated with the "thin-sow syndrome," in which it seems probable that it may interact with nutritional and metabolic factors.
T60084 1059245-1059387 Sentence denotes Spirurid nematodes parasitizing the porcine stomach include Physocephalus sexalatus, Ascarops strongylina, A. dentate, and Simondsia paradoxa.
T89125 1059388-1059454 Sentence denotes Physocephalus and Ascarops use dung beetles as intermediate hosts.
T28750 1059455-1059552 Sentence denotes Ascarops and Physocephalus are common in many parts of the world in swine with access to grazing.
T65765 1059553-1059609 Sentence denotes Large numbers of worms are required to cause ill-thrift.
T47726 1059610-1059792 Sentence denotes Worms in affected pigs may be free in the lumen or partly embedded in the mucosa, which may be congested and edematous, or eroded and ulcerated with fibrinous exudate on the surface.
T2726 1059793-1059867 Sentence denotes There may be chronic interstitial inflammation and fibrosis in the mucosa.
T8992 1059868-1059927 Sentence denotes Simondsia is found in swine in Europe, Asia, and Australia.
T22994 1059928-1060062 Sentence denotes The caudal portion of the female worm is globular, and is embedded in palpable nodules up to 6-8 mm in diameter in the gastric mucosa.
T61147 1060063-1060145 Sentence denotes Gnathostoma doloresi causes gastric ulcers and granulomas in pigs in eastern Asia.
T71815 1060146-1060299 Sentence denotes G. hispidum may cause lesions in the liver, and submucosal nodules in the gastric wall of pigs, similar to those produced by G. spinigerum in carnivores.
T14797 1060300-1060336 Sentence denotes Gastric parasitism in dogs and cats.
T59721 1060337-1060493 Sentence denotes Parasites are uncommonly encountered in the stomach of dogs and cats at autopsy and most are incidental findings, or postmortem migrants from the intestine.
T4571 1060494-1060633 Sentence denotes Gnathostoma spinigerum, G. binucleatum, and G. procyonis occur in the stomach of dogs and cats, and of a variety of nondomestic carnivores.
T71119 1060634-1060680 Sentence denotes It is more common in areas with warm climates.
T62610 1060681-1060874 Sentence denotes The life cycle of this spirurid nematode involves copepods as an aquatic invertebrate intermediate host, and a variety of fish, amphibian, or reptiles as second intermediate or paratenic hosts.
T33537 1060875-1060998 Sentence denotes Ingested third-stage larvae may migrate in the liver, leaving tracks of necrotic debris, which eventually heal by fibrosis.
T54434 1060999-1061073 Sentence denotes In heavy infections, lesions cellular detritus, with abundant eosinophils.
T59749 1061074-1061192 Sentence denotes These lesions form protrusions up to ∼5 cm in diameter, with a small fistulous opening to the lumen (see Fig. 1-176) .
T67401 1061193-1061405 Sentence denotes The nodules generally produce no clinical disturbance, though they have been considered to lead rarely to abscessation, adhesions of the stomach to the spleen, or perforation when infected with pyogenic bacteria.
T27663 1061406-1061450 Sentence denotes Lapointe JM, et Gastric parasitism in swine.
T49803 1061451-1061592 Sentence denotes Gastric parasitism is not of great clinical or pathologic importance in swine and is rare in pigs reared in modern total confinement systems.
T14637 1061593-1061697 Sentence denotes Ascaris suum, normally inhabiting the small intestine, may migrate or reflux to the stomach after death.
T59907 1061698-1061860 Sentence denotes Hyostrongylus rubidus is probably the most significant parasite of the stomach of swine; this and the various spirurids are more common in pigs allowed to forage.
T5562 1061861-1061901 Sentence denotes Ollulanus tricuspis is reported in pigs.
T25599 1061902-1062001 Sentence denotes It is more commonly encountered in cats, and is discussed with gastric parasitism in dogs and cats.
T28717 1062002-1062081 Sentence denotes Hyostrongylus rubidus is a trichostrongylid nematode with a typical life cycle.
T55476 1062082-1062197 Sentence denotes Third-stage larvae enter glands in the stomach, especially in the fundic region, where they develop and molt twice.
T2521 1062198-1062284 Sentence denotes Pre-adult and adult worms emerge on to the gastric mucosa ∼18-20 days after ingestion.
T9455 1062285-1062372 Sentence denotes The lesions produced by Hyostrongylus resemble those caused by Ostertagia in ruminants.
T67227 1062373-1062498 Sentence denotes There is mucous metaplasia and hyperplasia of the lining of infected and neighboring glands, and dilation of infected glands.
T19332 1062499-1062663 Sentence denotes The lamina propria in infected mucosa is edematous and infiltrated by lymphocytes, plasma cells, and eosinophils, and lymphoid follicles develop deep in the mucosa.
T82385 1062664-1062712 Sentence denotes Neutrophils and eosinophils may transmigrate the
T76124 1062714-1062738 Sentence denotes Strongyloides infection.
T51962 1062739-1062817 Sentence denotes Strongyloides spp. parasitize all species of domestic animals considered here.
T95513 1062818-1063060 Sentence denotes Ruminants are infected by S. papillosus; horses by S. westeri; swine mainly by S. ransomi; dogs by S. stercoralis; and cats by S. felis, S. planiceps (= S. catti), and S. stercoralis in the small intestine, and by S. tumefaciens in the colon.
T37070 1063061-1063261 Sentence denotes The parasitic worms are parthenogenetic females, which produce larvae capable of direct infection of the host, or of uniquely developing into a facultative free-living generation of males and females.
T50580 1063262-1063451 Sentence denotes Infection by free-living filariform thirdstage larvae takes place by skin penetration, or to a lesser extent by ingestion and probably subsequent penetration of the gastrointestinal mucosa.
T93360 1063452-1063671 Sentence denotes Larval migration occurs primarily through the naso-frontal region and the lungs, during which larvae are carried up the mucociliary escalator and swallowed before establishing as parasitic adults in the small intestine.
T90154 1063672-1063869 Sentence denotes Typically infecting the proximal small intestine of all species, Strongyloides larvae establish and persist within tunnels in the epithelium at the base of villi or in upper crypts ( Fig. 1-177) .
T9476 1063870-1063958 Sentence denotes The nematodes are usually found in the surface epithelium, not beneath the basal lamina.
T26200 1063959-1064021 Sentence denotes Adult worms are small, only 2-6 mm long, depending on species.
T3068 1064022-1064217 Sentence denotes In sufficient numbers they cause villus atrophy, often associated with hyperplastic associated with larval migration may be found elsewhere in the abdominal and pleural cavities, and in the skin.
T42429 1064218-1064293 Sentence denotes Adults are found in groups of up to 10 in nodules in the gastric submucosa.
T72550 1064294-1064363 Sentence denotes Nodules are up to ∼5 cm in diameter, and open into the gastric lumen.
T6849 1064364-1064420 Sentence denotes Portions of nematodes may protrude through this opening.
T20058 1064421-1064587 Sentence denotes The worms lie in a pool of blood-tinged purulent exudate in the lumen of the nodule, the wall of which is comprised of granulation tissue and reactive fibrous stroma.
T94459 1064588-1064665 Sentence denotes Focal granulomas may center on nematode ova trapped in the connective tissue.
T78073 1064666-1064903 Sentence denotes Infection with Gnathostoma is usually subclinical; however, illness and death may be associated with disturbance of motility, chronic vomition, and occasional rupture of verminous nodules on to the gastric serosa, leading to peritonitis.
T50889 1064904-1065078 Sentence denotes A number of species of Physaloptera, including P. praeputialis (cat), P. rara (dogs and wild canids and felids), and P. canis (dog) are found in the stomach of dogs and cats.
T26741 1065079-1065182 Sentence denotes These spirurid nematodes use arthropod intermediate hosts and probably some vertebrate transport hosts.
T42858 1065183-1065304 Sentence denotes The adult worms, which may be mistaken for small ascarids, are found in the stomach, where they may be free in the lumen.
T5388 1065305-1065395 Sentence denotes More commonly they are attached as individuals or in small clusters to the gastric mucosa.
T28684 1065396-1065483 Sentence denotes Ulcers may be formed, and the cranial end of the worm may be embedded in the submucosa.
T17761 1065484-1065609 Sentence denotes Hyaline periodic acid-Schiff-positive material surrounds the cranial end of some worms, perhaps anchoring them in the tissue.
T33861 1065610-1065756 Sentence denotes These nematodes are not highly pathogenic, although heavy burdens may have the potential to cause significant gastric damage and chronic vomition.
T96715 1065757-1065875 Sentence denotes Cylicospirura felineus and members of the genus Cyathospirura may be found in the stomach of domestic and wild felids.
T47127 1065876-1066095 Sentence denotes Cylicospirura are usually found in the submucosal nodules, similar to those formed by Gnathostoma, whereas Cyathospirura is usually found free in the lumen, or sometimes associated with Cylicospirura in gastric nodules.
T65928 1066096-1066195 Sentence denotes The life cycle is unknown; the pathogenicity of these species is poorly defined, but is likely low.
T27110 1066196-1066301 Sentence denotes Ollulanus tricuspis is a small trichostrongyle, ∼1 mm long, which inhabits the stomach of cats and swine.
T98242 1066302-1066409 Sentence denotes It is viviparous, and third-stage larvae developing in the uterus of the female are transmitted in vomitus.
T79166 1066410-1066528 Sentence denotes As a result, infection is usually not detected by fecal examination, and infection with this species may go unnoticed.
T83922 1066529-1066618 Sentence denotes In some parts of the world it is common, particularly in cat colonies and cats that roam.
T87367 1066619-1066688 Sentence denotes Clinical signs and gross lesions caused by O. tricuspis are uncommon.
T88005 1066689-1066781 Sentence denotes Vomition, anorexia, and weight loss are the signs most frequently associated with infection.
T36164 1066782-1066873 Sentence denotes The worms lie beneath the mucus on the surface of the stomach, or partly in gastric glands.
T62050 1066874-1067085 Sentence denotes Infection is associated with increased numbers of lymphoid follicles deep in the gastric mucosa, increased interstitial connective tissue in the mucosa, and numerous globule leukocytes in the gastric epithelium.
T33635 1067086-1067308 Sentence denotes Heavy infection results in mucous metaplasia and hyperplasia of gastric glands, causing the surface of the stomach to be thrown into thickened convoluted folds, grossly resembling idiopathic hypertrophic gastritis of dogs.
T96888 1067309-1067395 Sentence denotes Gastric glands are often separated by the heavy reactive fibrous stroma in the mucosa.
T22769 1067396-1067558 Sentence denotes In gastric biopsies, this suite of microscopic changes in the mucosa should be recognized as characteristic of Ollulanus infection, even if worms are not present.
T14600 1067559-1067715 Sentence denotes Ollulanus are characterized in section by the numerous longitudinal cuticular ridges (synlophe) recognized as projections on the surface of sectioned worms.
T8041 1067716-1067746 Sentence denotes Intestinal trichostrongylosis.
T64758 1067747-1067848 Sentence denotes Members of the genus Trichostrongylus parasitize the proximal small intestine of ruminants worldwide.
T6676 1067849-1067995 Sentence denotes They cause significant subclinical inefficiency in production, or clinical disease characterized by diarrhea, illthrift, and in some cases, death.
T55785 1067996-1068182 Sentence denotes The most important species infecting sheep and goats are T. colubriformis, T. vitrinus, and T. rugatus; others include T. longispicularis, T. falculatus, T. capricola, and T. probolurus.
T4081 1068183-1068246 Sentence denotes T. colubriformis and T. longispicularis also parasitize cattle.
T232 1068247-1068371 Sentence denotes Although some T. axei may be found in the duodenum of cattle and sheep, this species is primarily parasitic in the abomasum.
T17884 1068372-1068610 Sentence denotes Experimental infection studies indicate that the lesions and pathogenesis of disease caused by Trichostrongylus species are similar, although some evidence suggests that T. vitrinus is more pathogenic than T. colubriformis and T. rugatus.
T42063 1068611-1068731 Sentence denotes Trichostrongylosis is most important in zones with a cool climate at some time of the year, but without extreme winters.
T10165 1068732-1068862 Sentence denotes It is a significant problem in sheep-grazing areas of New Zealand, Australia, South Africa, South America, and the United Kingdom.
T20087 1068863-1069053 Sentence denotes The life cycle is direct, and ingested thirdstage larvae ex-sheath in the acidic abomasal environment and establish preferentially in the proximal 5-6 meters of the small intestine of sheep.
T87273 1069054-1069144 Sentence denotes A small proportion of the population colonize the abomasal antral mucosa near the pylorus.
T25453 1069145-1069337 Sentence denotes The larvae enter tunnels in the superficial intestinal mucosa above the basal lamina at the base of villi, and they persist throughout their life at least partially embedded in the epithelium.
T23253 1069338-1069424 Sentence denotes Larvae develop over a 2-week period into adults with a prepatent period of 16-18 days.
T53751 1069425-1069517 Sentence denotes The disease is marked clinically by variable depression, inappetence, diarrhea, and wasting.
T23385 1069518-1069731 Sentence denotes Although some local malabsorption of water, electrolytes, and nutrients occurs in the duodenum, it seems unlikely that the absorptive capacity of the remaining small intestine and large bowel would be overwhelmed.
T3828 1069732-1069977 Sentence denotes Reduced feed consumption and increased loss of endogenous nitrogen into the gut because of considerable effusion of plasma protein into the lumen and exfoliation of the intestinal epithelium, likely play some role in the development of diarrhea.
T11472 1069978-1070240 Sentence denotes In severe trichostrongylosis, compensation for increased catabolism of plasma protein and mucosal epithelial protein is at the expense of anabolic processes elsewhere in the body; wool and muscle growth are hindered and secondary osteoporosis has been described.
T61202 1070241-1070454 Sentence denotes Gross lesions observed in animals succumbing to trichostrongylosis are nonspecific and may include cachexia, dehydration, dark-green diarrhea, serous atrophy of internal fat depots, and atrophy of skeletal muscle.
T94556 1070455-1070580 Sentence denotes Mesenteric edema and serous effusion into body cavities because of hypoproteinemia is observed, if dehydration is not severe.
T77968 1070581-1070617 Sentence denotes Mesenteric lymph nodes are enlarged.
T73903 1070618-1070742 Sentence denotes The intestines are flaccid and the small bowel as well as the large bowel may contain thin watery green foul-smelling feces.
T80241 1070743-1070868 Sentence denotes The duodenal mucosa may be glistening and pink; however, superimposed postmortem autolysis may rapidly conceal these changes.
T1011 1070869-1071041 Sentence denotes The proximal third of the small intestine (5-7 meters) contains the bulk of the cryptal epithelium and mixed eosinophilic to lymphocytic inflammation of the lamina propria.
T48150 1071042-1071184 Sentence denotes Surface epithelial cells are usually low columnar to cuboidal, with an indistinct brush border; there may be squamous metaplasia, or erosions.
T86128 1071185-1071368 Sentence denotes Embryonated or larvating ova may be retained in epithelial tunnels, and help to distinguish this nematode in tissue section from Trichostrongylus in hosts in which both species occur.
T6701 1071369-1071466 Sentence denotes Strongyloides ransomi is responsible for diarrhea in suckling piglets in some parts of the world.
T62879 1071467-1071643 Sentence denotes Larvae migrate through the lungs, which may cause minor local hemorrhage, alveolar septal damage, scattered aggregates of lymphocytes and plasma cells and impaired respiration.
T25988 1071644-1071782 Sentence denotes In the duodenum, villus atrophy results in malabsorption, luminal protein loss, diarrhea, and eventually debilitation of affected piglets.
T36454 1071783-1071862 Sentence denotes Specific gross lesions other than those associated with diarrhea may be absent.
T14055 1071863-1072006 Sentence denotes Heavy infestations result in moderate to severe clinical disease in young piglets; adult nematodes are evident in mucosal scrapings at autopsy.
T76737 1072007-1072115 Sentence denotes S. westeri infects foals, and is associated with diarrhea that can be fatal in heavily infested individuals.
T90201 1072116-1072371 Sentence denotes It has been hypothesized that skin penetration by third-stage larvae permits entry of Rhodococcus equi, an important bacterial pathogen of foals; however, this remains unproven and millions of larvae are necessary to cause fatal infections experimentally.
T45844 1072372-1072485 Sentence denotes S. papillosus may cause diarrhea and occasionally death if there is overwhelming infection of suckling ruminants.
T22548 1072486-1072651 Sentence denotes A syndrome of sudden death caused by cardiac failure associated with heavy infections of S. papillosus has been described; however, the pathogenesis remains unclear.
T30948 1072652-1072690 Sentence denotes S. stercoralis primarily infects dogs.
T52509 1072691-1072980 Sentence denotes S. stercoralis can undergo autoinfection in which repeated parasitic generations develop in the same host individual, which can result in rapid expansion of parasitic populations in a host with multi-organ involvement, but this probably only occurs in the face of severe immunosuppression.
T92478 1072981-1073071 Sentence denotes Infection is most commonly fatal in puppies up to 2-3 months old from kennel environments.
T38613 1073072-1073188 Sentence denotes Affected dogs are dehydrated and emaciated with bloodtinged diarrhea, but the intestine may be grossly unremarkable.
T87043 1073189-1073302 Sentence denotes Histologically there is villus atrophy and mononuclear interstitial infiltrates in the duodenum of affected dogs.
T82778 1073303-1073451 Sentence denotes Adult nematodes are embedded within the superficial mucosa, and larvae may be observed in granulomas in the intestinal lamina propria and submucosa.
T61448 1073452-1073530 Sentence denotes Multifocal interstitial pneumonia may be due to pulmonary migration of larvae.
T75081 1073531-1073699 Sentence denotes S. stercoralis also infects humans, and there are rare reports of natural zoonotic transfer from dogs to humans; immunocompromised humans appear to be more susceptible.
T4369 1073700-1073841 Sentence denotes S. felis may cause mild focal granulomatous or eosinophilic interstitial pneumonia in cats, because of migration of larvae through the lungs.
T55596 1073842-1073969 Sentence denotes There may be hyperplasia of the crypts of Lieberkühn in the vicinity of worms in the small intestine, but diarrhea is uncommon.
T33371 1073970-1074042 Sentence denotes S. tumefaciens in cats has rarely been associated with chronic diarrhea.
T66638 1074043-1074225 Sentence denotes It differs from the other species discussed previously, because it causes proliferation of colonic submucosal glands and results in formation of nodules in which the worms are found.
T83037 1074226-1074332 Sentence denotes It is uncertain whether this lesion is specifically induced by S. tumefaciens infection. loss of appetite.
T9765 1074333-1074468 Sentence denotes At autopsy, other than the changes associated with dehydration and cachexia, findings are limited to watery mucoid intestinal contents.
T3096 1074469-1074574 Sentence denotes The mucosa of the duodenum is usually unremarkable or perhaps hyperemic with excess mucus on the surface.
T88644 1074575-1074667 Sentence denotes Clinical disease is associated with populations of 10,000-50,000 or more Nematodirus adults.
T78887 1074668-1074831 Sentence denotes Histologic lesions in the intestine are observed in heavy infections, but are usually milder in comparison with those induced by Strongyloides or Trichostrongylus.
T39411 1074832-1074979 Sentence denotes Villus atrophy is characterized by short, stumpy, and perhaps fused or ridgelike surface alterations that may replace the normal villus structures.
T97776 1074980-1075037 Sentence denotes Crypts are hyperplastic, and appear elongate and dilated.
T95862 1075038-1075144 Sentence denotes Overlying surface enterocytes may be domed, with loss of the brush border, and irregular nuclear polarity.
T84959 1075145-1075305 Sentence denotes Biochemically there are reduced levels of mucosal alkaline phosphatase and disaccharidases, and this correlates with the severity of diarrhea in affected sheep.
T32715 1075306-1075478 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis of villus atrophy is not clear, but as for other strongylids it may be related to the development of a cell-mediated immune response against the nematodes.
T37872 1075479-1075599 Sentence denotes A moderate mixed inflammatory response with lymphocytes, plasma cells, and eosinophils is evident in the lamina propria.
T99465 1075600-1075655 Sentence denotes Cooperia infect the upper small intestine of ruminants.
T98407 1075656-1075792 Sentence denotes The important species include C. curticei, mainly in sheep and goats, and C. pectinata, C. punctata, and C. oncophora, mainly in cattle.
T57377 1075793-1075853 Sentence denotes The latter is regarded as the least pathogenic of the three.
T48666 1075854-1076063 Sentence denotes Although both sheep and cattle may host mixed burdens of helminths containing or dominated by populations of Cooperia, this species seems to be more significant in cattle, especially in cool temperate regions.
T61770 1076064-1076237 Sentence denotes Cooperia has a typical trichostrongylid life cycle, but larvae have the capacity to undergo hypobiosis to carry the population through periods of regular climatic adversity.
T58250 1076238-1076280 Sentence denotes The normal prepatent period is 16-20 days.
T38021 1076281-1076430 Sentence denotes Like Nematodirus, Cooperia do not tunnel in the epithelium, but rather brace or coil themselves among villi to maintain their place in the intestine.
T54843 1076431-1076524 Sentence denotes In light infections, the worms are concentrated in the proximal third of the small intestine.
T92574 1076525-1076709 Sentence denotes Heavier infections are more evenly distributed along the intestine; this may be because more nematodes cause villus atrophy, and therefore loss of the substrate against which to brace.
T26831 1076710-1076925 Sentence denotes Heavy burdens of Cooperia in calves, 70,000-80,000 or more nematodes, may be associated with inappetence, reduced weight gain, or weight loss and diarrhea, with protein-losing enteropathy in experimental infections.
T62578 1076926-1077064 Sentence denotes Villus atrophy and inflammation are variable; atrophy is concomitant with reductions in the brush-border enzymes, typical of helminthosis.
T88247 1077065-1077367 Sentence denotes The diagnosis is confirmed by finding large numbers of the fine, coiled Cooperia in the small intestine. population of the parasites, and a worm count in the small bowel may reveal 15,000-80,000 Trichostrongylus in severe clinical infections; subclinical or mild disease is associated with fewer worms.
T87258 1077368-1077478 Sentence denotes The severity of the histologic lesions within an individual animal correlates with the local density of worms.
T2765 1077479-1077575 Sentence denotes The histologic lesion is characterized by villus atrophy that may vary considerably in severity.
T30795 1077576-1077702 Sentence denotes The cause of villus atrophy is unclear, although its likely related to the host mucosal immune response against the parasites.
T38801 1077703-1077785 Sentence denotes Crypts are hyperplastic, dilated, and elongated; there is goblet cell hyperplasia.
T70857 1077786-1078048 Sentence denotes The lamina propria is populated by a moderately heavy mixed inflammatory cell population, including lymphocytes, plasma cells, eosinophils, and globule leukocytes, the latter of which are thought to indicate strength of the immune response or repeated infection.
T8555 1078049-1078187 Sentence denotes The diagnosis is based on recovery of substantial populations of Trichostrongylus spp. in association with the clinicopathologic syndrome.
T95762 1078188-1078244 Sentence denotes Mixed infections with other parasitic genera are common.
T99260 1078245-1078413 Sentence denotes The life cycle is direct, although infective larvae within eggs of N. battus and N. filicollis require a period of conditioning by cold (overwintering) before hatching.
T95818 1078414-1078556 Sentence denotes The epidemiologic pattern is thus one of infection of susceptible lambs during a year because of larvae produced by the previous year's lambs.
T92613 1078557-1078652 Sentence denotes This has led to devastating outbreaks of spring disease in mostly temperate areas of the world.
T5738 1078653-1078818 Sentence denotes The larvae of N. spathiger and N. helvetinus are not delayed in hatching, and their epidemiologic pattern resembles that of Trichostrongylus spp. in grazing animals.
T53453 1078819-1079008 Sentence denotes Nematodirus spp. often form part of a mixed population of worms in parasitic gastroenteritis of grazing lambs and calves, although the disease may also occur in confined nonpastured calves.
T13568 1079009-1079116 Sentence denotes Ingested infective third-stage larvae enter the deeper layers of the mucosa, and perhaps intestinal crypts.
T45683 1079117-1079301 Sentence denotes Larvae emerge at the fourth or fifth stage to take up residence coiled among the villi, with their caudal ends protruding toward the lumen and do not normally penetrate the epithelium.
T55221 1079302-1079473 Sentence denotes Lambs and calves with nematodirosis develop severe darkgreen diarrhea, anorexia, and wasting that may persist for several weeks before recovering, or they may die acutely.
T13601 1079474-1079600 Sentence denotes Disease is presumably mainly related to malabsorption and peritonitis; however, in most cases, nodules are incidental lesions.
T95163 1079601-1079650 Sentence denotes O. venulosum is a much less significant parasite.
T34338 1079651-1079768 Sentence denotes It seldom causes significant nodule formation; when it does, the nodules are small and mainly in the cecum and colon.
T88335 1079769-1079881 Sentence denotes Two species also occur in cattle, O. radiatum and O. venulosum, and the former is the most significant parasite.
T64487 1079882-1079934 Sentence denotes The life cycle is similar to that of O. columbianum.
T54556 1079935-1080081 Sentence denotes Clinical disease caused by O. radiatum is characterized by loss of appetite, reduced productive efficiency, anemia, hypoproteinemia, and diarrhea.
T29089 1080082-1080197 Sentence denotes Anemia results from hemorrhage at sites of mucosal damage owing to larval emergence or the presence of adult worms.
T15632 1080198-1080348 Sentence denotes Considerable exudation of tissue fluids and plasma protein from colonic lesions along with hemorrhage contributes to protein loss and hypoproteinemia.
T84794 1080349-1080512 Sentence denotes Reduced growth efficiency is the product of significant protein loss and inappetence, whereas diarrhea presumably results from loss of colonic absorptive capacity.
T92011 1080513-1080634 Sentence denotes Pathogenic worm burdens in calves are in the range of 1,000-10,000 O. radiatum; oesophagostomosis may be fatal in calves.
T59570 1080635-1080749 Sentence denotes Nonspecific gross lesions include pallor, edema, and cachexia, and are attributable to anemia and hypoproteinemia.
T96408 1080750-1080783 Sentence denotes Colonic lymph nodes are enlarged.
T89147 1080784-1080902 Sentence denotes The mucosa of the colon is grossly thickened and folded because of edema and mixed inflammation in the lamina propria.
T19255 1080903-1080962 Sentence denotes Colonic submucosal lymphoid follicles are large and active.
T38689 1080963-1081164 Sentence denotes Repeated exposure to infective larvae may result in the accumulation of large numbers of fourth-stage larvae within inflammatory nodules in the colon; this has little pathogenic significance in cattle.
T55006 1081165-1081286 Sentence denotes In swine, several species occur in the large intestine; however, O. dentatum and O. quadrispinulatum are most widespread.
T42272 1081287-1081353 Sentence denotes Oesophagostomosis in swine is a mild, usually subclinical disease.
T39800 1081354-1081561 Sentence denotes Occasional diarrhea, depression in weight gain, and inefficiency of feed conversion may occur, especially during the period of emergence of larvae and maturation of worms in the lumen of the large intestine.
T31872 1081562-1081653 Sentence denotes Burdens of 3,000-20,000 adult worms are associated with subclinical disease experimentally.
T8901 1081654-1081766 Sentence denotes The nematodes are 1-2 cm long, white, and are present in mucus on the surface of the gut, or in luminal content.
T80423 1081767-1081877 Sentence denotes Massive repeated challenge cause severe typhlocolitis, but this seems to be purely an experimental phenomenon.
T93997 1081878-1081948 Sentence denotes The life cycle, gross and histologic lesions are typical of the genus.
T61155 1081949-1081995 Sentence denotes Lesions resolve following emergence of larvae.
T95547 1081996-1082093 Sentence denotes Chabertia ovina is a robust 1-2 cm long worm that inhabits the colon of sheep, goats, and cattle.
T71298 1082094-1082152 Sentence denotes It is mainly a problem for sheep in cooler climatic zones.
T46529 1082153-1082287 Sentence denotes Phylogenetic analysis based on ribosomal DNA sequence data indicate that C. ovina is clustered within the subfamily Oesophagostominae.
T68275 1082288-1082457 Sentence denotes The life cycle of Chabertia resembles that of Oesophagostomum; thirdstage larvae encyst in the wall of the small intestine, then emerge to mature in the cecum and colon.
T20084 1082458-1082620 Sentence denotes Adults penetrate to the muscularis mucosae and take a plug of mucosa into the buccal capsule, so minor hemorrhage may be related to physical trauma to the mucosa.
T68265 1082621-1082713 Sentence denotes Significant loss of plasma protein from the mucosa at numerous focal sites of trauma occurs.
T14240 1082714-1082887 Sentence denotes Disease in sheep is associated with the presence of mature worms in the colon, and nonspecific clinical signs include illthrift and soft feces with mucus, and perhaps blood.
T26033 1082888-1083032 Sentence denotes Grossly the lesions are characterized by edema of all layers of the wall of infected parts of the colon, and enlargement of colonic lymph nodes.
T35240 1083033-1083276 Sentence denotes Worms generally are concentrated in the proximal portion of the spiral colon, and the area that they inhabit may have numerous hemorrhagic foci corresponding to sites migrate via the lungs, and worms begin to lay eggs 10 weeks after infection.
T89351 1083277-1083389 Sentence denotes Both Bunostomum and Gaigeria cause hemorrhagic anemia and hypoproteinemia, especially in animals <1 year of age.
T94897 1083390-1083530 Sentence denotes These species often occur with mixed gastrointestinal helminth burdens, and their effects are at least additive to those of the other worms.
T57933 1083531-1083681 Sentence denotes As few as 20-30 Gaigeria will cause anemia and hypoproteinemia in lambs and kids, although several times that number may be more usual in fatal cases.
T15655 1083682-1083852 Sentence denotes The size of the animal, the status of its iron reserves, and the plane of nutrition, especially the level of protein, likely influence the pathogenicity of these species.
T91152 1083853-1083924 Sentence denotes Gross lesions are nonspecific, secondary to anemia and hypoproteinemia.
T13890 1083925-1084052 Sentence denotes Bunostomum are often found in the distal half of the small intestine, whereas Gaigeria tend to be concentrated in the duodenum.
T10001 1084053-1084143 Sentence denotes Hemorrhage and bite marks may be evident on the mucosa in the infected areas of intestine.
T61257 1084144-1084306 Sentence denotes Given that relatively low numbers of worms can cause disease, and their unique distribution, the gut should be examined carefully and thoroughly in suspect cases.
T79395 1084307-1084350 Sentence denotes vicinity of the arterial root at the aorta.
T41277 1084351-1084532 Sentence denotes Although many older horses are infected with adult worms or have arterial lesions, the complications of colic and infarction caused by this parasite are most common in young horses.
T70335 1084533-1084802 Sentence denotes An acute syndrome, characterized by pyrexia, anorexia, depression and weight loss, diarrhea or constipation, colic, and infarction of intestine occurs in foals infected with large numbers of larvae; this is not often observed in animals previously exposed to infection.
T93336 1084803-1084844 Sentence denotes S. edentatus now rarely causes infection.
T19079 1084845-1084909 Sentence denotes It has a life cycle characterized by extensive larval migration.
T33500 1084910-1085035 Sentence denotes Third-stage larvae enter the intestinal wall and pass in the portal system to the liver, where they incite inflammatory foci.
T8712 1085036-1085149 Sentence denotes Here they molt to the fourth stage and, ∼30 days after infection, begin migrating through the hepatic parenchyma.
T37680 1085150-1085328 Sentence denotes Inflammatory reaction in the liver consists of necrotic debris, eosinophils, neutrophils, and mononuclear cells with variable amounts of fibrous connective tissue and hemorrhage.
T28736 1085329-1085416 Sentence denotes By 8-10 weeks after infection, larvae migrate from the liver via the hepatic ligaments.
T38097 1085417-1085843 Sentence denotes Parenchymal scars and tags of fibrous tissue on the hepatic capsule, especially the diaphragmatic surface, are commonly found during postmortem examination of horses, and are thought to be a legacy of migrating S. edentatus; however, the prevalence of these lesions has not decreased along with the reduction in incidence of infection, and final association of these lesions with migrating strongyles has not been established.
T77710 1085844-1086100 Sentence denotes Larvae may be encountered in the retroperitoneal tissue, often associated with local hemorrhage, or they can be observed in aberrant locations, including the omentum, hepatic ligaments, and diaphragm, where they induce formation of eosinophilic granulomas.
T12866 1086101-1086169 Sentence denotes Omental adhesions also may be a sequel to aberrant larval migration.
T56303 1086170-1086330 Sentence denotes In the flank, larvae persist for several months, molting to the fifth stage before returning from the right flank via the cecal ligament to the cecum and colon.
T73323 1086331-1086522 Sentence denotes Here they form nodules and edematous or hemorrhagic plaques in the intestinal wall, eventually perforating to the lumen, where they mature and begin to lay eggs ∼10-12 months after infection.
T61251 1086523-1086627 Sentence denotes Lesions associated with the larval migration of S. edentatus are usually incidental findings at autopsy.
T54874 1086628-1086658 Sentence denotes S. equinus is very rare today.
T36242 1086659-1086892 Sentence denotes Ex-sheathed third-stage larvae penetrate to the deeper layers of the wall of the ileum, cecum, and colon, molt to the fourth stage, and produce hemorrhagic subserosal nodules, before moving to the liver through the peritoneal cavity.
T9166 1086893-1087105 Sentence denotes They migrate in the hepatic parenchyma for 6-7 weeks, then leave the liver, probably via the hepatic ligaments, to the pancreas and peritoneal cavity, where they molt to the fifth stage ∼4 months after infection.
T45462 1087106-1087256 Sentence denotes They regain the lumen of the cecum and right ventral colon by an unknown route, probably by direct penetration from the peritoneal cavity or pancreas.
T37448 1087257-1087365 Sentence denotes Pancreatic damage is usually mild and is mainly manifested by slight periductal infiltration of eosinophils.
T45941 1087366-1087605 Sentence denotes Hemomelasma ilei is the term applied to slightly elevated subserosal hemorrhagic plaques, up to 1-2 × 3-4 cm in size, usually found along the antimesenteric border of the distal small intestine, or rarely on the large bowel ( Fig. 1-178) .
T85888 1087606-1087792 Sentence denotes The lesion is considered incidental, and has long been associated with trauma by migrating larvae of S. edentatus in particular, but may be caused by larvae of any of the Strongylus spp.
T67536 1087793-1088028 Sentence denotes As with the hepatic lesions historically associated with migration of large strongyles, the incidence of hemomelasma ilei has not apparently declined with the reduction in incidence of large strongyle infections over the last 25 years.
T83550 1088029-1088075 Sentence denotes Histologically, there is of former attachment.
T75845 1088076-1088200 Sentence denotes Pathogenic burdens may be as few as 150 worms and the species must be sought in its usual site of predilection or be missed.
T66566 1088201-1088328 Sentence denotes Histologically, there is often widespread mononuclear infiltration in the mucosa and submucosa and hyperplasia of goblet cells.
T19495 1088329-1088346 Sentence denotes Large strongyles.
T64774 1088347-1088462 Sentence denotes Strongylus vulgaris is relatively common, and has been considered the most significant nematode parasite in horses.
T62782 1088463-1088559 Sentence denotes However, infection levels have considerably decreased with the advent of improved anthelmintics.
T98915 1088560-1088734 Sentence denotes Larval forms cause endoarteritis in the mesenteric circulation, resulting in arterial infarction of the large bowel and colic, whereas the adults cause anemia and ill-thrift.
T57794 1088735-1088891 Sentence denotes Infective third-stage larvae are ingested from pasture and ex-sheath in the small intestine to penetrate the intestinal mucosa and molt to the fourth stage.
T14857 1088892-1089016 Sentence denotes They enter small arterioles, where they migrate along the endothelium to reach the cranial mesenteric artery within 3 weeks.
T30153 1089017-1089226 Sentence denotes Following a 3-4 month maturation period, immature adults, or fifth-stage larvae, return to the wall of the cecum or colon via the arterial lumen, where they encapsulate in the subserosa forming 5-8 mm nodules.
T75187 1089227-1089421 Sentence denotes The nodules eventually rupture into the lumen of the large bowel, especially cecum and right ventral colon, where the parasites mature in another 1-2 months, ∼6-7 months after initial infection.
T75483 1089422-1089566 Sentence denotes Some larvae may become trapped and encapsulated in arterioles in the mesentery on their way back to the gut, and remain there to die eventually.
T60509 1089567-1089705 Sentence denotes Endoarteritis associated with migration and establishment of larvae in the cranial mesenteric artery and its branches is discussed in Vol.
T52278 1089706-1089810 Sentence denotes 3, Cardiovascular system, as are the consequences of aberrant migration in the aorta and other arteries.
T62652 1089811-1089919 Sentence denotes Syndromes associated with aberrant migration include cerebrospinal nematodiasis and aortic-iliac thrombosis.
T26268 1089920-1090239 Sentence denotes Lesions of the cranial mesenteric, cecal, and colic arteries may lead to colic as a result of reduced perfusion and thromboembolism, or perhaps owing to impingement upon autonomic ganglia in the Development of widespread anthelmintic resistance by cyathostomins, particularly encysted larval stages, is well documented.
T61327 1090240-1090361 Sentence denotes Affected horses may be of any age; clinical signs are nonspecific and include diarrhea, edema, anorexia, and weight loss.
T49026 1090362-1090578 Sentence denotes Grossly, mucosal nodules formed by encysted larvae are only a few millimeters in diameter, slightly raised red or black ( Fig. 1-179A) ; visualization of the nodules is enhanced by transillumination of the intestine.
T34949 1090579-1090644 Sentence denotes Incision reveals a small translucent gray or red larval nematode.
T75951 1090645-1090708 Sentence denotes There will be edema and congestion of the mucosa and submucosa.
T21612 1090709-1090883 Sentence denotes Histologically, a mixed inflammatory response is observed either centered on encysted larvae in the submucosa or more diffusely throughout the lamina propria ( Fig. 1-179B ).
T42012 1090884-1091063 Sentence denotes edema, hemorrhage, a mixed population of leukocytes and variably mature fibrous tissue; depending on the stage of the lesions, erythrophagocytosis by macrophages can be prominent.
T79035 1091064-1091141 Sentence denotes Adults of all species in the Strongylinae are plug feeders and blood suckers.
T52044 1091142-1091292 Sentence denotes In sufficient numbers they may cause illthrift and anemia, as the result of active erythrophagia and blood loss from sites of recent feeding activity.
T65778 1091293-1091491 Sentence denotes Increased albumin catabolism causing accelerated turnover of the plasma pool, and reduced red cell survival, have been demonstrated in horses with relatively low numbers (<100) of adult S. vulgaris.
T65591 1091492-1091617 Sentence denotes Triodontophorus spp. are also large strongyles found in horses and appear to be less pathogenic compared with Strongylus spp.
T56868 1091618-1091820 Sentence denotes The most important species is T. tenuicollis, which can be associated with significant blood loss; these parasites attach to the mucosa of the colon in clusters, causing local congestion and ulceration.
T42688 1091821-1091968 Sentence denotes The small strongyles, or cyathostomins (cyathostomes), are a group containing >50 distinct species; these parasites are highly prevalent worldwide.
T2012 1091969-1092113 Sentence denotes They are essentially nonpathogenic as adults, despite the fact that tens or many hundreds of thousands may be in the content of the large bowel.
T91323 1092114-1092226 Sentence denotes Cyathostominosis is a disease of horses >1 year of age, and little resistance is apparent to repeated infection.
T86321 1092227-1092442 Sentence denotes The clinical syndrome larval cyathostominosis occurs as a result of simultaneous emergence of inhibited third-stage larvae from the intestinal mucosa, and is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in horses.
T20622 1092443-1092486 Sentence denotes The cyathostomins have a direct life cycle.
T3724 1092487-1092710 Sentence denotes Infective third-stage larval cyathostomins are ingested, and they migrate into the deep mucosa or submucosa of the cecum and large colon to encyst and molt, before emerging to the lumen to molt again and mature into adults.
T64154 1092711-1092867 Sentence denotes Encysted third- or fourth-stage larvae may undergo hypobiosis or developmental inhibition, persisting in nodules in the colonic wall for as long as 2 years.
T82958 1092868-1092938 Sentence denotes The timing during which inhibition occurs is dependent on the climate:
T55544 1092939-1093060 Sentence denotes Inhibition occurs during cooler months of the year in temperate climates, and during the hot summer in tropical climates.
T31463 1093061-1093214 Sentence denotes The most devastating damage occurs when large numbers of encysted inhibited larvae emerge en masse to continue their development in the intestinal lumen.
T10150 1093215-1093303 Sentence denotes This occurs in the late winter, spring, and early summer in northern temperate climates.
T13280 1093304-1093387 Sentence denotes Initially, hemorrhagic tracks are present near portal areas and throughout lobules.
T83469 1093388-1093512 Sentence denotes They are visible through the capsule as pinpoint red areas, perhaps slightly depressed and surrounded by a narrow pale zone.
T81257 1093513-1093631 Sentence denotes These lesions collapse and heal by fibrosis, causing scarring that involves most intensely the adjacent portal tracts.
T13829 1093632-1093726 Sentence denotes However, fibrosis extends diffusely through more distant tracts, emphasizing lobular outlines.
T60006 1093727-1093837 Sentence denotes Microscopically in the lung there is eosinophilic bronchiolitis, and in some cases secondary bronchopneumonia.
T78639 1093838-1093977 Sentence denotes Bronchioles are surrounded by macrophages and eosinophils, and the bronchiolar epithelium is hyperplastic, disorganized, or perhaps eroded.
T61039 1093978-1094096 Sentence denotes The bronchiolar wall is infiltrated by eosinophils that are also present in the lumen intermixed with necrotic debris.
T52446 1094097-1094160 Sentence denotes There also may be an eosinophilic and granulomatous vasculitis.
T63141 1094161-1094297 Sentence denotes In the liver there is a heavy eosinophil infiltrate in fibrotic septa, which becomes most obvious beginning ∼10-14 days after infection.
T67766 1094298-1094434 Sentence denotes Inflammatory foci containing giant cells, macrophages, and eosinophils may center on larval remnants trapped and destroyed in the liver.
T31431 1094435-1094679 Sentence denotes The inflammatory infiltrates in livers of animals exposed to larval ascarids may become severe and generalized; this is reflected in the gross appearance of the liver, which has extensive white "milk spots," and prominent definition of lobules.
T83857 1094680-1094835 Sentence denotes The liver is firm, and heavy scars may become confluent, obliterating some lobules and extending out to exaggerate interlobular septa throughout the liver.
T95572 1094836-1094963 Sentence denotes Where pigs are raised intensively, it is now rare to encounter extreme fibrosis of the liver associated with ascarid migration.
T7598 1094964-1095035 Sentence denotes Larvae or their remnants are usually readily found in sections of lung.
T83160 1095036-1095143 Sentence denotes They may be present in alveoli, alveolar ducts, bronchioles, or bronchi, perhaps surrounded by eosinophils.
T72256 1095144-1095209 Sentence denotes In more chronic cases, larvae are within eosinophilic granulomas.
T61661 1095210-1095305 Sentence denotes Like all larval ascarids of mammals, A. suum in the lungs have lateral alae visible in section.
T29331 1095306-1095352 Sentence denotes A. suum also infects animals other than swine.
T82554 1095353-1095436 Sentence denotes In sheep, and occasionally cattle, immature ascarids may be found in the intestine.
T87136 1095437-1095595 Sentence denotes Dyspnea and coughing associated with eosinophilic pneumonia, and focal eosinophilic hepatitis, may occur in lambs exposed to A. suis; mortality rarely occurs.
T15634 1095596-1095683 Sentence denotes Liver lesions in lambs are usually too small to be significant at slaughter inspection.
T27134 1095684-1095702 Sentence denotes Ascarid infection.
T51592 1095703-1095848 Sentence denotes Members of the family Ascarididae are common and important parasites of swine, horses, dogs, cats, water buffalo, and to a lesser extent, cattle.
T61083 1095849-1095895 Sentence denotes They do not normally occur in sheep and goats.
T37344 1095896-1096130 Sentence denotes Their importance is related to incidental and sometimes significant lesions caused by larval migration in the tissues of definitive and accidental hosts, and to the effects of adult worms in the small intestine of the definitive host.
T96963 1096131-1096263 Sentence denotes Ascaris suum is a large parasite, usually found in the upper half of the small intestine of swine; females measure up to 40 cm long.
T10311 1096264-1096289 Sentence denotes The life cycle is direct.
T10490 1096290-1096366 Sentence denotes After ingestion, eggs hatch and release third-stage larvae in the intestine.
T739 1096367-1096575 Sentence denotes The larvae penetrate the cecal or colonic mucosa to be carried in the portal blood to the liver, then pass to the lungs, where they break out of capillaries into alveoli, as early as 3-5 days after infection.
T86686 1096576-1096692 Sentence denotes Larvae move up the respiratory tree to the pharynx, where they are swallowed, and arrive in the intestine to mature.
T59648 1096693-1096977 Sentence denotes After returning to the intestine, most larvae gradually move to the distal small intestine and are expelled between 14 and 21 days post infection, a phenomenon likely mediated by parasitespecific immunoglobulin A-producing plasma cells, eosinophils, and intraepithelial T lymphocytes.
T7765 1096978-1097049 Sentence denotes The pathogenicity of adult ascarids in the intestine is poorly defined.
T49075 1097050-1097209 Sentence denotes Heavy infections may be evident as rope-like masses within the intestinal lumen and can potentially result in obstruction or rarely perforation ( Fig. 1-180) .
T63142 1097210-1097387 Sentence denotes The presence of ∼80-100 worms in young swine may depress feed intake and the efficiency of feed conversion; however, most pigs harboring patent infections are clinically normal.
T60681 1097388-1097518 Sentence denotes A. lumbricoides in humans interferes with carbohydrate, fat, and protein absorption, and A. suum probably has a similar influence.
T76717 1097519-1097735 Sentence denotes Larval migration induces lesions in the liver and lungs ( Fig. 1-181) , and respiratory signs characterized by dyspnea (common term, thumps) may occur in piglets if large numbers of larvae migrate through the lungs.
T72572 1097736-1097908 Sentence denotes Gross lesions in pigs associated with pulmonary migration of ascarids are largely limited to numerous focal hemorrhages scattered over and through the pulmonary parenchyma.
T8908 1097909-1098065 Sentence denotes In the liver, migrating A. suum do not causing clinical disease but do result in considerable economic loss from liver condemnation at slaughter inspection.
T11188 1098066-1098191 Sentence denotes The lesions are related to mechanical damage caused by the worms, subsequent repair, and hypersensitivity Toxascaris leonina.
T47592 1098192-1098348 Sentence denotes The ascarids of small animals are Toxascaris leonina, infecting both cats and dogs, and Toxocara canis and T. cati, infecting the dog and cat, respectively.
T82684 1098349-1098407 Sentence denotes All occur in the small intestine, mainly in young animals.
T91868 1098408-1098497 Sentence denotes Toxascaris leonina has a life cycle that may be direct, but can involve a paratenic host.
T40597 1098498-1098709 Sentence denotes In the definitive host, larvae ingested in infective ova enter the wall of the gut, where they remain for several weeks, molting to the fourth stage and emerging to the intestinal lumen to molt again and mature.
T83081 1098710-1098746 Sentence denotes The prepatent period is 10-11 weeks.
T69393 1098747-1099010 Sentence denotes Toxocara canis has a complex life cycle, and dogs can be infected by ingestion of embryonated eggs from the environment or larvae from paratenic hosts including rodents and rabbits, or by vertical transmission including either intrauterine or transmammary routes.
T62425 1099011-1099163 Sentence denotes After ingestion of embryonated ova, larvae penetrate the intestinal mucosa, and migrate via the liver to arrive in the lungs 24-36 hours post infection.
T59806 1099164-1099213 Sentence denotes From the lung, larvae follow one of two pathways.
T50676 1099214-1099402 Sentence denotes Depending on the age and immune status of the host, larvae may penetrate alveoli, and migrate via bronchioles and trachea, where they are swallowed and mature into adults in the intestine.
T51302 1099403-1099648 Sentence denotes In the second pathway, larvae penetrate alveoli but are distributed by the circulatory system throughout the body where they encyst (larva migrans), rather than undergoing development and tracheal migration; this is more common in older animals.
T57531 1099649-1099740 Sentence denotes Most migrating larvae end up in kidneys, skeletal muscle, liver and central nervous system.
T62944 1099741-1099820 Sentence denotes Probably the most important route in young dogs is transplacental transmission.
T56003 1099821-1100018 Sentence denotes In the pregnant bitch encysted larvae in tissues are mobilized and cross the placenta to infect the fetus after day 42 of gestation; mechanisms for mobilization of larvae is not clearly understood.
T24193 1100019-1100108 Sentence denotes In the fetus, they remain in the liver, passing to the lungs within 2-3 days after birth.
T19948 1100109-1100171 Sentence denotes Mobilized larvae may also result in transmammary transmission.
T10515 1100172-1100370 Sentence denotes In some abnormal hosts, including humans, the syndrome visceral larva migrans can be caused by ingestion of embryonated T. canis or T. cati eggs from soil or infective larvae from under-cooked meat.
T58926 1100371-1100630 Sentence denotes A broad spectrum of pathologic and clinical sequelae are associated with this syndrome, and the severity and range of symptoms depends on the tissue involved (eye, liver, lungs, central nervous system), the number of larvae migrating, and the age of the host.
T89587 1100631-1100843 Sentence denotes Baylisascaris procyonis, the raccoon roundworm, is known for the ability of its larvae to cause visceral larva migrans in many accidental or "dead-end" hosts, including humans who ingest eggs or infective larvae.
T34135 1100844-1100959 Sentence denotes Dogs can serve as alternative definitive hosts for B. procyonis, and this can lead to patent intestinal infections.
T24341 1100960-1101077 Sentence denotes This is of significant zoonotic risk for humans because the eggs of B. procyonis easily can be mistaken for T. canis.
T7684 1101078-1101223 Sentence denotes Furthermore, dogs have an indiscriminate defecation pattern compared with raccoons, and B. procyonis eggs are extremely hardy in the environment.
T87696 1101224-1101474 Sentence denotes T. cati may infect cats directly by the transmammary route, ingestion of larvated eggs, or ingestion of an infected paratenic In calves exposed to yards contaminated by pig feces containing A. suum eggs, severe acute interstitial pneumonia may occur.
T9742 1101475-1101650 Sentence denotes Signs of dyspnea, tachypnea, coughing, and increased expiratory effort are usually first seen ∼7-10 days after exposure, when large numbers of larvae are present in the lungs.
T78555 1101651-1101828 Sentence denotes Deaths may ensue over the following few days, and the lungs are moderately consolidated, light pink to deep red, with alveolar and interstitial emphysema and interlobular edema.
T94355 1101829-1101964 Sentence denotes Microscopically there is thickening of alveolar septa, and effusion of fibrin, proteinaceous edema fluid, and macrophages into alveoli.
T83195 1101965-1102004 Sentence denotes Hemorrhage into alveoli may also occur.
T25873 1102005-1102083 Sentence denotes Larvae are present in alveoli and bronchioles and provoke acute bronchiolitis.
T83263 1102084-1102210 Sentence denotes Neutrophils are found around larvae in bronchioles; eosinophils may be present but are not prominent in animals dying acutely.
T32373 1102211-1102423 Sentence denotes In addition to being usually observed readily in tissue sections, larvae may be recovered from the airways by washing with saline, or from minced lung in saline or digestion fluid, by use of a Baermann apparatus.
T30498 1102424-1102507 Sentence denotes Tens of thousands to millions of larvae may be present in the lungs of fatal cases.
T66454 1102508-1102527 Sentence denotes Parascaris equorum.
T27702 1102528-1102572 Sentence denotes Parascaris equorum is the ascarid of horses.
T65304 1102573-1102695 Sentence denotes It is widespread and common in young horses; it may contribute to ill-thrift and occasionally causes death by obstruction.
T72035 1102696-1102759 Sentence denotes P. equorum is a large nematode, females being up to 50 cm long.
T45657 1102760-1102801 Sentence denotes The life cycle resembles that of A. suum.
T24835 1102802-1102978 Sentence denotes Similarly, hepatic and pulmonary lesions are associated with larval migration, and coughing may occur at the time larvae are in the lungs, particularly if infections are heavy.
T68906 1102979-1103016 Sentence denotes The prepatent period is ∼10-15 weeks.
T20111 1103017-1103161 Sentence denotes The lesions in the lungs of foals with migrating P. equorum larvae 2 weeks after infection are similar to those described in swine with A. suum.
T4397 1103162-1103348 Sentence denotes Resolving pulmonary lesions may be observed as subpleural nodular accumulations of lymphocytes up to 1 cm in diameter, and there may be residual lymphocytic cuffing of pulmonary vessels.
T21502 1103349-1103542 Sentence denotes It is possible to establish heavy infections of P. equorum in the intestines of foals a few months old, but not in yearlings wherein larvae appear to be killed during hepatopulmonary migration.
T1744 1103543-1103712 Sentence denotes In heavily infected foals, many worms are lost from the intestine before patency, suggesting the possibility of an effect of crowding on the population of growing worms.
T31231 1103713-1103798 Sentence denotes A heavy burden of ascarids in the intestine may reduce weight gains in growing foals.
T95525 1103799-1103888 Sentence denotes Inappetence occurs but increased plasma protein catabolism or loss into the gut does not.
T11792 1103889-1103948 Sentence denotes Reduced weight gain may be due to decreased protein intake.
T42678 1103949-1104117 Sentence denotes Ascarid infection may reduce rate of intestinal transit, and heavy burdens can be associated with obstruction, intussusception or, rarely, perforation of the intestine.
T69983 1104118-1104294 Sentence denotes infects the small intestine of young calves of domestic cattle, mainly in the tropics and subtropics and rarely in North America; it is especially significant in water buffalo.
T96343 1104295-1104438 Sentence denotes The life cycle involves transmammary transmission of third-stage larvae mobilized from the tissues of the dam within a few days of parturition.
T83569 1104439-1104509 Sentence denotes The larvae reach the liver of the calf and undergo tracheal migration.
T96363 1104510-1104645 Sentence denotes Patency occurs within the calf ∼1 month of age, but worms are expelled within a short time, and by 2-3 months of age, none are present.
T14517 1104646-1104710 Sentence denotes Signs of infection include foul-smelling diarrhea and illthrift.
T37278 1104711-1104766 Sentence denotes Immature and mature worms both contribute to the signs.
T91116 1104767-1104897 Sentence denotes Heavily infected calves may die in an emaciated state, with burdens of up to 400-500 worms as much as 30 cm long in the intestine.
T83092 1104898-1104975 Sentence denotes Occasionally, migration up the bile duct or perforation of the gut may occur.
T57582 1104976-1105012 Sentence denotes Davila G, et al Trichuris infection.
T94840 1105013-1105136 Sentence denotes Trichuris species, the whipworms, are so called because of their long thin cephalic end and shorter stouter caudal portion.
T39967 1105137-1105251 Sentence denotes They inhabit the cecum, and occasionally the colon, of all the domestic animals considered here, except the horse.
T47461 1105252-1105499 Sentence denotes The host-parasite relationships include: in dogs, T. vulpis; in cats, T. campanula and T. serrata; in swine, T. suis; in sheep and goats, T. ovis, T. globulosa, T. skrjabini; and in cattle, T. discolor and, less commonly, T. ovis and T. globulosa.
T95017 1105500-1105525 Sentence denotes The life cycle is direct.
T3622 1105526-1105600 Sentence denotes Larvated ova may remain viable and infective for years in the environment.
T29698 1105601-1105854 Sentence denotes Ingestion of larvated eggs leads to release of third-stage larvae, which enter the mucosal glands of the proximal small intestine for up to 7-10 days, before returning to the lumen and passing on to the cecum, where they establish their adult existence.
T40426 1105855-1105939 Sentence denotes The prepatent period varies from 6-7 weeks for T. suis to 11-12 weeks for T. vulpis.
T53883 1105940-1106048 Sentence denotes In rare instances disease may occur during the prepatent period, in which case ova will not be in the feces.
T81932 1106049-1106277 Sentence denotes In all species, the filamentous cranial end of the worm is embedded at least partially in tunnels within the superficial mucosa of the cecum and colon, while the caudal end lies freely within the intestinal lumen ( Fig. 1-183 ).
T90164 1106278-1106350 Sentence denotes Trichuris ingest host; the latter two routes are most important in cats.
T11110 1106351-1106396 Sentence denotes Prenatal infection apparently does not occur.
T28577 1106397-1106644 Sentence denotes Larvae hatching from ingested eggs migrate via the liver, lungs and trachea, whereas those ingested from milk or via a paratenic host exhibit direct development, often involving the gastric mucosa but without tracheal or extraintestinal migration.
T37791 1106645-1106844 Sentence denotes Lesions associated with ascariasis in dogs and cats are mostly secondary to larval migration, though in massive infections, adult parasites can cause obstruction or intestinal rupture ( Fig. 1-182) .
T97761 1106845-1106981 Sentence denotes Heavy infections of ascarids in puppies and kittens, usually those reared in unhygienic communal environments, may result in ill-thrift.
T53871 1106982-1107115 Sentence denotes The most significant effects are those caused in the stomach and intestine by maturing T. canis in young puppies infected prenatally.
T85716 1107116-1107191 Sentence denotes The animals may develop weakness, lethargy, and vomition that can be fatal.
T12611 1107192-1107331 Sentence denotes Gross lesions indicate poor growth relative to age, pot-belly, cachexia, and masses of maturing worms in the intestine and perhaps stomach.
T89694 1107332-1107418 Sentence denotes Up to 20% of the body weight of young puppies may be accounted for by the worm burden.
T89992 1107419-1107530 Sentence denotes T. cati may be associated with clinical disease, but usually not death, in kittens up to several months of age.
T93576 1107531-1107574 Sentence denotes Disease is rarely attributed to T. leonina.
T26733 1107575-1107642 Sentence denotes Mature T. cati are up to 10 cm long; T. canis are up to 18 cm long.
T44264 1107643-1107782 Sentence denotes In freshly dead animals, adult worms are often coiled; this may help maintain their place in the intestine by bracing against the gut wall.
T51735 1107783-1107895 Sentence denotes The mechanism by which adults of these ascarids in the intestinal lumen impair growth has not been investigated.
T81194 1107896-1108007 Sentence denotes Ascarids occasionally enter the bile or pancreatic ducts, and many perforate those structures or the intestine.
T81242 1108008-1108232 Sentence denotes Migrating T. canis larvae can cause focal hemorrhages in the lungs of puppies; inflammatory foci are commonly seen grossly in the liver or kidney, as white elevated spots 1-2 mm in diameter in the cortex beneath the capsule.
T3773 1108233-1108317 Sentence denotes Ocular larva migrans has been described in dogs but not cats infected with T. canis.
T21440 1108318-1108544 Sentence denotes Histologic lesions are characterized by aggregates of mixed inflammatory cells, including eosinophils and macrophages in a variety of tissues, most commonly liver, kidney, and lung; some nodules may contain larvae of T. canis.
T2732 1108545-1108616 Sentence denotes Focal scarring may be observed in tissue in which larvae are destroyed.
T15786 1108617-1108726 Sentence denotes Considering the large numbers of larvae that migrate through tissues of dogs, relatively few are encountered.
T36535 1108727-1108901 Sentence denotes T. cati developing in the mucosa of the stomach and intestine may provoke a mild granulomatous response comprised of lymphocytes and a few macrophages about the coiled larva.
T21052 1108902-1109014 Sentence denotes Larvae free of such a response are also found in the mucosa and submucosa. fluid, inflammatory cells, and blood.
T46968 1109015-1109139 Sentence denotes Lesions are more severe in swine with conventional gut flora than those reared germfree, or free of known enteric pathogens.
T97275 1109140-1109199 Sentence denotes T. suis may suppress mucosal immunity to resident bacteria.
T55326 1109200-1109266 Sentence denotes Trichurosis in sheep and cattle resembles that described in swine.
T15777 1109267-1109424 Sentence denotes The disease usually occurs in animals that are concentrated in areas contaminated by ova, and immunocompromise has been suggested to increase susceptibility.
T75833 1109425-1109512 Sentence denotes Heavily infected animals develop chronic diarrhea, dysentery, and/or loss of condition.
T8654 1109513-1109652 Sentence denotes The gross lesions are nonspecific, and may include cachexia and hypoproteinemia associated with mucohemorrhagic typhlitis or typhlocolitis.
T8443 1109653-1109776 Sentence denotes A diagnosis of trichurosis in all species is usually readily made during postmortem examination by identifying adult worms.
T67981 1109777-1109881 Sentence denotes The worms have a characteristic morphology that can be readily observed on the inflamed mucosal surface.
T44563 1109882-1110097 Sentence denotes Histologically, the filamentous cephalic end of the adults is embedded in tunnels in the surface epithelium, and contains the stichosome esophagus typical of members of the Trichuroidea, and a single bacillary band.
T32507 1110098-1110257 Sentence denotes The characteristic barrelshaped ova have thick walls and plugs at each pole, and may be seen in the body of worms, in the gut lumen, or occasionally in tissue.
T178 1110258-1110366 Sentence denotes Capillaria spp. and their ova may be similar in tissue section, but are not expected in the cecum and colon.
T92392 1110367-1110400 Sentence denotes Hendrix CM, et Cestode infection.
T69472 1110401-1110471 Sentence denotes Within the class Cestoda, 2 orders are of importance to veterinarians.
T10881 1110472-1110616 Sentence denotes Pseudophyllidea include the genera Diphyllobothrium and Spirometra and are associated with aquatic food chains and require 2 intermediate hosts:
T61193 1110617-1110692 Sentence denotes The first is a copepod and the second may be a fish, amphibian, or reptile.
T65583 1110693-1110844 Sentence denotes The order Cyclophyllidae contains several families of interest such as Taeniidae, Mesocestoididae, Anoplocephalidae, Dipylidiidae, and Hymenolepididae.
T74785 1110845-1110941 Sentence denotes Most cyclophyllideans require only one intermediate host, which may be a mammal or an arthropod.
T72522 1110942-1111080 Sentence denotes Adult tapeworms inhabit the gastrointestinal tract or the ducts of the liver and pancreas, where they are generally of minor significance.
T8508 1111081-1111266 Sentence denotes They are flattened, segmented organisms with sequentially maturing hermaphroditic reproductive units, or proglottids, forming an elongate strobila a few millimeters to many meters long.
T10999 1111267-1111421 Sentence denotes Cestodes attach to the host by a specialized hold-fast organ, or scolex, which usually has 4 suckers, and perhaps a rostellum, sometimes armed with hooks.
T20395 1111422-1111551 Sentence denotes Cestodes lack an alimentary tract and absorb nutrients through the specialized absorptive surface or tegument of the proglottids.
T47292 1111552-1111634 Sentence denotes The life cycle of tapeworms is complex and often specific to a particular species.
T69119 1111635-1111761 Sentence denotes The definitive host is infected by blood, yet disease associated with these parasites is not usually related to this activity.
T48818 1111762-1111854 Sentence denotes A protease produced by T. globulosa has been shown to promote degradation of mucosal tissue.
T99587 1111855-1112068 Sentence denotes Light infections cause little morphologic alteration in the mucosa and no disease; however, heavy infection with Trichuris is associated with severe and often hemorrhagic typhlitis or typhlocolitis in all species.
T89092 1112069-1112218 Sentence denotes In the dog, large populations of worms overflow their normal habitat and infect the mucosa of the ascending colon, sometimes extending to the rectum.
T2828 1112219-1112307 Sentence denotes Clinical signs may include chronic diarrhea or dysentery, perhaps with some weight loss.
T50709 1112308-1112451 Sentence denotes The blood and foul odor of the feces are due to hemorrhage and effusion of tissue fluid from the mucosal surface damaged by the embedded worms.
T4198 1112452-1112504 Sentence denotes Grossly the mucosa is thickened, red, and edematous.
T41804 1112505-1112570 Sentence denotes The colonic content is often watery, and contains blood or mucus.
T65564 1112571-1112621 Sentence denotes Masses of tangled worms are visible on the mucosa.
T63274 1112622-1112776 Sentence denotes Microscopically the mucosal surface is widely eroded or mildly ulcerated, and effusion of proteinaceous fluid, inflammatory exudate, and blood is evident.
T72730 1112777-1112818 Sentence denotes The glandular epithelium is hyperplastic.
T76352 1112819-1113064 Sentence denotes Occasionally, T. vulpis infection may be associated with more severe localized or regional lesions characterized by granulomatous inflammation and fibroplasia in deeper layers of the mucosa; rarely ova or worms can be identified in such lesions.
T51419 1113065-1113272 Sentence denotes In swine, if enough T. suis worms are present, they may cause mucohemorrhagic typhlocolitis that is associated clinically with anorexia, diarrhea, dysentery, dehydration, ill-thrift, and in some cases death.
T45772 1113273-1113375 Sentence denotes The disease is most common in animals exposed to dirt yards contaminated with infective Trichuris ova.
T86036 1113376-1113535 Sentence denotes Clinical signs of the disease appear to be referable to loss of colonic absorptive function, and probably are partly due to effusion of protein into the lumen.
T57267 1113536-1113594 Sentence denotes Erythrocyte loss is a minor component of the pathogenesis.
T57407 1113595-1113755 Sentence denotes Typical gross lesions are similar to those described in dogs and the mucosa is thickened, edematous, reddened, and may be eroded with increased mucus secretion.
T69927 1113756-1113948 Sentence denotes The gross appearance may resemble that of swine dysentery; however, close examination reveals nematodes on the mucosa, and particularly the thicker caudal end of the worms is readily observed.
T72959 1113949-1114092 Sentence denotes They may resemble Oesophagostomum at first glance, and only on more careful observation is the distinct elongate threadlike cephalic end noted.
T54748 1114093-1114238 Sentence denotes Histologic lesions include hypertrophy of glandular epithelium, mucosal erosions, and surface effusion of proteinaceous Anoplocephala perfoliata.
T8782 1114239-1114488 Sentence denotes The cestodes found in horses are Anoplocephala perfoliata, which attaches to the intestinal mucosa in the region of the ileocecal junction, and A. magna and Paranoplocephala mamillana, which colonize the small intestine and occasionally the stomach.
T14322 1114489-1114578 Sentence denotes P. mamillana is small, <5 cm in length, and is rarely associated with disease or lesions.
T79637 1114579-1114698 Sentence denotes A. magna tends to live in the lower small intestine, where it can reach a length of up to 80 cm, and a width of 2.5 cm.
T3857 1114699-1114744 Sentence denotes All use oribatid mites as intermediate hosts.
T64461 1114745-1114840 Sentence denotes Anoplocephala perfoliata is the most common cestode in horses and has a worldwide distribution.
T14238 1114841-1114984 Sentence denotes A. perfoliata does not invade the mucosa of the intestine, its attachment via 4 suckers on its scolex causes a localized inflammatory response.
T82772 1114985-1115175 Sentence denotes In heavy infections, A. perfoliata attach in clusters of up to several hundred along the ileocecal junction ( Fig. 1-184) , and there may be erosion and ulceration of the mucosal epithelium.
T61374 1115176-1115321 Sentence denotes The depressed surface is often covered by fibrin, perhaps with some hemorrhage, or a local verrucous granulating mass may project into the lumen.
T20085 1115322-1115439 Sentence denotes Histologic lesions include large numbers of eosinophils and lymphocytes with edema, mucosal ulceration, and fibrosis.
T18587 1115440-1115615 Sentence denotes Villous atrophy of ileal mucosa, hypertrophy of the cecal epithelium, goblet cell hyperplasia, and hypertrophy of the muscular layers of the cecum occur with heavy infections.
T96103 1115616-1115739 Sentence denotes Changes in the myenteric ganglia, including loss and degeneration of neurons, edema, and inflammation, have been described.
T59243 1115740-1115883 Sentence denotes The risk of spasmodic colic also increases with parasite burden, which may be at least partially explained by the histologic lesions described.
T65775 1115884-1116072 Sentence denotes Ileal muscular hypertrophy, impaction and partial obstruction of the ileocecal orifice, and ileocecal and cecocecal intussusception are also associated with large numbers of A. perfoliata.
T88596 1116073-1116323 Sentence denotes Although histologic lesions correlate well with the parasite burden, whether the development of colic, obstruction, muscular hypertrophy, or intussusception is the result of altered peristaltic waves or mucosal and submucosal lesions remains unclear.
T76477 1116324-1116425 Sentence denotes Histologically, adult cestodes have flattened solid parenchymatous bodies segmented into proglottids.
T13959 1116426-1116564 Sentence denotes Internal organs are embedded within the parenchymatous matrix, and contain male and female reproductive organs but lack a digestive tract.
T16567 1116565-1116645 Sentence denotes Other features that may be observed include anterior muscular suckers and hooks.
T90770 1116646-1116886 Sentence denotes Calcareous corpuscles are basophilic round to oval structures that may have concentric rings, and are embedded within the parenchyma of the outer region; corpuscles are more numerous in the head and neck region of adult and larval cestodes.
T57576 1116887-1116915 Sentence denotes Bowman Intestinal tapeworms.
T47778 1116916-1117063 Sentence denotes In ruminants, the more common and widely distributed intestinal tapeworms are Moniezia expansa, M. benedeni, and Thysaniezia (Helictometra) giardi.
T94087 1117064-1117244 Sentence denotes Stilesia globipunctata is found in the small intestine of sheep and goats in Europe, Asia, and Africa, whereas S. hepatica occurs in the bile ducts of ruminants in Africa and Asia.
T51777 1117245-1117370 Sentence denotes Thysanosoma actinioides occurs in the small intestine, and pancreatic and bile ducts of ruminants in North and South America.
T49252 1117371-1117473 Sentence denotes Avitellina spp. occur in the small intestine of sheep and other ruminants in parts of Europe and Asia.
T20525 1117474-1117558 Sentence denotes The intermediate hosts of these tapeworms are oribatid mites or psocids (book lice).
T57653 1117559-1117781 Sentence denotes Heavy infestations of the small intestine by Moniezia, Thysaniezia, and Avitellina have been associated with diarrhea and ill-thrift in young lambs and calves; however, the pathogenicity of Moniezia is considered very low.
T95007 1117782-1117969 Sentence denotes The scolex of Stilesia globipunctata may be embedded in 6-10 mm diameter mucosal nodules in the upper small intestine, with their thread-like strobila streaming into the intestinal lumen.
T13714 1117970-1118149 Sentence denotes There is a chronic inflammatory reaction around the embedded scolex; glands in the vicinity are also hyperplastic, and together with the inflammatory cells cause nodule formation.
T53227 1118150-1118245 Sentence denotes The presence of many adults is associated with edema, diarrhea, and wasting in small ruminants.
T61804 1118246-1118430 Sentence denotes Stilesia hepatica and Thysanosoma actinioides may cause mild fibrosis and ectasia of the bile ducts, and worms are often concentrated in the segmented saccular dilations of bile ducts.
T4739 1118431-1118575 Sentence denotes In areas where infection is common, these worms cause significant economic loss through condemnation of infected livers at slaughter inspection.
T5878 1118576-1118594 Sentence denotes Taeniid tapeworms.
T5344 1118595-1118839 Sentence denotes Taeniid cestodes are the most important tapeworms in domestic animals, not because of the effects of the adult worm in the carnivorous definitive host, but rather because of the metacestodes, or larval forms, in intermediate or paratenic hosts.
T20429 1118840-1118914 Sentence denotes Gravid taeniid segments exit from the definitive host and shed their eggs.
T64372 1118915-1119122 Sentence denotes If ingested by an appropriate intermediate vertebrate host, the egg hatches and the embryo enters the intestinal wall to migrate to the organ of predilection, which is often the liver, peritoneum, or muscle.
T86890 1119123-1119295 Sentence denotes Here they differentiate into second-stage larvae characterized by a fluid-filled bladder with one or more scolices (bladderworm), which is infective to the definitive host.
T2924 1119296-1119468 Sentence denotes Once the second-stage larva is ingested by the definitive host, the scolex embeds itself into the small intestinal mucosa, where it begins to bud segments to form strobila.
T58994 1119469-1119554 Sentence denotes Metacestodes occasionally may be found in organs other than the site of predilection.
T33564 1119555-1119597 Sentence denotes Taeniid metacestodes assume 4 basic forms.
T99705 1119598-1119734 Sentence denotes The cysticercus is a fluid-filled, thin-walled muscular cyst into which the scolex and neck of a single larval tapeworm are invaginated.
T32554 1119735-1119786 Sentence denotes The strobilocercus is a modification of this theme:
T39474 1119787-1119962 Sentence denotes Late in larval development the scolex evaginates, elongates, and segments while still in the intermediate host, so that it resembles a tapeworm up to several centimeters long.
T30088 1119963-1120085 Sentence denotes The coenurus is a single or loculated fluid-filled cyst, in which many scolices are present in clusters on the inner wall.
T44649 1120086-1120191 Sentence denotes Each scolex is capable of developing into a single adult cestode in the intestine of the definitive host.
T824 1120192-1120367 Sentence denotes The hydatid cyst is formed by members of the genus Echinococcus and is of unilocular or multilocular structure, on the inner germinal membrane of which brood capsules develop.
T72634 1120368-1120428 Sentence denotes Within the brood capsules, invaginated Diphyllobothrium spp.
T86874 1120429-1120540 Sentence denotes Dogs may be parasitized by Diphyllobothrium spp., as may be humans, cats, swine, and other fish-eating mammals.
T84255 1120541-1120658 Sentence denotes The adults can be large, reaching lengths of up to 12-15 meters in humans, though in animals they tend to be shorter.
T16091 1120659-1120757 Sentence denotes The worm is ∼2 cm in width, and characterized by a central uterus containing dark operculate eggs.
T85794 1120758-1120873 Sentence denotes Intermediate stages occur in copepods and fish, and the adult worm matures in the intestine of piscivorous mammals.
T82596 1120874-1120973 Sentence denotes Infection by Diphyllobothrium spp. is rarely, if ever, associated with clinical disease in animals.
T77174 1120974-1121091 Sentence denotes Spirometra species are, like Diphyllobothrium, members of the order Pseudophyllidea, and their life cycle is similar.
T16067 1121092-1121375 Sentence denotes The taxonomy of the genus is difficult, recognized species include S. mansonoides, which infects dogs, cats, and raccoons in North and South America; S. mansoni infects dogs and cats in East Asia and South America; and S. erinacei infects cats and dogs in Australia and the Far East.
T69558 1121376-1121516 Sentence denotes The definitive host must ingest the third larval form, or plerocercoid, usually via predation of an infected intermediate or paratenic host.
T52777 1121517-1121781 Sentence denotes Several animal species that are not definitive hosts can serve as paratenic or transport hosts when they ingest the plerocercoid, or spargana found in the body cavity, muscle or subcutaneous tissues of the second intermediate host, usually an amphibian or reptile.
T68153 1121782-1121987 Sentence denotes Spargana are white, ribbon-like, but otherwise structureless worms up to several centimeters long found free or encysted in a thin, fibrous capsule in the peritoneal cavity, muscle, or subcutaneous tissue.
T47824 1121988-1122095 Sentence denotes A chronic inflammatory reaction may occur around dead spargana, although the adult worms are nonpathogenic.
T1370 1122096-1122320 Sentence denotes Spargana can also occur in carnivores, swine, or even humans (sparganosis), if the first intermediate host Cyclops copepod containing the second larval stage (procercoid) is ingested, usually via contaminated drinking water.
T71667 1122321-1122458 Sentence denotes Sparganosis is a significant disease in humans, where the plerocercoids migrate mainly in subcutaneous tissues or rarely in other organs.
T79222 1122459-1122588 Sentence denotes Mesocestoides spp. occasionally infect dogs, as well as other mammals and some birds, in North America, Europe, Asia, and Africa.
T12332 1122589-1122721 Sentence denotes These cyclophyllidean tapeworms have a complex life cycle involving an insect or mite, and a vertebrate as second intermediate host.
T69466 1122722-1122893 Sentence denotes Infective tetrathyridia are found in the body cavities, liver, and lung of mammals, reptiles, or birds; ingestion of tetrathyridia causes infection of the definitive host.
T55769 1122894-1123143 Sentence denotes In the intestine of definitive hosts, Mesocestoides adults may also replicate asexually, and heavy infections or continual re-infection may occur as a result of this, or from the consumption of large numbers of tetrathyridia in an intermediate host.
T62875 1123144-1123212 Sentence denotes Animals infected with intestinal Mesocestoides may develop diarrhea.
T79168 1123213-1123510 Sentence denotes Tetrathyridia replicating in the intestine of the dog may also penetrate the gut wall, and proliferate in T. multiceps occurs in the intestine of dogs and wild canids, but the metacestode Coenurus cerebralis develops in the brain and spinal cord of sheep and other ungulates, and rarely in humans.
T85553 1123511-1123616 Sentence denotes In the goat, coenuri may also occur in other organs, including the subcutaneous space or intramuscularly.
T9390 1123617-1123817 Sentence denotes Migration of small metacestodes in the central nervous system may cause tortuous red or yellow-gray tracks in the brain because of hemorrhage and malacia, and central nervous signs or death may occur.
T78439 1123818-1124001 Sentence denotes More commonly, signs of CNS disease termed "sturdy" or "gid," do not develop until coenuri enlarge up to 4-5 cm in diameter and develop more fully, usually 4-8 months after infection.
T14839 1124002-1124202 Sentence denotes Cysts may be present at any level and depth in the brain and spinal cord, and projecting into the cerebral ventricles, but they are most common near the surface of the parietal cortex in the cerebrum.
T66240 1124203-1124343 Sentence denotes They cause increased intracranial pressure, hydrocephalus, and necrosis of adjacent brain parenchyma that may extend to the overlying skull.
T48021 1124344-1124413 Sentence denotes Coenuri developing in the spinal cord may cause paresis or paralysis.
T71580 1124414-1124470 Sentence denotes T. serialis infects dogs and foxes throughout the world.
T59556 1124471-1124570 Sentence denotes The larval coenurus is found in the subcutaneous and intermuscular connective tissue of lagomorphs.
T80520 1124571-1124617 Sentence denotes Cerebral coenurosis has been reported in cats.
T63444 1124618-1124791 Sentence denotes Histologically, cysticerci and coenuri are recognized as cystic structures with an eosinophilic outer layer or tegument, which may appear fibrillar on the outermost surface.
T16306 1124792-1124981 Sentence denotes Beneath the tegument, a less cellular area, which may contain calcareous corpuscles, gives way to a web-like, lightly cellular matrix, and the central open fluid-filled portion of the cyst.
T78578 1124982-1125033 Sentence denotes Internal organs are not present in the metacestode.
T42549 1125034-1125177 Sentence denotes Muscular scolices, with suckers, and hooks on the rostellum (except C. bovis), may be encountered extending into the center of the metacestode.
T58170 1125178-1125269 Sentence denotes The size and shape of hooks may assist in a specific diagnosis if they are fully developed.
T45402 1125270-1125326 Sentence denotes Immature migrating metacestodes lack organized scolices.
T43644 1125327-1125455 Sentence denotes Other sources should be consulted for details on the taxonomy and specific identification of adult and larval taeniid tapeworms.
T54401 1125456-1125572 Sentence denotes Echinococcus spp. tapeworms occur in the small intestine of a number of species of carnivores, predominantly canids.
T88598 1125573-1125701 Sentence denotes In enzootic areas, the distinctive metacestodes or hydatid cysts, are commonly found in normal or accidental intermediate hosts.
T58539 1125702-1125915 Sentence denotes Humans may accidentally become infected with the metacestode, and echinococcosis or hydatidosis is a significant public health problem where carnivores shedding Echinococcus eggs come in close contact with humans.
T36279 1125916-1126005 Sentence denotes The important species are E. granulosus, E. multilocularis, E. oligarthus, and E. vogeli.
T56348 1126006-1126235 Sentence denotes The latter two involve sylvatic cycles in Central and South America, with felids and canids as definitive hosts, respectively, and rodents as intermediate hosts in which polycystic hydatidosis occurs; E. vogeli may infect humans.
T72333 1126236-1126336 Sentence denotes The other two species may use domestic animals as definitive hosts, and are considered further here.
T19100 1126337-1126409 Sentence denotes E. granulosus uses the dog and some other canids as the definitive host.
T67699 1126410-1126545 Sentence denotes The most widespread strain or genotype uses a sheep-dog cycle, and has been disseminated wherever there is pastoral husbandry of sheep.
T92708 1126546-1126741 Sentence denotes It is significant as a potential zoonosis in many parts of Eurasia and the Mediterranean region, some parts of the United Kingdom, North America, South America, continental Australia, and Africa.
T20032 1126742-1126832 Sentence denotes Eradication has been accomplished, or virtually so, in Iceland, New Zealand, and Tasmania.
T66784 1126833-1126949 Sentence denotes Other cycles affecting domestic animals include horse-; cattle-; camel-; pig-; water buffalo-; goat-; and human-dog.
T22792 1126950-1127009 Sentence denotes Sylvatic cycles include: in Eurasia and protoscolices form.
T40250 1127010-1127094 Sentence denotes Brood capsules may float free in the cyst fluid, where they are termed hydatid sand.
T81330 1127095-1127233 Sentence denotes Release of brood capsules or protoscolices into tissues, as a result of rupture of the hydatid cyst, may lead to development of new cysts.
T7571 1127234-1127295 Sentence denotes The alveolar hydatid cyst proliferates by budding externally.
T24014 1127296-1127465 Sentence denotes Taenia taeniaeformis infects the intestine of domestic cats and some wild felids, and the strobilocercus, Cysticercus fasciolaris is found in the liver of small rodents.
T24867 1127466-1127577 Sentence denotes Formation of hepatic fibrosarcomas has been associated with chronic inflammation resulting from C. fasciolaris.
T69183 1127578-1127773 Sentence denotes The adults are up to 60 cm long, have no neck, and caudal segments are somewhat bell-shaped, so this species is readily differentiated from the other cestodes found in the feline small intestine.
T66776 1127774-1127854 Sentence denotes Usually only a few worms are present in the cat, and they are of no consequence.
T39498 1127855-1127964 Sentence denotes T. pisiformis is common in the small intestine in dogs and some wild canids, which prey on rabbits and hares.
T55751 1127965-1128141 Sentence denotes C. pisiformis migrates in the liver of the intermediate host, causing hemorrhagic tracks that are infiltrated by a mixed inflammatory reaction, and ultimately heal by scarring.
T98620 1128142-1128268 Sentence denotes The 3-5 mm diameter cysticerci encyst in a thin fibrous capsule on the mesentery, omentum, or on the ligaments of the bladder.
T3298 1128269-1128330 Sentence denotes Occasionally, cysticerci persist beneath the hepatic capsule.
T56944 1128331-1128420 Sentence denotes Burdens of up to 20-30 worms, sometimes more, may be present in the intestine of the dog.
T18889 1128421-1128608 Sentence denotes T. hydatigena infects the dog, and the metacestode, C. tenuicollis, the long-necked bladder worm is found in the peritoneal cavity of sheep, cattle, swine, and occasionally other species.
T13251 1128609-1128785 Sentence denotes Immature cysticerci in the liver migrate through the parenchyma for several weeks as they develop, before emerging to encyst on the peritoneum anywhere in the abdominal cavity.
T73547 1128786-1128845 Sentence denotes Immature cysticerci are <1 cm long, ovoid, and translucent.
T22636 1128846-1129023 Sentence denotes They cause tortuous hemorrhagic tracks similar to those produced by immature liver flukes, and if large numbers are present, they may cause a syndrome of depression and icterus.
T49652 1129024-1129171 Sentence denotes Heavily infected livers, with 4,000-5,000 actively migrating cysticerci, are mottled because of the subcapsular and parenchymal hemorrhagic tracks.
T18689 1129172-1129277 Sentence denotes Cysticerci up to 6-8 mm long may be present beneath or breaching the capsule by ∼3 weeks after infection.
T4050 1129278-1129441 Sentence denotes Rarely, animals may exsanguinate into the abdominal cavity, or the hepatic necrosis may predispose to the development of black disease or bacillary hemoglobinuria.
T2319 1129442-1129664 Sentence denotes Cysticerci trapped in the liver may persist in a fibrous capsule or be destroyed in a cystic eosinophilic granuloma that may mineralize; this is common on the diaphragmatic surface where the falciform ligament is attached.
T84438 1129665-1129940 Sentence denotes Usually the intensity of infection is low, and a few, but occasionally scores of cysticerci-delicate translucent fluctuant fluid-filled cysts up to 5 cm or more in diameter-are contained in individual thin, noninflammatory fibrous capsules scattered on the peritoneal serosa.
T27272 1129941-1130047 Sentence denotes When a cyst degenerates, it is destroyed by a granulomatous reaction and the fibrotic mass may mineralize.
T48836 1130048-1130171 Sentence denotes Hepatic migration by C. tenuicollis may, at any stage, cause condemnation of lamb and swine livers at slaughter inspection.
T63838 1130172-1130320 Sentence denotes T. ovis infects the intestine of the dog, whereas the metacestode, C. ovis is in the muscle of sheep where it causes cysticercosis or sheep measles.
T42331 1130321-1130473 Sentence denotes Cysticercosis of muscle caused by C. ovis; by C. bovis in cattle; and by C. cellulosae in swine and other species, including dogs, is considered in Vol.
T33513 1130474-1130495 Sentence denotes 1, Muscle and tendon.
T68518 1130496-1130698 Sentence denotes The adult stages of the latter two cysticerci, T. saginata and T. solium, respectively, occur in the small intestine of humans. mineralize; these resemble tuberculous lesions grossly and histologically.
T82112 1130699-1130846 Sentence denotes E. multilocularis has a holarctic distribution; adults occur mainly in foxes, and the metacestodes in small rodents, especially voles and lemmings.
T32073 1130847-1130933 Sentence denotes Dogs and cats may also become infected with adult E. multilocularis in enzootic areas.
T1176 1130934-1131117 Sentence denotes Although the parasite is principally arctic, the cycle is found in the northern prairie area of North America and in eastern and central Europe, and is moving progressively southward.
T77433 1131118-1131201 Sentence denotes The mature cestodes in the intestine are similar to but smaller than E. granulosus.
T42565 1131202-1131383 Sentence denotes In the intermediate host the metacestode or multilocular alveolar hydatid mainly infects the liver by forming a cystic structure with internal brood capsules and many protoscolices.
T90438 1131384-1131502 Sentence denotes The alveolar hydatid is capable of external budding that continuously proliferates and infiltrates surrounding tissue.
T23073 1131503-1131602 Sentence denotes They may metastasize via the bloodstream to the lungs or bone, or implant in the peritoneal cavity.
T14768 1131603-1131755 Sentence denotes The inflammatory reaction to alveolar hydatids is comprised of macrophages, giant cells, lymphocytes, and plasma cells within a fibrous capsular stroma.
T22491 1131756-1131877 Sentence denotes The metacestodes are rarely found in domestic animals, but may infect humans who ingest eggs shed by infected carnivores.
T91932 1131878-1131905 Sentence denotes Intestinal fluke infection.
T93183 1131906-1131987 Sentence denotes Digenetic trematode infections of the intestine of domestic animals are uncommon.
T12772 1131988-1132131 Sentence denotes Dogs and cats in many parts of the world may be infected with Alaria spp., the second intermediate hosts for which are frogs or other amphibia.
T41644 1132132-1132287 Sentence denotes Heterophyes heterophyes, Metagonimus yokagawi, Echinochasmus perfoliatus, and Phagicola longa may infect dogs and cats fed fish that contain metacercariae.
T72372 1132288-1132375 Sentence denotes The former two occur in the Mediterranean area and the Far East; the latter in Eurasia.
T96612 1132376-1132508 Sentence denotes Cryptocotyle spp., most commonly parasitic in piscivorous birds, also may be found in dogs, cats, and mink fed infected marine fish.
T59451 1132509-1132582 Sentence denotes Enteritis has been attributed to Alaria, Echinochasmus, and Cryptocotyle.
T53057 1132583-1132734 Sentence denotes The flukes attach to the mucosa by suckers, and perhaps cause their effects by local irritation, erosion, and ulceration when present in large numbers.
T57196 1132735-1132891 Sentence denotes Excessive intestinal mucus production, hemorrhagic enteritis, vomiting, and illthrift have been associated with intestinal fluke infection in small animals.
T55199 1132892-1132977 Sentence denotes The flukes involved are small, <4-5 mm long, and must be sought carefully at autopsy.
T81097 1132978-1133253 Sentence denotes The digenean trematode Nanophyetus salmincola, the vector of salmon poisoning disease, occurs in the small intestine of dogs, cats, and humans, and in various fish-eating wild mammals and birds in the northwestern United States; Vancouver Island, Canada; and eastern Siberia.
T83232 1133254-1133439 Sentence denotes The disease has been thought to be restricted to North America; however, North America, cervid-wolf; in Argentina, hare-fox; in Sri Lanka, deer-jackal; and in Australia, macropod-dingo.
T11361 1133440-1133485 Sentence denotes Not all cycles represent different genotypes.
T72546 1133486-1133617 Sentence denotes In the small intestine of the definitive host, protoscolices evaginate and establish between villi and in the crypts of Lieberkühn.
T21555 1133618-1133764 Sentence denotes The scolex distends the crypt and the epithelium is gripped by the suckers and may become eroded, but there is little or no inflammatory response.
T40689 1133765-1133929 Sentence denotes The worms that develop are short, usually <6-7 mm long; they commonly have only 3-5 proglottids, the caudal gravid one making up almost half the length of the worm.
T87204 1133930-1134083 Sentence denotes Burdens of E. granulosus are often heavy, no doubt because of the large numbers of protoscolices ingested at a meal containing one or more hydatid cysts.
T64456 1134084-1134274 Sentence denotes The heavily infected intestine is carpeted by the tiny white blunt projections, partially obscured between the villi and resembling lymphangiectasia; enteric signs are not normally observed.
T18436 1134275-1134504 Sentence denotes Eggs shed from adults are ingested by the intermediate host; oncospheres released from eggs in the intestine of the intermediate host migrate via subepithelial capillaries or lacteals to the liver, lungs, and general circulation.
T39785 1134505-1134649 Sentence denotes Hydatid cysts occur most commonly in the liver and lung, with some strain and host species variation in the relative prevalence in these organs.
T97583 1134650-1134767 Sentence denotes In sheep they may be more common in lungs, whereas in cattle and horses the liver is the usual site of establishment.
T83373 1134768-1134862 Sentence denotes Less common sites in domestic animals include the brain, heart, bone, and subcutaneous tissue.
T72787 1134863-1134958 Sentence denotes A single cyst, or up to several hundreds, may be present, displacing tissue in infected organs.
T51263 1134959-1135046 Sentence denotes Disease is rarely attributed to hydatidosis in animals, even in those heavily infected.
T25829 1135047-1135183 Sentence denotes However, strategic location of one or more cysts may lead to heart failure, bloat, or central nervous signs because of space occupation.
T22144 1135184-1135276 Sentence denotes Condemnation of infected organs at slaughter inspection may cause significant economic loss.
T5239 1135277-1135340 Sentence denotes Grossly, hydatid cysts are spherical, turgid, and fluid-filled.
T35267 1135341-1135487 Sentence denotes They usually measure 5-10 cm in diameter in domestic animals; rarely, cysts in animals may be larger, but in humans hydatid cysts can become huge.
T35977 1135488-1135567 Sentence denotes In contrast, fertile cysts in equine livers may be as small as 2-3 mm diameter.
T89803 1135568-1135810 Sentence denotes The lining of fertile cysts is studded with small granular brood capsules, which contain protoscolices. "Hydatid sand," comprised of free brood capsules and protoscolices, is typically present within the fluid; smooth lined cysts are sterile.
T63332 1135811-1135971 Sentence denotes Although the potential exists for development of daughter cysts and exogenous budding by herniated cysts, most hydatid cysts in domestic animals are unilocular.
T6543 1135972-1136173 Sentence denotes They may be irregular or distorted in shape because of the tissue they are in, and variable resistance of parenchyma and portal tracts or bronchi and by the profiles of bone or other resistant tissues.
T59362 1136174-1136313 Sentence denotes Microscopically, immature hydatid cysts are surrounded by an infiltrate of mixed inflammatory cells, including giant cells and eosinophils.
T20597 1136314-1136526 Sentence denotes As they develop, a layer of granulation tissue surrounds the cyst, and this matures so that in aged lesions the inner portion of the fibrous capsule is comprised of acellular mature collagenous connective tissue.
T64207 1136527-1136748 Sentence denotes In close apposition is a periodic acid-Schiff-positive staining acellular lamellar hyaline outer layer of the hydatid cyst wall, comprised of a polysaccharide-protein complex that may become hundreds of micrometers thick.
T468 1136749-1136856 Sentence denotes The cyst is lined by the thin syncytial germinal layer from which the brood capsules form on fine pedicles.
T7260 1136857-1136960 Sentence denotes If the cyst is ruptured and protoscolices are released into tissue, secondary cysts may form from them.
T13128 1136961-1137173 Sentence denotes If hydatid cysts degenerate, the inner structures collapse and the mass becomes filled with necrotic debris and may Paramphistome, or rumen fluke, infections in ruminants may cause significant intestinal disease.
T10817 1137174-1137371 Sentence denotes Adults of the genera Paramphistomum, Cotylophoron, Calicophoron, Ceylonocotyle, Gastrothylax, Fischoederius, and Carmyerius occur in the forestomachs of ruminants in various areas around the world.
T60561 1137372-1137432 Sentence denotes The species involved vary with the host and geographic area.
T76305 1137433-1137662 Sentence denotes In cattle, water buffalo, and American bison, the species incriminated in disease include P. cervi, P. microbothrium, P. explanatum, Calicophoron calicophorum, and various species of Cotylophoron, Gastrothylax, and Fischoederius.
T60442 1137663-1137832 Sentence denotes In sheep and goats, P. microbothrium, P. ichikawai, P. cervi, P. explanatum, G. crumenifer, Cotylophoron cotylophorum, and F. cobboldi have been associated with disease.
T92400 1137833-1137894 Sentence denotes Infection is most common in warm-temperate to tropical areas.
T85098 1137895-1138084 Sentence denotes In the rumen, the tan to red pear-shaped adult flukes, with their characteristic cranial and caudal suckers, are considered innocuous, although some papillae may become atrophic and slough.
T51649 1138085-1138253 Sentence denotes When ingested, metacercariae encysted on herbage give rise to immature flukes that inhabit the duodenum, and in heavy infections may cause severe hemorrhagic enteritis.
T8001 1138254-1138405 Sentence denotes After 3-5 weeks in the small intestine, the worms normally migrate through the abomasum to establish and mature in the reticulorumen (see Fig. 1-34A ).
T16525 1138406-1138569 Sentence denotes However, if massive infection occurs, growth in the small intestine is slowed, and flukes may persist for months in the duodenum, prolonging the course of disease.
T43417 1138570-1138656 Sentence denotes Calves and lambs with severe intestinal paramphistomosis are depressed and inappetent.
T62664 1138657-1138756 Sentence denotes Fetid diarrhea usually develops within several weeks of infection, and may contain immature flukes.
T13354 1138757-1138870 Sentence denotes Hypoproteinemia is reflected in submandibular edema in some animals and anemia is reported to occur occasionally.
T83594 1138871-1138971 Sentence denotes Morbidity and mortality can be substantial, and survivors may suffer considerable loss in condition.
T45786 1138972-1139101 Sentence denotes Protein loss into the gut, coupled with loss of appetite, probably accounts for the most important pathophysiologic consequences.
T50910 1139102-1139311 Sentence denotes Gross lesions are nonspecific and include cachexia depending on the duration of the disease, edema of subcutaneous tissues, abomasal folds, and mesentery, and multi-cavitary effusion caused by hypoproteinemia.
T32800 1139312-1139444 Sentence denotes The proximal small intestine appears congested, and the mucosal surface is edematous, thickened, corrugated, and covered with mucus.
T76776 1139445-1139627 Sentence denotes Myriad immature pink or brown paramphistomes, a few millimeters long, are observed firmly attached and embedded in the proximal intestinal wall and may be visible through the serosa.
T5104 1139628-1139729 Sentence denotes Occasionally, the organisms perforate the intestinal wall and are found free in the abdominal cavity.
T13885 1139730-1139839 Sentence denotes In advanced infections, some organisms may be present migrating orally into the abomasum or the forestomachs.
T29119 1139840-1139981 Sentence denotes Histologically, larval paramphistomes are found deep in the lamina propria, occasionally in the submucosa, and sometimes in Brunner's glands.
T6333 1139982-1140126 Sentence denotes Larger immature forms are attached to the surface of the mucosa by a plug of tissue taken into the oral sucker, or acetabulum (see Fig. 1-34B ).
T81942 1140127-1140267 Sentence denotes There is atrophy of villi, elongation of crypts, erosion or ulceration of the mucosa, and potentially fibroplasia in heavily infected areas.
T49840 1140268-1140404 Sentence denotes The other fluke occurring in the intestine of ruminants is Skjrabinotrema ovis, associated with catarrhal enteritis in sheep in Eurasia.
T97107 1140405-1140532 Sentence denotes In swine, the paramphistomes Gastrodiscoides and Gastrodiscus may be found in the colon, where they are of little significance.
T82964 1140533-1140762 Sentence denotes Fasciolopsis buski and Artyfechinosomum malayanum may infect the small intestine of swine as well as humans. similar organisms have been recognized in dogs with lesions compatible with salmon poisoning disease in southern Brazil.
T70302 1140763-1140854 Sentence denotes Its distribution is determined by that of the snails that are the first intermediate hosts.
T33752 1140855-1140939 Sentence denotes The second intermediate hosts are fish, especially members of the family Salmonidae.
T66932 1140940-1141085 Sentence denotes Adult flukes inhabit the small intestine, where they penetrate and attach to the mucosa and release large numbers of ova, which infect the snail.
T65150 1141086-1141220 Sentence denotes Mature cercariae, or free-swimming larvae, are released into water and penetrate the abdominal region of the second intermediate host.
T46289 1141221-1141311 Sentence denotes Metacercariae locate in the kidneys, liver, and intestine via the circulation of the fish.
T15110 1141312-1141441 Sentence denotes Adult trematodes attach deeply and develop in the intestine of the definitive host that has ingested metacercariae-infected fish.
T60861 1141442-1141664 Sentence denotes N. salmincola transmits Neorickettsia helminthoeca, the etiologic agent of salmon poisoning disease, which is released from the trematode and is disseminated via the circulatory and lymphatic system in the definitive host.
T36527 1141665-1141822 Sentence denotes N. helminthoeca is nonpathogenic to either the first or second intermediate host; N. salmincola in high numbers can be pathogenic to both intermediate hosts.
T82547 1141823-1141979 Sentence denotes Salmon poisoning disease has an incubation period of ∼5-7 days, and is characterized clinically by pyrexia, anorexia, depression, weakness, and weight loss.
T77128 1141980-1142066 Sentence denotes There may be serous nasal discharge, lymphadenopathy, and mucopurulent conjunctivitis.
T30753 1142067-1142167 Sentence denotes Diarrhea with tenesmus develops; feces are scant yellow and mucoid or watery, often with some blood.
T74776 1142168-1142286 Sentence denotes The condition is usually fatal; if untreated, only 5-10% of infected dogs survive, but they are immune to reinfection.
T98973 1142287-1142440 Sentence denotes Gross lesions are most consistently found in the lymphoid tissues and include generalized enlargement of lymph nodes, especially in the abdominal cavity.
T79419 1142441-1142488 Sentence denotes Enlarged tonsils are everted from their fossae.
T17493 1142489-1142585 Sentence denotes The thymus is often increased in size in young dogs and the spleen may be swollen and congested.
T76029 1142586-1142736 Sentence denotes Peyer's patches and other intestinal lymphoid aggregates are elevated above the mucosal surface, and there may be petechial hemorrhages on the mucosa.
T95647 1142737-1142893 Sentence denotes In some cases there is ulceration and hemorrhage of the intestine near the ileocecocolic valve; intussusception of the small intestine occurs in many cases.
T27903 1142894-1142954 Sentence denotes There may be hepatomegaly, hepatic rupture, and hemoabdomen.
T70393 1142955-1143049 Sentence denotes Focal hemorrhages have been described in the pleura, the gallbladder, and the urinary bladder.
T45179 1143050-1143181 Sentence denotes Microscopic changes in lymph nodes include depletion of lymphocytes and increased numbers of histiocytes in the cortex and medulla.
T37318 1143182-1143266 Sentence denotes Similar changes may occur in the thymus, and splenic follicles may undergo necrosis.
T39280 1143267-1143482 Sentence denotes Intracytoplasmic elementary bodies of the Neorickettsia may be demonstrated in reticuloendothelial cells of lymphoid tissue and other visceral organs, by use of Giemsa or Macchiavello stains or immunohistochemistry.
T75557 1143483-1143613 Sentence denotes In the small intestine the flukes may be present embedded deep in the mucosa, although usually little reaction to them is present.
T32955 1143614-1143765 Sentence denotes Additional microscopic lesions may include lymphocytic and histiocytic leptomeningitis or meningitis, which may be most consistent over the cerebellum.
T61794 1143766-1143957 Sentence denotes Similar inflammatory cells may surround small and medium-sized vessels throughout the neuroparenchyma; focal gliosis is relatively sparsely distributed but seems most common in the brainstem.
T55974 1143958-1144153 Sentence denotes Elementary bodies are also demonstrable in reticuloendothelial cells of the central nervous system, and the diagnosis is usually made on the basis of this finding in lymphoid tissue and/or brain.
T86260 1144154-1144309 Sentence denotes The organisms can be isolated and grown on primary canine monocyte cultures and in several other cell culture systems, but this is not a routine procedure.
T74213 1144310-1144337 Sentence denotes Acanthocephalan infections.
T47869 1144338-1144527 Sentence denotes Acanthocephala is a phylum of parasitic worms that have an elongate sac-like body, no internal alimentary canal, and use a spiny protrusible proboscis for attachment to the intestinal wall.
T44122 1144528-1144697 Sentence denotes The life cycle typically involves obligate development in an intermediate host, usually an arthropod, and perhaps the use of a paratenic host to facilitate transmission.
T13380 1144698-1144799 Sentence denotes The acanthocephala of concern in domestic animals are in the genera Macracanthorhynchus and Oncicola.
T11976 1144800-1144901 Sentence denotes Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus is the thorny-headed worm that infects the small intestine of swine.
T83033 1144902-1145015 Sentence denotes The life cycle involves dung beetles or other Scarabaeidae, and foraging or rooting swine are prone to infection.
T20313 1145016-1145123 Sentence denotes Adult males are 10 cm long, and the females up to 30-40 cm long, slightly pink, curved, and taper caudally.
T12920 1145124-1145212 Sentence denotes The proboscis has ∼6 rows of hooks, and is used to penetrate deeply the intestinal wall.
T30338 1145213-1145418 Sentence denotes Attachment incites a local granulomatous nodule that has been called a strawberry mark, which may be visible from the serosal surface as a gray or yellow 1-cm diameter nodule surrounded by a hyperemic rim.
T52918 1145419-1145491 Sentence denotes The proboscis may penetrate the tunica muscularis and cause peritonitis.
T64455 1145492-1145657 Sentence denotes Heavily infected pigs may suffer ill-thrift and perhaps anemia, probably related partly to plasma protein loss and hemorrhage from numerous focal ulcerative lesions.
T40033 1145658-1145813 Sentence denotes M. catalinum and M. ingens are smaller but similar thornyheaded worms that inhabit the intestine of a variety of wild carnivores, and occasionally the dog.
T59442 1145814-1145912 Sentence denotes Oncicola canis occurs in the small intestine of wild carnivores, and occasionally the dog and cat.
T68302 1145913-1145938 Sentence denotes It rarely causes disease.
T85086 1145939-1146042 Sentence denotes Intermediate hosts are presumably arthropods, with insectivorous vertebrates acting as paratenic hosts.
T43655 1146043-1146164 Sentence denotes Up to several hundred worms, 0.5-1.5 cm long and dark gray, may infest the small intestine; infections are usually light.
T11665 1146165-1146261 Sentence denotes The proboscis is embedded to the subserosal level, and a focal nodular lesion develops about it.
T5443 1146262-1146272 Sentence denotes Zhao B, et
T12823 1146274-1146477 Sentence denotes The coccidia are members of the protistan phylum Apicomplexa, intracellular parasites characterized at some stage of the life cycle by a typical "apical complex" of organelles at one end of the organism.
T37843 1146478-1146601 Sentence denotes Members of the subclass Coccidiasina, which are considered together under coccidiosis, all have a similar basic life cycle.
T25299 1146602-1146738 Sentence denotes It begins with infection of a cell, often, They are of little importance in pigs other than as potential reservoirs for human infection.
T28437 1146739-1146864 Sentence denotes In horses in Africa and India, the paramphistomes Gastrodiscus aegyptiacus and Pseudodiscus colinsi occur in the large bowel.
T681 1146865-1146983 Sentence denotes Larvae of the former species have been associated with severe colitis in horses, but they are generally nonpathogenic.
T50672 1146984-1147097 Sentence denotes Intestinal schistosomiasis is due mainly to Schistosoma spp. in ruminants and Heterobilharzia americanum in dogs.
T36620 1147098-1147281 Sentence denotes H. americanum has been located primarily in the Atlantic or Gulf coast states in North America; however, naturally occurring disease has been reported in the midwestern United States.
T11563 1147282-1147398 Sentence denotes H. americanum has a complex life cycle involving both snail and mammalian hosts such as raccoon and domestic canids.
T9598 1147399-1147529 Sentence denotes Dogs are infected while swimming or wading in water contaminated with infective free-swimming cercariae, which penetrate the skin.
T35894 1147530-1147694 Sentence denotes Immature flukes can be found in the liver within several days of infecting the mammalian definitive host; this is where most of their growth and development occurs.
T83206 1147695-1147914 Sentence denotes Mature adults migrate to mesenteric veins where sexual reproduction occurs; eggs then penetrate the serosal surface of the intestine and migrate through the intestinal wall, which incites a severe inflammatory response.
T57613 1147915-1148081 Sentence denotes Alternatively, eggs migrate to the liver and are carried by the portal circulation to various other organs, the most common of which include the pancreas and kidneys.
T66903 1148082-1148268 Sentence denotes Eggs embedded in these organs result in host tissue response and granulomatous inflammatory foci; the number of embedded eggs determines the degree of organic dysfunction in these cases.
T88938 1148269-1148455 Sentence denotes Clinical signs include intermittent hemorrhagic diarrhea with excess mucus production, tenesmus, vomiting, anorexia and weight loss; involvement of the gastrointestinal system is common.
T3909 1148456-1148642 Sentence denotes Gross intestinal lesions are nonspecific, but may include reddened thickened intestinal wall; intestinal intussusception has been associated with this syndrome in a small number of dogs.
T72308 1148643-1148831 Sentence denotes Histologic lesions in the intestine are typically multifocal to diffuse granulomatous enterocolitis; eggs may be present within the mucosa, submucosa, and muscular layers of affected dogs.
T78815 1148832-1148935 Sentence denotes Other histologic lesions include granulomas surrounding eggs embedded in other organs are also present.
T76387 1148936-1149009 Sentence denotes For additional information on syndromes caused by H. americanum, see Vol.
T69326 1149010-1149035 Sentence denotes 3, Cardiovascular system.
T85240 1149036-1149194 Sentence denotes Adult flukes in tissue section are generally somewhat flattened or globose, with a loose mesenchymal parenchyma in which the internal structures are embedded.
T15760 1149195-1149248 Sentence denotes The tegument is eosinophilic, and may contain spines.
T62577 1149249-1149329 Sentence denotes Muscular oral and acetabular suckers and pharynx may be encountered in sections.
T3432 1149330-1149500 Sentence denotes Ceca are usually present, and elements of the male and female reproductive systems in these typically hermaphroditic adult worms (excepting the schistosomes) may be seen.
T65340 1149501-1149649 Sentence denotes The uterus may contain ova with a tan-yellow or brown shell, perhaps with an operculum, and ova are often seen in the intestinal lumen or in tissue.
T8692 1149650-1149698 Sentence denotes The developing miracidium may be present in ova.
T61603 1149699-1149887 Sentence denotes Schistosomes are recognized by their intravascular location and sexual dimorphism, the leaf-like male perhaps enveloping the slender cylindrical female within the gynecophoric canal. wall.
T79689 1149888-1150060 Sentence denotes Mature macrogametes typically have prominent wallforming bodies, and contain clear or periodic acid-Schiff-positive amylopectin granules, and a large nucleus and nucleolus.
T94471 1150061-1150174 Sentence denotes Fertilization by the microgamete leads to development of the zygote, and subsequent formation of the oocyst wall.
T73999 1150175-1150281 Sentence denotes The contained sporont is spherical, with nucleus and nucleolus, and amylopectin granules in the cytoplasm.
T15802 1150282-1150478 Sentence denotes Sporulation usually occurs outside the host, but in Sarcocystis and Frenkelia it occurs in the tissue of the definitive host; in Caryospora, sporulated oocysts develop in tissues of the prey host.
T69406 1150479-1150570 Sentence denotes Sporozoites are enclosed within sporocysts, which in turn are contained by the oocyst wall.
T32889 1150571-1150665 Sentence denotes Oocysts of most coccidia, or sporocysts of Sarcocystis and Frenkelia, are passed in the feces.
T79622 1150666-1150745 Sentence denotes Coccidia of domestic animals are relatively host-, organ-, and tissue-specific.
T93787 1150746-1150837 Sentence denotes Asexual stages of Toxoplasma and Neospora are the obvious exception to this generalization.
T74866 1150838-1150941 Sentence denotes Species of Eimeria, Isospora, and Cystoisospora rarely occur in more than one genus of definitive host.
T89709 1150942-1151053 Sentence denotes Similar coccidia occurring in related genera of hosts, when tested, usually prove incapable of cross-infection.
T73763 1151054-1151227 Sentence denotes The economic cost of coccidiosis in the food-animal species is considerable, in terms of mortality, morbidity, subclinical disease, and the cost of prevention and treatment.
T28969 1151228-1151259 Sentence denotes It is even more so in chickens.
T6486 1151260-1151309 Sentence denotes In dogs and cats, coccidiosis is a minor problem.
T19018 1151310-1151349 Sentence denotes Virulence reflects a number of factors.
T51757 1151350-1151528 Sentence denotes Among these are the location and type of cell infected by various stages of the organism, the function of infected cells, and the degree of host reaction stimulated by infection.
T5048 1151529-1151629 Sentence denotes The effects of infection on the host cell are several, and vary somewhat with the infecting species.
T96956 1151630-1151677 Sentence denotes Infected cells may be functionally compromised.
T34044 1151678-1151881 Sentence denotes They may hypertrophy; nuclei may enlarge or a considerable amount of cytoplasm may be displaced; and the outer membrane of infected cells may be highly modified, perhaps to facilitate metabolic exchange.
T18923 1151882-1151930 Sentence denotes The intercellular relationships may be affected.
T75476 1151931-1152001 Sentence denotes The rate of movement of infected epithelial cells up villi is altered.
T38588 1152002-1152113 Sentence denotes E. bovis also induces apoptosis by interfering with both the receptor-mediated and inner pathways of apoptosis.
T36882 1152114-1152147 Sentence denotes Necrosis is also likely to occur.
T18472 1152148-1152203 Sentence denotes Immune reactions may be incited by coccidial infection.
T76460 1152204-1152403 Sentence denotes In experimental systems resistance to coccidial infection is thymus-dependent, and is largely mediated by T-cell-driven intracellular killing directed mainly against asexual stages in the life cycle.
T51394 1152404-1152622 Sentence denotes In mammals, acute inflammatory reactions in intestinal coccidiosis are most commonly associated with heavy infection and destruction of cells by the sexual stages and oocysts, rather than in response to asexual stages.
T89330 1152623-1152785 Sentence denotes In toxoplasmosis and neosporosis, necrosis and focal acute or chronic inflammatory reactions may be incited by actively replicating asexual stages in many organs.
T50174 1152786-1152953 Sentence denotes A syndrome characterized by hemorrhage occurs in some species infected with asexual stages of Sarcocystis, about the time that merogony occurs in vascular endothelium.
T96047 1152954-1153038 Sentence denotes The effects of intestinal coccidiosis in mammals vary with the host-parasite system.
T71296 1153039-1153240 Sentence denotes They are mainly related to malabsorption induced by villus atrophy, or to anemia, hypoproteinemia, and dehydration caused by exudative enteritis and colitis caused by epithelial erosion and ulceration.
T18694 1153241-1153383 Sentence denotes A not yet fully characterized heat-labile neurotoxin has been associated with the development of nervous disorders in cattle with coccidiosis.
T65729 1153384-1153476 Sentence denotes Many species of coccidia appear to have little pathogenic effect under normal circumstances.
T97432 1153477-1153585 Sentence denotes but not always, in the intestinal mucosa, by a sporozoite released from a sporocyst in the lumen of the gut.
T18619 1153586-1153801 Sentence denotes One or more cycles of asexual division, termed schizogony or merogony, follow, and the merozoites produced infect other cells, forming another generation of meronts, or transforming to sexual stages, termed gamonts.
T3521 1153802-1153905 Sentence denotes Gamonts subsequently develop into nonmotile female macrogametes, and motile male forms or microgametes.
T82759 1153906-1153992 Sentence denotes A nonmotile zygote produced by union of microgametes and macrogametes forms an oocyst.
T17580 1153993-1154042 Sentence denotes Oocysts are released in feces to the environment.
T62892 1154043-1154234 Sentence denotes Sporogony, which is the production of sporocysts containing infectious sporozoites within the oocyst, may occur in the host, or more commonly, after the resistant oocysts are passed in feces.
T78263 1154235-1154359 Sentence denotes Members of the genus Eimeria and Isospora are homoxenous, with sexual and asexual development taking place in a single host.
T40528 1154360-1154590 Sentence denotes Cystoisospora (former Isospora spp. in carnivores) and the genera Toxoplasma, Sarcocystis, Hammondia, Besnoitia, Frenkelia, Neospora, and Caryospora are all heteroxenous, in which case asexual stages occur in an intermediate host.
T35429 1154591-1154659 Sentence denotes The heteroxenous genera exploit natural prey-predator relationships.
T18404 1154660-1154867 Sentence denotes In general, sexual development takes place in the intestinal mucosa of a predator, whereas at least one generation of asexual replication, often several, occurs in the tissues of one or more species of prey.
T92462 1154868-1154976 Sentence denotes The endogenous stages of coccidia are all intracellular, except, temporarily, the merozoite and microgamete.
T72910 1154977-1155083 Sentence denotes Mature developmental stages are usually readily recognized; immature forms may not be easily identifiable.
T94342 1155084-1155270 Sentence denotes Trophozoites, small undifferentiated, rounded, basophilic forms with a single nucleus, usually within a parasitophorous vacuole in the host cell, are found at 3 stages of the life cycle.
T70284 1155271-1155503 Sentence denotes They occur after invasion by the infective sporozoite, before merogony; after invasion by a merozoite, before a subsequent generation of merogony; and after invasion by a merozoite, before differentiation into a recognizable gamont.
T93622 1155504-1155542 Sentence denotes Developing meronts are multinucleated.
T27157 1155543-1155698 Sentence denotes Merogony may involve endopolygeny, which is multiple fission or apparent "budding" of merozoites from the periphery of the meront or from infoldings of it.
T66029 1155699-1155886 Sentence denotes A single residual body, surrounded by slightly curved, fusiform, or banana-shaped uninucleate merozoites, or many spherical clusters of merozoites with a central residuum, may be present.
T95189 1155887-1155992 Sentence denotes A second form of replication, termed endodyogeny, occurs in meronts of many of the heteroxenous coccidia.
T69963 1155993-1156092 Sentence denotes Two daughter organisms develop within a mother organism, which is destroyed when they are released.
T71313 1156093-1156214 Sentence denotes The location of a meront, and the number of merozoites it contains, vary with the species and the generation of merogony.
T68833 1156215-1156318 Sentence denotes A very few, or up to tens or hundreds of thousands of merozoites, may be released from a single meront.
T3844 1156319-1156350 Sentence denotes Microgamonts mature in 2 steps.
T23328 1156351-1156424 Sentence denotes The first involves enlargement of the gamont and proliferation of nuclei.
T24000 1156425-1156576 Sentence denotes During the second phase, the microgametes differentiate about the periphery of the gamont, which may become deeply folded or fissured by invaginations.
T76114 1156577-1156657 Sentence denotes Immature microgametocytes during these stages may resemble developing schizonts.
T4144 1156658-1156796 Sentence denotes However, fully differentiated microgametes differ from merozoites in being small, densely basophilic, and comma-shaped, with 2-3 flagella.
T31487 1156797-1156899 Sentence denotes They may be present in swirling masses, perhaps with some residual bodies, in mature microgametocytes.
T31787 1156900-1157150 Sentence denotes Macrogametes, the female stage, have a large nucleus with a prominent nucleolus, and with time they usually enlarge to contain refractile eosinophilic "plastic granules" or wall-forming bodies, which give rise to the layers of the oocyst usually low.
T96484 1157151-1157275 Sentence denotes The duration of severe disease is ∼3-10 days, after which most cases recover, because infection is essentially selflimiting.
T55039 1157276-1157424 Sentence denotes Some animals develop concurrent nervous signs, including tremors, nystagmus, opisthotonos, and convulsions, and many of these die within a few days.
T59446 1157425-1157618 Sentence denotes The signs in bovine coccidiosis resulting from E. zuernii and E. bovis occur when the epithelium in the glands of the cecum and colon is infected by second-generation schizonts and gametocytes.
T9991 1157619-1157730 Sentence denotes In heavily infected animals, disease and sometimes death can occur before many oocysts are passed in the feces.
T35784 1157731-1157825 Sentence denotes The life cycles of both agents are similar, two schizogonous generations preceding gametogony.
T84433 1157826-1158023 Sentence denotes The first-generation schizont of E. bovis infects hypertrophic endothelial cells in lacteals on the upper part of villi in the lower small intestine, several meters proximal to the ileocecal valve.
T12732 1158024-1158159 Sentence denotes These schizonts may be large, up to ∼300 µm in diameter, and are visible to the naked eye as pinpoint white nodular foci in the mucosa.
T40928 1158160-1158386 Sentence denotes They contain tens of thousands of merozoites, but are invested by only a narrow rim of mononuclear inflammatory cells, unless they degenerate, when a marked local mixed reaction develops, including neutrophils and macrophages.
T39451 1158387-1158501 Sentence denotes Merozoites released from these schizonts ∼14-18 days after infection enter cells deep in cecal and colonic glands.
T84967 1158502-1158587 Sentence denotes In heavy infections, crypts of Lieberkühn in the terminal ileum also may be infected.
T11732 1158588-1158710 Sentence denotes Here they produce small second-generation schizonts, which in turn release merozoites, infecting other cells in the gland.
T8042 1158711-1158825 Sentence denotes Gametogony may begin as early as 15 days after infection, and oocyst production peaks ∼19-21 days after infection.
T22771 1158826-1158919 Sentence denotes The first-generation schizonts of E. zuernii may be about the same size as those of E. bovis.
T61576 1158920-1159142 Sentence denotes However, they are most common in the terminal meter of the ileum and are located in the lamina propria below the crypt-villus junction, often deep near the muscularis mucosae, rather than in the endothelium of the lacteal.
T73119 1159143-1159210 Sentence denotes Hence they are not so readily visible grossly as those of E. bovis.
T75181 1159211-1159341 Sentence denotes The second-generation schizonts and gamonts of E. zuernii also occur in glands of the cecum and colon, but not the terminal ileum.
T63180 1159342-1159482 Sentence denotes The merozoites tend to be somewhat longer (up to 15 µm) and schizonts more numerous and of greater diameter (∼14 µm) than those of E. bovis.
T95286 1159483-1159568 Sentence denotes The timing of the development of E. zuernii infection is similar to that of E. bovis.
T59533 1159569-1159698 Sentence denotes First-generation schizonts of E. bovis occasionally reach the mesenteric lymph node, where they may mature, with no significance.
T6771 1159699-1159810 Sentence denotes Animals dying of coccidiosis have fecal staining of the hindquarters, and may be somewhat cachectic and anemic.
T35844 1159811-1160087 Sentence denotes The gross enteric lesions in severe cases are those of hemorrhagic or fibrinohemorrhagic typhlocolitis, which may extend to the rectum (Fig. 1-185) ; if E. bovis is involved, the terminal ileum also may be affected and sometimes a few schizonts are visible in the ileal villi.
T98707 1160088-1160239 Sentence denotes The contents of the large bowel are usually abnormally fluid, and may vary from brown to black to overtly red, possibly with flecks of mucus or fibrin.
T57006 1160240-1160348 Sentence denotes The mucosa is edematous, with exaggerated longitudinal and perhaps transverse folds, which may be congested.
T69217 1160349-1160381 Sentence denotes Submucosal edema is also marked.
T38299 1160382-1160487 Sentence denotes Fibrin strands or a patchy diphtheritic membrane may be present on the mucosa, and fibrin casts can form.
T95244 1160488-1160562 Sentence denotes In milder cases lesions are limited to congestion and edema of the mucosa.
T95889 1160563-1160753 Sentence denotes Microscopically, in animals dying at the peak of infection, virtually all cells lining cecal and colonic glands in many areas are infected by small schizonts, gamonts, or developing oocysts.
T84566 1160754-1160883 Sentence denotes Cells infected by E. bovis tend to dissociate and project into Coccidiosis is typically a disease of intensively managed animals.
T51293 1160884-1160971 Sentence denotes It is especially important in naive young animals exposed to a high level of infection.
T94695 1160972-1161089 Sentence denotes This is predisposed by high contamination rates associated with crowding, yarding, or high stocking rates on pasture.
T3848 1161090-1161301 Sentence denotes A damp substrate promotes oocyst sporulation and survival, and practices such as feeding on the ground or the natural propensity of young animals to nibble or perhaps indulge in coprophagy may promote infection.
T26928 1161302-1161478 Sentence denotes Although infections may not proceed to patency, chronic ingestion of oocysts may cause an intestinal immune response, villus atrophy, and in some situations perhaps ill-thrift.
T29264 1161479-1161566 Sentence denotes Immune reactions may only halt development of, but not kill, endogenous asexual stages.
T31277 1161567-1161747 Sentence denotes Epidemiologic evidence suggests that under some circumstances there may be relaxation of resistance and resumption of development of the organisms, ultimately expressed in disease.
T85788 1161748-1161909 Sentence denotes This seems the likely explanation for outbreaks of bovine coccidiosis occurring during midwinter in freezing climates, or in postparturient stabled dairy cattle.
T79599 1161910-1162026 Sentence denotes Coccidiosis caused by members of the genera Eimeria and Isospora in the various species are considered further here.
T68714 1162027-1162171 Sentence denotes The heteroxenous organisms, including Cystoisospora, Toxoplasma, Neospora, and Sarcocystis, are considered subsequently, as are Cryptosporidium.
T58606 1162172-1162184 Sentence denotes Barta JR, et
T17806 1162186-1162443 Sentence denotes More than a dozen species of Eimeria parasitize cattle; of these, Eimeria zuernii and E. bovis are potentially highly pathogenic, whereas several others, notably E. ellipsoidalis, E. alabamensis, and E. auburnensis may cause diarrhea but probably not death.
T30647 1162444-1162516 Sentence denotes Coccidial infection is common, and it usually comprises several species.
T29606 1162517-1162699 Sentence denotes Almost half the calves and yearlings in confinement operations shed oocysts, with calves shedding high numbers, whereas a much smaller proportion of cows shed low numbers of oocysts.
T59471 1162700-1162861 Sentence denotes Disease occurs mainly in calves or weaned feeder cattle less than ∼1 year of age, when one or both of the potentially pathogenic species produce heavy infection.
T87103 1162862-1163032 Sentence denotes It may occur in animals at pasture or on range, concentrated at water holes, but is most common in animals in feedlots or yards where the level of sanitation is not high.
T68176 1163033-1163206 Sentence denotes The stress of shipping, cold weather, or intercurrent disease may be associated with outbreaks, which can occur in midwinter when oocyst transmission is expected to be poor.
T5563 1163207-1163330 Sentence denotes Bovine parvovirus infections have been associated with outbreaks of coccidiosis in a dry environment in northern Australia.
T68449 1163331-1163462 Sentence denotes Reactivation of latent schizonts in tissue may explain coccidiosis in stressed animals, or at a time when transmission is unlikely.
T93019 1163463-1163593 Sentence denotes Coccidiosis is characterized by diarrhea that may progress to dysentery with mucus, and tenesmus, perhaps causing rectal prolapse.
T9866 1163594-1163658 Sentence denotes Animals dehydrate, and become hyponatremic and sometimes anemic.
T16953 1163659-1163878 Sentence denotes Morbidity may be high, but mortality is valve and form in the epithelium deep in crypts of Lieberkühn, although this may not be apparent because of plane of section, or following their migration into the lamina propria.
T4329 1163879-1164047 Sentence denotes Secondgeneration schizonts and gamonts of E. auburnensis develop in the lamina propria in the ileum, small schizonts in villi, and gamonts in the deeper lamina propria.
T47454 1164048-1164107 Sentence denotes Microgametocytes may be several hundred micrometers across.
T42667 1164108-1164132 Sentence denotes Oocysts are ∼38 × 23 µm.
T26648 1164133-1164237 Sentence denotes The other bovine coccidium with gamonts apparently developing in the lamina propria is E. bukidnonensis.
T38490 1164238-1164363 Sentence denotes Oocysts of this species are large, ∼48 × 35 µm and thick-walled, with a micropyle, and have been found in the lamina propria.
T85027 1164364-1164500 Sentence denotes E. alabamensis develops in vacuoles within the nucleus of epithelial cells in small intestine and, in heavy infections, the large bowel.
T25037 1164501-1164573 Sentence denotes Both schizonts and gamonts may be found together the lumen of the gland.
T68114 1164574-1164755 Sentence denotes As cells are disrupted and oocysts are released into the lumen of glands, the remaining glandular epithelium becomes extremely attenuated, or the gland collapses ( Fig. 1-186A, B) .
T16973 1164756-1164939 Sentence denotes Concurrently, the surface epithelium becomes squamous, or the mucosa is eroded, and effusion of fibrin, neutrophils, and hemorrhage occurs from dilated, congested superficial vessels.
T25784 1164940-1165023 Sentence denotes Oocysts released into the glands and lumen of the colon may be seen in the exudate.
T82566 1165024-1165183 Sentence denotes At the same time, the mucosa begins to collapse, and the lamina propria is infiltrated by neutrophils, eosinophils, lymphocytes, macrophages, and plasma cells.
T455 1165184-1165281 Sentence denotes Oocysts trapped in denuded glands in the collapsed mucosa may be surrounded by small giant cells.
T99685 1165282-1165442 Sentence denotes If destruction is widespread, and the animal survives sufficiently long, the mucosa may ulcerate to the level of the muscularis mucosae, and begin to granulate.
T39221 1165443-1165610 Sentence denotes In areas where the lesion is patchy, glands that have been relatively spared may become lined with hyperplastic epithelium, making an attempt to regenerate the mucosa.
T27332 1165611-1165724 Sentence denotes Flattened epithelial cells spread from these glands across the denuded surface, beneath the diphtheritic exudate.
T9423 1165725-1165898 Sentence denotes A few crenated oocysts in small giant cells in the stromal remnants of the mucosa may be all the evidence of coccidiosis found in lesions in animals surviving for 7-10 days.
T79417 1165899-1166044 Sentence denotes Malabsorption caused by mucosal damage in the cecum and colon, and inflammatory effusion and hemorrhage explain the enteric signs of coccidiosis.
T48436 1166045-1166248 Sentence denotes The nervous signs in bovine coccidiosis are not associated with recognized lesions in the brain; they have been related to a yet not fully characterized neurotoxin found in the blood of affected animals.
T42064 1166249-1166476 Sentence denotes The gross lesions of coccidiosis in cattle must be differentiated from those in salmonellosis, bovine viral diarrhea, rinderpest, malignant catarrhal fever, and bovine adenoviral infection, all of which may cause typhlocolitis.
T9969 1166477-1166597 Sentence denotes Coccidiosis often can be confirmed simply at autopsy by finding large numbers of developing stages in mucosal scrapings.
T51939 1166598-1166724 Sentence denotes Oocysts of E. bovis are ovoid, smooth, and ∼28 × 21 µm; those of E. zuernii are subspherical to ovoid, smooth and −18 × 15 µm.
T76701 1166725-1166902 Sentence denotes Although other coccidia are unlikely to be the primary cause of diarrhea or death in cattle, several have distinctive endogenous stages that may be recognized in tissue section.
T14128 1166903-1167020 Sentence denotes Eimeria auburnensis has a giant first-generation schizont that may be confused with those of E. bovis and E. zuernii.
T90755 1167021-1167226 Sentence denotes However, they are present usually 6-12 meters cranial to the ileocecal A B inocula of poorly defined species of coccidia, or occurred under circumstances in which the oocysts associated were not described.
T47284 1167227-1167350 Sentence denotes However, although the taxonomic picture has changed, the syndromes associated with coccidiosis in sheep and goats have not.
T53709 1167351-1167412 Sentence denotes Coccidiosis in sheep and goats is a disease of young animals.
T97126 1167413-1167578 Sentence denotes Under conditions of intensive pastoral husbandry or confinement, lambs and kids are exposed to oocysts of many species of coccidia within the first few days of life.
T46057 1167579-1167710 Sentence denotes Weaned lambs, presumably exposed to only light infections while at range, are also prone to coccidiosis when brought into feedlots.
T78901 1167711-1167837 Sentence denotes In young suckled animals and those in feedlots exposed to large numbers of oocysts, signs may occur before oocysts are passed.
T18500 1167838-1167968 Sentence denotes Suckling lambs, ∼4-8 weeks old, reared at pasture at relatively heavy stocking rates, may also develop signs and occasionally die.
T38829 1167969-1168092 Sentence denotes Under these conditions, the disease needs to be differentiated from gastrointestinal helminthosis, which may be concurrent.
T49649 1168093-1168297 Sentence denotes Outbreaks of coccidiosis in confined lambs and kids are usually acute and characterized by moderate morbidity and low mortality; there is green or yellow watery diarrhea, occasionally with blood or mucus.
T63081 1168298-1168380 Sentence denotes Yarded and grazing animals may also suffer weight loss, or subclinical ill-thrift.
T48087 1168381-1168656 Sentence denotes Signs are usually associated with lesions in the lower small intestine, caused by E. ahsata and E. bakuensis in lambs, and their analogues in goats, E. christenseni, and E. arloingi, or with typhlocolitis, caused by E. ovinoidalis in sheep, and E. ninakohlyakimovae in goats.
T65347 1168657-1168802 Sentence denotes Some pathogenicity is also ascribed to E. faurei, E. intricata, E. parva, and E. crandallis in sheep, and presumably to their analogues in goats.
T18563 1168803-1168879 Sentence denotes Infections may be mixed, and gross and microscopic lesions may reflect this.
T4681 1168880-1168985 Sentence denotes E. ovinoidalis in sheep and E. ninakohlyakimovae in goats presumably have similar endogenous development.
T43677 1168986-1169108 Sentence denotes In the sheep, giant schizonts up to 300 µm in diameter develop in cells deep in the lamina propria, in the terminal ileum.
T76388 1169109-1169220 Sentence denotes They release merozoites that enter epithelium in the glands of the cecum and colon, and sometimes distal ileum.
T86474 1169221-1169359 Sentence denotes Here small second-generation schizonts evolve, and other cells in glands in the same area subsequently become infected by the gametocytes.
T26046 1169360-1169476 Sentence denotes These species are considered highly pathogenic and E. ovinoidalis often is associated with disease in feedlot lambs.
T53219 1169477-1169704 Sentence denotes Lesions other than those related to diarrhea, dehydration, and hypoproteinemia are limited to the terminal ileum, and especially the cecum and proximal colon, and are associated with second-generation schizogony and gametogony.
T11381 1169705-1169755 Sentence denotes Affected areas of gut are edematous and thickened.
T7026 1169756-1169896 Sentence denotes The most significant microscopic lesions are those in the cecum and colon, which resemble those in cattle caused by E. bovis and E. zuernii.
T38814 1169897-1169957 Sentence denotes E. caprina in goats also seems to have pathogenic potential.
T64129 1169958-1170046 Sentence denotes Like E. ninakohlyakimovae, it causes typhlocolitis; the small intestine is not involved.
T92409 1170047-1170187 Sentence denotes E. christenseni and E. arloingi in goats and their analogues, E. ahsata and E. bakuensis in sheep, are also associated with serious disease.
T82501 1170188-1170343 Sentence denotes They seem to have somewhat similar developmental cycles and lesions, although interpretation of the literature is clouded by confusion among these species.
T84503 1170344-1170541 Sentence denotes Many cases of coccidiosis in lambs attributed to E. bakuensis (as E. arloingi) may in fact have been due to E. ahsata because the unsporulated oocysts, although of differing sizes, can be confused.
T90072 1170542-1170714 Sentence denotes E. christenseni has a developmental cycle that involves giant schizonts up to nearly 300 µm across in the endothelium of the lacteal in villi in the middle small intestine.
T89780 1170715-1170748 Sentence denotes In heavy within the same nucleus.
T85011 1170749-1170835 Sentence denotes Gamonts of E. kosti have been described in the epithelium deep in the abomasal glands.
T45583 1170836-1170887 Sentence denotes None of these organisms is particularly pathogenic.
T83965 1170888-1170970 Sentence denotes Eimeria bareillyi is associated with clinical coccidiosis in water buffalo calves.
T38786 1170971-1171180 Sentence denotes The serosal vessels in the distal half of the small intestine are congested, and the lumen of the lower small bowel contains creamy or yellow fluid content in which some mucus, fibrin, or blood may be present.
T23274 1171181-1171346 Sentence denotes Focal to coalescent pale raised plaques or polypoid masses may be present on the mucosa, or the surface may appear granular and necrotic, with petechial hemorrhages.
T19286 1171347-1171491 Sentence denotes The gross changes are caused by hypertrophy of crypts and villi, upon which virtually every cell is infected with developing gamonts or oocysts.
T49911 1171492-1171614 Sentence denotes E. bareillyi will not cross-transmit to domestic cattle, although E. ellipsoidalis and E. zuernii of bubaline origin will.
T53520 1171615-1171816 Sentence denotes E. zuernii is pathogenic in water buffalo. mucosa that also can be seen from the serosa ( Fig. 1-188A , B); they tend to be more distal in the small intestine, and occasionally involve the large bowel.
T90160 1171817-1171865 Sentence denotes E. ahsata and E. bakuensis in sheep are similar.
T29548 1171866-1172047 Sentence denotes Nodular polypoid structures, sometimes pedunculate, and ∼0.3-1.5 cm in diameter, are encountered in the small intestinal mucosa of sheep and goats, usually as an incidental finding.
T38495 1172048-1172262 Sentence denotes These masses are comprised of hypertrophic cryptvillus units, in which virtually every epithelial cell is infected by mainly gametocytic stages of coccidia, which, in sheep, are probably E. bakuensis and E. ahsata.
T17215 1172263-1172312 Sentence denotes Adjacent mucosa appears normal and is uninfected.
T79145 1172313-1172501 Sentence denotes The term "pseudoadenomatous" has been used to describe these polypoid lesions, and the oocyst patches or plaques was discussed earlier in the section on coccidian-infected sheep and goats.
T35393 1172502-1172618 Sentence denotes The infected epithelial cells appear somewhat hypertrophic, with eosinophilic cytoplasm and prominent brush borders.
T59096 1172619-1172731 Sentence denotes Often these coccidia-infected cells do not slough rapidly postmortem, in contrast with their uninfected fellows.
T71439 1172732-1172848 Sentence denotes Why masses of infected cells apparently persist in chronically infected animals without clinical disease is unclear.
T10851 1172849-1173060 Sentence denotes However, the plaques and polyps may be the result of mitogenic stimuli from progamonts, the immature stages in crypt epithelium, which appear to divide by binary fission in synchrony with the infected host cell.
T27793 1173061-1173183 Sentence denotes Coccidiosis may also cause ill-thrift and diarrhea in suckling or weanling lambs 5-6 weeks old heavily stocked on pasture.
T59770 1173184-1173319 Sentence denotes In the United Kingdom, E. crandallis, which develops largely in the ileum, and E. ovinoidalis are mainly associated with this syndrome.
T15145 1173320-1173506 Sentence denotes E. weybridgensis (E. arloingi "B"), which infects most of the length of the small intestine, may also infections, every cell in a number of contiguous crypt-villus units may be infected.
T35504 1173507-1173726 Sentence denotes Although there may be an acute local reaction around ruptured primary schizonts, clinical disease is associated with the subsequent stages of development, diarrhea occurring during the late prepatent and patent periods.
T30806 1173727-1173777 Sentence denotes Affected intestine may be congested and edematous.
T2029 1173778-1173974 Sentence denotes Numerous pale white or yellow foci from a few millimeters to up to a centimeter in diameter, often visible from the serosa, are present as slightly raised plaques on the mucosa of the small bowel.
T49041 1173975-1174205 Sentence denotes These foci are areas of intense infection of cryptal and villus epithelium by gamonts and developing oocysts, and have been dubbed "oocyst patches." There may be some hemorrhage into the intestine, but the feces are rarely bloody.
T75168 1174206-1174377 Sentence denotes E. arloingi undergoes a development similar to that of E. christenseni ( Fig. 1-187A, B) and causes similar gross and microscopic lesions in goats, with minor differences.
T52924 1174378-1174516 Sentence denotes Firstgeneration schizonts are most numerous in the lacteals of villi in the lower jejunum, gamonts are mainly above the host cell nucleus.
T57718 1174517-1174571 Sentence denotes The associated gross lesions consist of nodules in the
T36840 1174573-1174594 Sentence denotes A Coccidia in horses.
T88833 1174595-1174726 Sentence denotes The only coccidium of horses reported with any frequency is Eimeria leuckarti, which is found in horses and donkeys the world over.
T64275 1174727-1174840 Sentence denotes In one survey of foals in Germany, it was found in 100% of animals, but prevalence elsewhere is usually very low.
T50836 1174841-1174957 Sentence denotes Although the infection by E. leuckarti is most common in foals, it also occasionally has been seen in adult animals.
T88275 1174958-1175149 Sentence denotes Its reputation for pathogenicity rests largely on the distinctive large gamonts found in the lamina propria of the small intestine in animals dead of enteric disease of undetermined etiology.
T41555 1175150-1175356 Sentence denotes However, implication of E. leuckarti in the disease process is rarely, if ever, convincing, and this parasite is encountered incidentally in the intestine of horses dead of other clearly defined conditions.
T10524 1175357-1175500 Sentence denotes Furthermore, heavy experimental inoculations, producing many gamonts in the gut and heavy oocyst passage, have failed to elicit clinical signs.
T49002 1175501-1175690 Sentence denotes The stages present in the lamina propria of villi are giant microgametocytes and macrogametes, developing in markedly hypertrophic host cells, probably of epithelial origin ( Fig. 1-189) .
T40417 1175691-1175804 Sentence denotes The microgametocytes are up to ∼250 µm in diameter, and when mature they contain swirling masses of microgametes.
T13406 1175805-1176024 Sentence denotes Immature microgametocytes very much resemble some of the giant schizonts of other species of coccidia, and have frequently been referred to as such; this stimulated the application of the term Globidium to the organism.
T47065 1176025-1176182 Sentence denotes However, the only schizont containing merozoites that has been recognized in horses was very small (12.5 µm in diameter), and in the epithelium of the ileum.
T62839 1176183-1176300 Sentence denotes The macrogametes have distinctive large eosinophilic or Schiff-positive granules that may be individual or confluent.
T39470 1176301-1176458 Sentence denotes The host cells are markedly hypertrophic with a fibrillar periphery, and the enlarged nucleus forms a crescent along one side of the parasitophorous vacuole.
T2201 1176459-1176577 Sentence denotes There is no inflammatory response to the gamonts, and only a mild reaction to degenerate stages in the lamina propria.
T35067 1176578-1176589 Sentence denotes contribute.
T23541 1176590-1176702 Sentence denotes The only gross lesion in affected lambs is congestion and thickening of the mucosa of the lower small intestine.
T27707 1176703-1176859 Sentence denotes Under some circumstances, probably sudden exposure to large doses of oocysts, E. crandallis, at least, causes villus atrophy in infected areas of intestine.
T91532 1176860-1176969 Sentence denotes Giant first-generation schizonts develop in crypt cells that after infection migrate into the lamina propria.
T12331 1176970-1177135 Sentence denotes As the infection progresses, villi become stumpy or disappear, and in small bowel and cecum, crypts are straight, hypertrophic, and contain proliferative epithelium.
T24387 1177136-1177244 Sentence denotes Asexual or, more commonly, sexual stages of coccidia are present in epithelium on the surface of the mucosa.
T38666 1177245-1177369 Sentence denotes In hyperplastic crypts, epithelial cells are infected by progamonts, which seem to be dividing in synchrony with host cells.
T48188 1177370-1177556 Sentence denotes Masses of macrophages may invest and invade the base of infected crypts, and apoptosis of infected and uninfected cells may occur, resulting in attenuation of surviving crypt epithelium.
T26347 1177557-1177667 Sentence denotes In heavy infections, there also may be thickening of the cecal mucosa by hyperplastic coccidia-infected cells.
T7413 1177668-1177785 Sentence denotes Occasionally, areas of small intestine and cecum, in which there has been severe damage to crypts, may become eroded.
T35388 1177786-1177877 Sentence denotes Such lesions, if widespread, may cause malabsorption or perhaps protein-losing enteropathy.
T97933 1177878-1178064 Sentence denotes It is unclear whether atrophy of villi is the result of excess loss of epithelium directly because of the effects of coccidial infection, or whether it is mediated by an immune response.
T34029 1178065-1178123 Sentence denotes E. apsheronica in the goat has minor pathogenic potential.
T11565 1178124-1178347 Sentence denotes Giant schizonts develop in the lamina propria of villi throughout the small intestine and in the cecum; second-generation schizonts are in the epithelium on villi in the small intestine, and in the cecum, but not the colon.
T96435 1178348-1178387 Sentence denotes Gametocytes have the same distribution.
T73651 1178388-1178529 Sentence denotes Pale foci in the mucosa, where gametocytes are concentrated, and focal areas of erosion and hemorrhage may occur in heavily infected animals.
T70431 1178530-1178697 Sentence denotes Large schizonts are often encountered incidentally in submucosal lymphatics, or in the subcortical or medullary sinusoids of mesenteric lymph nodes in sheep and goats.
T92143 1178698-1178778 Sentence denotes Sometimes they may be visible grossly in these locations as pinpoint white foci.
T11448 1178779-1178958 Sentence denotes Occasionally, coccidial gametocytes or oocysts may also develop in intestinal lymphoid aggregates and mesenteric lymph nodes, where they may provoke a mild granulomatous reaction.
T52249 1178959-1179123 Sentence denotes Stages in lymph nodes probably result from establishment of sporozoites or primary merozoites swept from the lacteal into the lymphatic drainage early in infection.
T17659 1179124-1179200 Sentence denotes Development in such sites is not uncommon, but aberrant and likely dead-end.
T60486 1179201-1179340 Sentence denotes The species involved appear mainly to be those considered in the previous section, with a giant primary schizont developing in the lacteal.
T64212 1179341-1179468 Sentence denotes In coccidiosis, oocysts are usually numerous in feces, but this is neither constant in, nor necessarily indicative of, disease.
T50633 1179469-1179759 Sentence denotes Mucosal scrapings or tissue sections of mucosa containing large numbers of asexual and gametogenous coccidial forms, in association with diarrhea, and perhaps some hemorrhage into the intestine, support the diagnosis, in the absence of other syndromes such as gastrointestinal helminthosis.
T85978 1179760-1179779 Sentence denotes Hashemnia M, et al.
T20179 1179780-1179882 Sentence denotes Experimental In animals surviving for a few days, the cryptal epithelium may be markedly hyperplastic.
T10626 1179883-1179977 Sentence denotes The severity of the lesions is a function of the size of the inoculum and the age of the pigs.
T15840 1179978-1180132 Sentence denotes Heavier inocula, within limits, produce more cellular damage and villus atrophy; fibrinonecrotic enteritis indicates ingestion of a large dose of oocysts.
T60967 1180133-1180326 Sentence denotes However, severe lesions may not be associated with heavy shedding of oocysts because relatively few gamonts are able to develop in the reduced population of epithelial cells remaining on villi.
T63304 1180327-1180443 Sentence denotes The severity of lesions and signs is much greater in piglets a few days old in comparison with those 2 weeks of age.
T42777 1180444-1180603 Sentence denotes This partly relates to the lower rate of replication of epithelium in the crypts of young piglets, and therefore the development of more severe villus atrophy.
T12707 1180604-1180716 Sentence denotes The smaller size of young piglets also makes them more susceptible to the effects of malabsorption and diarrhea.
T68113 1180717-1180802 Sentence denotes Animals previously exposed to C. suis have relatively strong resistance to challenge.
T3927 1180803-1180912 Sentence denotes At least 8-10 species of Eimeria are thought to occur in swine, along with a single species of Cystoisospora.
T85338 1180913-1181076 Sentence denotes The latter, Cystoisospora (Isospora) suis, is the most important; it causes porcine neonatal coccidiosis, a disease of piglets from ∼5-6 days to ∼2-3 weeks of age.
T284 1181077-1181254 Sentence denotes This disease is recognized in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and western Europe; it also occurs in Australia, and probably wherever swine are reared intensively.
T14252 1181255-1181434 Sentence denotes The condition is most severe in herds where continuous farrowing and total confinement are practiced, and some laboratories report a prevalence of 10-50% among scouring baby pigs.
T95120 1181435-1181557 Sentence denotes Rapid sporulation (12 hours) and short prepatent period (5 days) promote rapid build-up of infection in a farrowing house.
T13733 1181558-1181646 Sentence denotes Porcine neonatal coccidiosis has high morbidity, and usually low but variable mortality.
T64489 1181647-1181764 Sentence denotes It causes yellow watery diarrhea, dehydration, loss of condition, and death, or at least a temporary check in growth.
T73862 1181765-1181796 Sentence denotes Some animals may runt severely.
T10034 1181797-1181841 Sentence denotes Illness usually begins at ∼7-10 days of age.
T41754 1181842-1181896 Sentence denotes Piglets continue to nurse, but may vomit clotted milk.
T39758 1181897-1182083 Sentence denotes At autopsy, many piglets have the typical appearance of undifferentiated neonatal diarrhea, with no specific gross findings in the gastrointestinal tract other than fluid yellow content.
T57600 1182084-1182301 Sentence denotes However, the intestine in some animals with coccidiosis may look turgid, rather than flaccid, and in a minority of animals a fibrinous or fibrinonecrotic exudate is present in the lower portion of the small intestine.
T48800 1182302-1182327 Sentence denotes Occasionally, casts form.
T24635 1182328-1182523 Sentence denotes C. suis replicates in the epithelium on the distal third of villi ( Fig. 1-190) , mainly in the jejunum and ileum, although infected cells may be found in the duodenum and colon in a few animals.
T65763 1182524-1182633 Sentence denotes Piglets usually become infected within the first day or two of life, perhaps by ingestion of the sow's feces.
T28256 1182634-1182725 Sentence denotes Merogony occurs in vacuoles in the cytoplasm, usually beneath the nucleus of the host cell.
T36593 1182726-1182823 Sentence denotes Infection of host cells is maximal 4-5 days after infection, and by 5 days gametogony is evident.
T94186 1182824-1182946 Sentence denotes Thick- and thin-walled sporulated oocysts have been observed in feces of infected pigs, but either form may cause disease.
T2634 1182947-1183065 Sentence denotes The onset of lesions and clinical signs corresponds with this period of heavy infection of cells, which undergo lysis.
T6735 1183066-1183101 Sentence denotes Villi may become markedly atrophic.
T10309 1183102-1183225 Sentence denotes The lumen contains massive numbers of exfoliated epithelial cells, inflammatory cells, and coccidial stages ( Fig. 1-191) .
T98167 1183226-1183357 Sentence denotes The surface epithelium that remains is cuboidal to squamous, and infected epithelial cells may be seen degenerating or exfoliating.
T64505 1183358-1183459 Sentence denotes Erosions may develop at the tips of villi, through which there is effusion of neutrophils and fibrin.
T10596 1183460-1183658 Sentence denotes In the remnant of the villus, neutrophil infiltration, a moderate increase in mononuclear leukocytes and eosinophilic proteinaceous material, probably collagen, may be present in the lamina propria.
T79726 1183659-1183815 Sentence denotes Effusion of neutrophils and fibrin from the eroded tips of villi contributes to the fibrinonecrotic membrane seen in some animals, and ulceration can occur.
T73875 1183816-1183871 Sentence denotes Gram-positive bacilli are often present in the exudate.
T91489 1183873-1184002 Sentence denotes Cystoisospora (Isospora), Toxoplasma, Neospora, Hammondia, Sarcocystis, Besnoitia, and Frenkelia comprise this group of protists.
T90134 1184003-1184192 Sentence denotes All of these heteroxenous members of the Apicomplexa are known to use carnivores as definitive hosts, and have one or more generations of merogony in the tissues of various species of prey.
T6608 1184193-1184358 Sentence denotes Frenkelia, which some would place in the genus Sarcocystis, as far as is known uses only raptorial birds as definitive hosts and small rodents as intermediate hosts.
T62379 1184359-1184388 Sentence denotes It is not considered further.
T28614 1184389-1184418 Sentence denotes Coccidiosis in dogs and cats.
T38904 1184419-1184555 Sentence denotes Although several species of Eimeria have been reported from dogs and cats, their status as genuine parasites of these hosts is in doubt.
T70221 1184556-1184758 Sentence denotes The significant coccidia of dogs and cats are members of the genus Cystoisospora, considered here, and of the genera Toxoplasma, Sarcocystis, Hammondia, Besnoitia, and Neospora, dealt with subsequently.
T84771 1184759-1184844 Sentence denotes Caryospora spp. may occasionally produce dermal coccidiosis in immunosuppressed dogs.
T68032 1184845-1185030 Sentence denotes Cystoisospora spp. are characterized by oocysts that are passed unsporulated in feces, and which, when sporulated, have two sporocysts lacking a Stieda body, each with four sporozoites.
T5528 1185031-1185306 Sentence denotes Following ingestion of sporulated oocysts of heteroxenous species, transport hosts, usually prey species such as mice and other small rodents, but sometimes other hosts, are infected by large sporozoite-like "hypnozoites" in phagocytic cells in lymph nodes and other tissues.
T10781 1185307-1185448 Sentence denotes These, when ingested by the predator, resume development in the intestine, and lead to asexual and sexual development in the definitive host.
T47274 1185449-1185563 Sentence denotes Heteroxenous passage is not obligatory, and sporulated oocysts are also directly infective to the definitive host.
T67611 1185564-1185615 Sentence denotes In dogs, 4 species of Cystoisospora are recognized.
T66140 1185616-1185763 Sentence denotes Meronts of C. canis develop in the subepithelial lamina propria of the villi in the distal small intestine and, to a lesser extent, in large bowel.
T1075 1185764-1185928 Sentence denotes Gamonts occur beneath and within the epithelium of the ileum and large intestine, and the oocyst is the largest among Cystoisospora spp. of dogs, being ∼38 × 30 µm.
T39053 1185929-1186180 Sentence denotes The other three are members of the "C. ohioensis complex." C. ohioensis develops exclusively in epithelial cells, mainly in the distal portions of villi along the length of the small bowel, especially in the ileum, and occasionally in the large bowel.
T89738 1186181-1186227 Sentence denotes It may be the most pathogenic species in dogs.
T82866 1186228-1186300 Sentence denotes The oocysts of C. burrowsi, C. ohioensis, and C. neorivolta are similar.
T42902 1186301-1186413 Sentence denotes Original literature should be consulted for details that will permit differentiation of these species in tissue.
T64118 1186414-1186569 Sentence denotes Endogenous stages of C. burrowsi occur in epithelial cells, and in the lamina propria of the tips of villi in the distal two thirds of the small intestine.
T9589 1186570-1186739 Sentence denotes C. neorivolta mainly develops in proprial cells beneath the epithelium in the tips of villi in the distal half of the small intestine, and rarely in the cecum and colon.
T28137 1186740-1186783 Sentence denotes Occasional stages may be in the epithelium.
T25011 1186784-1186839 Sentence denotes C. canis and C. ohioensis are known to be heteroxenous.
T53363 1186840-1187014 Sentence denotes Meronts of an unknown coccidian, probably a Cystoisospora sp., have been found in the intrahepatic bile ducts of a dog, associated with severe suppurative cholangiohepatitis.
T33197 1187015-1187057 Sentence denotes In cats, 2 species of Cystoisospora occur.
T75860 1187058-1187307 Sentence denotes Meronts and gamonts of C. felis develop in epithelium of villi in the small A diagnosis of coccidiosis must be considered in scouring neonatal piglets, and is strongly suggested by the presence of fibrinonecrotic enteritis in the distal small bowel.
T27688 1187308-1187414 Sentence denotes Atrophy of villi may be recognized at autopsy using a hand lens or stereomicroscope, or in tissue section.
T14604 1187415-1187484 Sentence denotes Asexual or sexual stages may be found in smears of mucosal scrapings.
T99470 1187485-1187677 Sentence denotes The distinctive binucleate type I meronts and pairs of large (12-18 µm in smears, 8-13 µm in sections) type I merozoites may be found in jejunal mucosa in the early phase of diarrheal disease.
T51169 1187678-1187810 Sentence denotes Multinucleated type II meronts and numerous small type II merozoites are the predominant stage during the clinical phase of disease.
T27965 1187811-1187989 Sentence denotes In section, these form clusters of 2-16 organisms like bunches of bananas, perhaps with a small residual body, in the parasitophorous vacuole in the enterocyte (see Fig. 1-190) .
T40940 1187990-1188110 Sentence denotes Macrogamonts and microgamonts are present in moderate numbers by day 5 of infection, and a few oocysts also may be seen.
T26775 1188111-1188177 Sentence denotes Microgametocytes are ∼9-16 µm in diameter, and are multinucleated.
T37386 1188178-1188268 Sentence denotes Oocysts in tissue sections are oval, ∼15 × 12 µm, whereas those in smears are ∼18 × 16 µm.
T50216 1188269-1188358 Sentence denotes Coccidial stages may be difficult to find in animals that have been ill for several days.
T93168 1188359-1188537 Sentence denotes Oocysts may not be found in feces, because the infection is not yet patent, the patent period has passed, or the lesions are very severe, reducing the number of oocysts produced.
T96625 1188538-1188643 Sentence denotes Coccidiosis in older swine caused by several Eimeria species is uncommon; speciation can be accomplished.
T27890 1188644-1188733 Sentence denotes It typically occurs in animals with access to yards or pasture contaminated with oocysts.
T59441 1188734-1188772 Sentence denotes Weaners and growing pigs are affected.
T95380 1188773-1188867 Sentence denotes The species considered potentially pathogenic include E. scabra, E. debliecki, and E. spinosa.
T70595 1188868-1188980 Sentence denotes It is difficult to produce disease in experimentally inoculated pigs; E. scabra is probably the most pathogenic.
T73942 1188981-1189061 Sentence denotes Coccidiosis in older swine is usually sporadic or affects a few pigs in a group.
T9077 1189062-1189200 Sentence denotes Typically it causes diarrhea of a few days' duration, loss of appetite, and perhaps transient ill-thrift, or, in severe cases, emaciation.
T37045 1189201-1189226 Sentence denotes Occasionally animals die.
T12971 1189227-1189374 Sentence denotes Lesions are usually limited to the lower small intestine, which may be congested or hemorrhagic, although overt blood is rarely found in the feces.
T51229 1189375-1189492 Sentence denotes Large numbers of schizonts, gamonts, and developing oocysts are in epithelial cells on villi and sometimes in crypts.
T90530 1189493-1189684 Sentence denotes Atrophy of villi, or erosion and local hemorrhage or inflammatory effusion may be evident, the lamina propria is edematous, and desquamated epithelium and oocysts are in the lumen of the gut.
T91098 1189685-1189758 Sentence denotes Rarely, heavily infected animals may have lesions in the large intestine.
T59839 1189759-1189866 Sentence denotes The species involved are diagnosed on the basis of the morphology of oocysts in feces or mucosal scrapings.
T79215 1189867-1190035 Sentence denotes Coccidial gamonts and oocysts of a species resembling E. debliecki have been found infecting epithelium on the papilliform mucosa of cystic bile ducts in porcine liver.
T37320 1190036-1190085 Sentence denotes This is probably an aberrant site of development.
T82895 1190086-1190169 Sentence denotes Barta JR, et to be caused by Toxoplasma-induced atrophy of villi and malabsorption.
T1403 1190170-1190283 Sentence denotes In intermediate hosts and in cats, extraintestinal asexual development occurs in a variety of organs and tissues.
T26630 1190284-1190496 Sentence denotes Rapidly dividing forms (tachyzoites) may by endodyogeny proliferate in cells in many sites for an indefinite number of generations, and are the stage associated with acute toxoplasmosis in cats and other species.
T29441 1190497-1190652 Sentence denotes Eventually, tachyzoites induce the formation of a cyst wall in a host cell, and divide slowly, forming bradyzoites, which reside in quiescent tissue cysts.
T14236 1190653-1190775 Sentence denotes T. gondii, with Neospora caninum, is unique among protists in its ability to parasitize a wide range of hosts and tissues.
T1925 1190776-1191040 Sentence denotes It is one of the most ubiquitous of organisms; experimentally, essentially all homeothermic animals can be infected, and natural infections occur in birds, nonhuman primates, rodents, insectivores, herbivores, and carnivores, including domestic species and humans.
T25931 1191041-1191219 Sentence denotes Serologic surveys indicate that infection is widespread in most species of domestic animals; however, except for abortions in sheep and goats, overt disease is sporadic and rare.
T5001 1191220-1191275 Sentence denotes Transmission may occur by a number of different routes.
T31884 1191276-1191364 Sentence denotes The shedding of oocysts in the feces of cats and wild felids has been mentioned earlier.
T81938 1191365-1191462 Sentence denotes Transplacental infection occurs commonly in sheep and goats and sporadically in swine and humans.
T84997 1191463-1191759 Sentence denotes Carnivorous animals and humans may become infected by ingesting oocysts from cats, or more commonly from cysts containing bradyzoites in tissues of infected animals, implying that the cycle of infection can be maintained by means of facultative homoxenous transmission, without a definitive host.
T25105 1191760-1191907 Sentence denotes It has been shown that infected rodents will lose avoidance behaviors to feline odor, and instead become attracted to areas where cats are present.
T94907 1191908-1191959 Sentence denotes This may favor transmission to the definitive host.
T11957 1191960-1192095 Sentence denotes Systemic toxoplasmosis occurs most often in young animals, especially immunologically immature neonates and in immunocompromised hosts.
T15725 1192096-1192303 Sentence denotes Toxoplasma gondii infection leads to alterations of proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokine production, which includes production of IL-10, which is a negative regulator of IL-12 and interferon gamma.
T59710 1192304-1192440 Sentence denotes Low levels of interferon gamma and the associated inability to activate macrophages are predisposing factors for systemic toxoplasmosis.
T98754 1192441-1192544 Sentence denotes In dogs, canine distemper, ehrlichiosis, and lymphosarcoma are commonly concomitant with toxoplasmosis.
T95455 1192545-1192614 Sentence denotes The infection in juveniles may be acquired prenatally or postnatally.
T91403 1192615-1192685 Sentence denotes After ingestion, Toxoplasma organisms penetrate the intestinal mucosa.
T75464 1192686-1192773 Sentence denotes In cats, the enterointestinal cycle and systemic infection occur almost simultaneously.
T38122 1192774-1193003 Sentence denotes In other animals the tachyzoites are the first stage of infection, after invasion of the lamina propria by sporozoites released from the oocyst, or by bradyzoites released from the tissue cyst digested from food in the intestine.
T39611 1193004-1193110 Sentence denotes Dissemination of Toxoplasma occurs in lymphocytes, macrophages, granulocytes, and as free forms in plasma.
T56664 1193111-1193163 Sentence denotes From the intestine the organism may follow 2 routes.
T46116 1193164-1193365 Sentence denotes It may spread via the lymphocytes to the regional nodes and from there in the lymph to the bloodstream, or it may pass in the portal circulation to the liver and from there to the systemic circulation.
T75469 1193366-1193423 Sentence denotes Further dissemination occurs to a wide variety of organs.
T86141 1193424-1193563 Sentence denotes Tachyzoites actively invade or are phagocytosed by host cells and are surrounded in a parasitophorous vacuole formed of host cell membrane.
T28606 1193564-1193678 Sentence denotes Tachyzoites proliferate, destroying the host cell, and cell-to-cell transmission may occur within infected organs.
T49614 1193679-1193740 Sentence denotes intestine, and occasionally in epithelium in the large bowel.
T71749 1193741-1193774 Sentence denotes The oocyst is large, ∼43 × 33 µm.
T47149 1193775-1193881 Sentence denotes C. rivolta also develops in epithelium on villi and in crypts and glands in the small and large intestine.
T76919 1193882-1193913 Sentence denotes Oocysts are ovoid, ∼25 × 23 µm.
T88516 1193914-1194060 Sentence denotes Subepithelial schizonts and gamonts of an unknown coccidian, possibly a Cystoisospora species, have been associated with fatal enteritis in a cat.
T9957 1194061-1194139 Sentence denotes Coccidiosis in the dog and cat is largely a clinical entity, usually nonfatal.
T15226 1194140-1194375 Sentence denotes The lesions of coccidiosis in small animals are poorly defined, and care must be taken not to ascribe disease to these organisms simply on the basis of the presence of endogenous stages in the mucosa of animals dead of enteric disease.
T843 1194376-1194445 Sentence denotes Rotavirus and coronavirus might be expected to produce similar signs.
T9701 1194446-1194544 Sentence denotes However, genuine cases of fatal coccidiosis do occur, although few are recorded in the literature.
T35062 1194545-1194699 Sentence denotes Affected animals are young, and usually from environments such as pet shops, animal shelters, or kennels in which standards of sanitation may not be high.
T21574 1194700-1194787 Sentence denotes There is a history of diarrhea of several days' duration, and the animal is dehydrated.
T14709 1194788-1194936 Sentence denotes Other than mild hyperemia of the mucosa and excessively fluid content of the small intestine and colon, gross lesions in the gut may not be evident.
T93021 1194937-1195121 Sentence denotes Microscopically, there may be moderate atrophy of villi, with attenuation of surface enterocytes, and perhaps effusion of acute inflammatory exudate from the tips of some eroded villi.
T17449 1195122-1195246 Sentence denotes Asexual and sexual stages of coccidia are evident in moderate to large numbers in the epithelium or lamina propria of villi.
T7189 1195247-1195393 Sentence denotes In some cases the large bowel may be infected, with exfoliation of surface epithelium, and accumulation of necrotic debris in some dilated glands.
T7161 1195394-1195408 Sentence denotes Toxoplasmosis.
T70435 1195409-1195459 Sentence denotes Toxoplasma gondii uses felids as definitive hosts.
T60466 1195460-1195635 Sentence denotes It is optionally heteroxenous; cats may be infected directly by ingestion of oocysts, but probably most commonly by ingestion of asexual stages in the tissues of prey species.
T87617 1195636-1195770 Sentence denotes Cats excrete oocysts 3-10 days after ingesting bradyzoites, ∼13 days after ingesting tachyzoites, and 18 days after ingesting oocysts.
T84348 1195771-1195934 Sentence denotes Transmission efficacy varies and cats can become infected after ingestion of one bradyzoite, whereas ingestion of 1,000 oocysts is required to establish infection.
T98772 1195935-1196054 Sentence denotes Intermediate hosts are infected by oocysts shed in the feces of cats, or by a variety of other routes considered later.
T29926 1196055-1196193 Sentence denotes Five stages of asexual development are recognized in the intestinal epithelium of cats infected with tissue cysts from intermediate hosts.
T45326 1196194-1196271 Sentence denotes The gametocytes also develop in epithelium on villi, especially in the ileum.
T3471 1196272-1196380 Sentence denotes Most cats will shed oocytes once, however, in cases of immunosuppression repeated oocyte shedding may occur.
T13504 1196381-1196629 Sentence denotes In heavy infections, exfoliation of infected epithelium from villi is associated with the development of villus atrophy, and occasional spontaneous cases of diarrhea in kittens seem may be present in the renal cortices, mainly in goats and kittens.
T41506 1196630-1196858 Sentence denotes Microscopically, the early pulmonary lesions are characterized by diffuse interstitial pneumonia; the alveolar septa are thickened by a predominantly mononuclear inflammatory cell reaction with a few neutrophils and eosinophils.
T30878 1196859-1196910 Sentence denotes Macrophages and fibrinous exudate fill the alveoli.
T51361 1196911-1197043 Sentence denotes Foci of necrosis involving the alveolar septa, bronchiolar epithelial cells, and blood vessels are scattered throughout the lobules.
T90271 1197044-1197247 Sentence denotes These lesions are soon followed by regenerative changes that are characterized by hyperplasia and hypertrophy of alveolar lining cells, mainly type II pneumocytes: so-called epithelialization of alveoli.
T52160 1197248-1197340 Sentence denotes In some areas this may be so marked as to give the affected areas an adenomatous appearance.
T27861 1197341-1197482 Sentence denotes Tachyzoites are usually evident in alveolar macrophages and also may be found in bronchiolar epithelial cells and the walls of blood vessels.
T24994 1197483-1197583 Sentence denotes In the liver, irregular foci of coagulative necrosis are scattered at random throughout the lobules.
T78914 1197584-1197668 Sentence denotes There is usually little evidence of inflammation associated with the necrotic areas.
T99928 1197669-1197818 Sentence denotes Variable numbers of tachyzoites may be present in hepatocytes and Kupffer cells, usually at the periphery of the lesions, but often at some distance.
T95287 1197819-1197945 Sentence denotes If the pancreas is involved, there is extensive peripancreatic fat necrosis, with areas of coagulative necrosis in parenchyma.
T85804 1197946-1198019 Sentence denotes Numerous tachyzoites usually are evident in both ductal and acinar cells.
T65742 1198020-1198106 Sentence denotes Lesions in lymph nodes often are associated with infection in the corresponding organ.
T43572 1198107-1198195 Sentence denotes They are characterized by irregular areas of coagulative necrosis, mainly in the cortex.
T61211 1198196-1198283 Sentence denotes A moderate inflammatory reaction may be evident at the periphery of the necrotic areas.
T77251 1198284-1198352 Sentence denotes There may be necrosis and depletion of lymphocytes in the follicles.
T98163 1198353-1198541 Sentence denotes In more chronic cases, the changes are those of nonspecific hyperplasia of lymphoid cells in cortical and paracortical areas, with a large macrophage population in the medullary sinusoids.
T60227 1198542-1198599 Sentence denotes Tachyzoites may be seen in phagocytic cells in sinusoids.
T33132 1198600-1198640 Sentence denotes Similar lesions may occur in the spleen.
T10671 1198641-1198705 Sentence denotes Necrotic areas are mainly located in the red pulp in this organ.
T17440 1198706-1198820 Sentence denotes In the heart and skeletal muscle, foci of necrosis and mononuclear cell inflammation may be part of toxoplasmosis.
T6239 1198821-1199045 Sentence denotes There is often some difficulty in distinguishing between tachyzoites and mineralization of mitochondria in myocytes but, at some distance from areas of acute reaction, inert cysts usually can be identified in healthy fibers.
T96756 1199046-1199083 Sentence denotes Brain lesions may vary in appearance.
T83833 1199084-1199163 Sentence denotes In the most fulminating cases cerebral lesions may be relatively inconspicuous.
T70009 1199164-1199267 Sentence denotes They consist of nonsuppurative meningoencephalitis with multifocal areas of necrosis and often malacia.
T73275 1199268-1199349 Sentence denotes There is swelling of endothelial cells, necrosis of vessel walls, and vasculitis.
T65731 1199350-1199426 Sentence denotes There may be marked perivascular edema and hyperplasia of perithelial cells.
T81384 1199427-1199570 Sentence denotes Tachyzoites and occasionally cysts may be found in vessel walls and in necrotic areas in both gray and white matter at all levels of the brain.
T96872 1199571-1199782 Sentence denotes If survival is prolonged, residual cerebral lesions consist of microglial nodules along with more extensive hyperplasia of perithelial cells and perivascular fibrosis that tends to make the vessels very obvious.
T39763 1199783-1199974 Sentence denotes At this stage tachyzoites are rare, and cysts 30 µm in diameter with a wall of amorphous acidophilic material ∼0.5 µm thick, located in areas away from the lesions, may be the only form seen.
T71424 1199975-1200028 Sentence denotes Spinal cord lesions resemble those seen in the brain.
T80075 1200029-1200147 Sentence denotes Systemic toxoplasmosis is reported from cats, but is certainly seen less commonly in this species than in some others.
T40957 1200148-1200205 Sentence denotes Lesions are similar to those described for other species.
T37887 1200206-1200359 Sentence denotes Chronic granulomatous toxoplasmosis may involve the Focal necrosis is common, and appears to be directly related to the rapid replication of tachyzoites.
T67118 1200360-1200544 Sentence denotes The outcome of infection is determined by a number of factors, including the number and strain of Toxoplasma in the infecting dose, and the species, age, and immune status of the host.
T57399 1200545-1200630 Sentence denotes Lesions in visceral organs are usually evident within 1-2 weeks after oral infection.
T77397 1200631-1200719 Sentence denotes Variable numbers of tachyzoites are usually found in the vicinity of the necrotic areas.
T86570 1200720-1200915 Sentence denotes Specific immunity develops within a few days after infection; the cell-mediated arm is most significant in toxoplasmosis, mediated in large part by interleukin-12 and interferon gamma production.
T9181 1200916-1200989 Sentence denotes This reduces the severity of infection but usually does not terminate it.
T54357 1200990-1201100 Sentence denotes Infection by Toxoplasma interferes with the cell-mediated immune response, but does not completely inhibit it.
T10367 1201101-1201223 Sentence denotes The remaining cell-mediated immune capacity may control pathogen proliferation and promote progression to chronic disease.
T22532 1201224-1201373 Sentence denotes In experimental models lacking cytokines associated with cell-mediated immunity, including γ-interferon, Toxoplasma infection is nearly always fatal.
T8768 1201374-1201492 Sentence denotes The chronic or dormant form of Toxoplasma infection is characterized by the formation of cysts containing bradyzoites.
T22671 1201493-1201564 Sentence denotes These are mainly located in the brain, skeletal muscle, and myocardium.
T55231 1201565-1201666 Sentence denotes Cysts may form as early as 1-2 weeks after infection and they may persist for months, possibly years.
T64741 1201667-1201766 Sentence denotes Intracellular encystment protects the bradyzoites from both cellular and humoral immune mechanisms.
T69037 1201767-1201817 Sentence denotes Inflammation is usually not associated with cysts.
T1286 1201818-1202093 Sentence denotes When the level of resistance drops below a critical level, for example, because of treatment with immunosuppressive drugs, intercurrent disease, or other factors that depress immunity, particularly decreased levels of γ-interferon, a chronic infection may become reactivated.
T13512 1202094-1202148 Sentence denotes The cysts rupture and cause severe local inflammation.
T75149 1202149-1202264 Sentence denotes In experimental murine models, bradyzoites have been shown to revert to tachyzoites in the absence of γ-interferon.
T81460 1202265-1202353 Sentence denotes The clinical signs of toxoplasmosis vary considerably, depending on the organs affected.
T73395 1202354-1202474 Sentence denotes The most consistent signs reported are fever, lethargy, anorexia, ocular and nasal discharges, and respiratory distress.
T70589 1202475-1202574 Sentence denotes Neurologic signs include incoordination, circling, tremors, opisthotonos, convulsions, and paresis.
T97876 1202575-1202633 Sentence denotes Paresis is often associated with radiculitis and myositis.
T84836 1202634-1202762 Sentence denotes In the dog signs may coexist with those of canine distemper and are not sufficiently distinctive to allow ready differentiation.
T16189 1202763-1202840 Sentence denotes Systemic toxoplasmosis has been reported in most species of domestic animals.
T43638 1202841-1202974 Sentence denotes The hallmarks are interstitial pneumonia, focal hepatic necrosis, lymphadenitis, myocarditis, and nonsuppurative meningoencephalitis.
T4015 1202975-1203074 Sentence denotes Pulmonary lesions are probably most consistently found, followed by central nervous system lesions.
T17981 1203075-1203179 Sentence denotes The lesions in the various organs are morphologically similar in most species, varying mainly in degree.
T13107 1203180-1203353 Sentence denotes Macroscopic lesions in the lung vary from irregular gray foci of necrosis on the pleural surface to hemorrhagic pneumonia with confluent involvement of the ventral portions.
T80726 1203354-1203486 Sentence denotes Careful examination of the liver usually reveals either areas of focal necrosis or irregular mottling, and edema of the gallbladder.
T93825 1203487-1203559 Sentence denotes The spleen is enlarged, as are lymph nodes, which are wet and often red.
T97586 1203560-1203625 Sentence denotes Pleural, pericardial, and peritoneal effusions occur irregularly.
T24484 1203626-1203690 Sentence denotes Pale areas may be evident in the myocardium and skeletal muscle.
T26319 1203691-1203827 Sentence denotes Occasionally the pancreas is the most severely affected organ, in which case an acute hemorrhagic reaction may involve the entire organ.
T48418 1203828-1203927 Sentence denotes Yellow, small, superficial intestinal ulcers with a hyperemic border have been reported in piglets.
T36042 1203928-1204063 Sentence denotes Large pale areas of necrosis Cell-mediated immunity including production of IL-12 and γ-interferon may be related to immune resistance.
T22014 1204064-1204375 Sentence denotes In acute systemic infections, there may be hepatic enlargement with coalescing areas of pallor related to widespread necrosis of hepatocytes; streaky pallor of muscles resulting from myonecrosis, mineralization, and nonsuppurative myositis; and pulmonary congestion and edema resulting from subacute alveolitis.
T4575 1204376-1204419 Sentence denotes Tachyzoites are common in affected tissues.
T74788 1204420-1204677 Sentence denotes Nonsuppurative encephalomyelitis is associated with the presence of tachyzoites and tissue cysts in neurons and neuropil; the degree of necrosis, gliosis, neovascularization, and demyelination presumably depends to some extent on the duration of the lesion.
T85819 1204678-1204794 Sentence denotes Retinitis is also reported in association with Neospora, as is pyogranulomatous ulcerative dermatitis, occasionally.
T43909 1204795-1204968 Sentence denotes In ruminant abortion, Neospora may be associated with necrotizing placentitis, and with myositis and nonsuppurative encephalomyelitis of the fetus after ∼90 days' gestation.
T90242 1204969-1205087 Sentence denotes Gestation may lead to diminished γ-interferon production and this may promote dissemination of parasites to the fetus.
T4778 1205088-1205233 Sentence denotes Although a well-documented etiologic agent of abortion in cattle, the extent of natural Neospora-induced abortions in sheep and goats is unknown.
T65438 1205234-1205340 Sentence denotes Experimentally, sheep and pigs experience placental infection and necrotizing encephalitis in the fetuses.
T20334 1205341-1205416 Sentence denotes N. caninum also has been reported from a case of equine protozoal myelitis.
T93776 1205417-1205504 Sentence denotes Neospora has been isolated from wildlife including white tailed deer and water buffalo.
T75373 1205505-1205701 Sentence denotes Tachyzoites are approximately ovoid, ∼5-7 µm long, and are found in small groups or large clusters, free in the cytoplasm or in parasitophorous vacuoles in many types of cells throughout the body.
T54198 1205702-1205759 Sentence denotes Tissue cysts are found in only the brain and spinal cord.
T1023 1205760-1205837 Sentence denotes They are spherical or slightly elongate, up to ∼110 µm in greatest dimension.
T42719 1205838-1206043 Sentence denotes The cyst wall is ∼1-4 µm thick, usually greater than the width of the bradyzoites, which are slender (1.5 × 7 µm), slightly curved, with an obvious nucleus; they stain weakly periodic acid-Schiff-positive.
T98063 1206044-1206147 Sentence denotes Neospora must be distinguished from Toxoplasma in all species, and from Sarcocystis in aborted fetuses.
T64211 1206148-1206216 Sentence denotes Neospora tachyzoites resemble those of Toxoplasma in tissue section.
T63953 1206217-1206313 Sentence denotes Ultrastructurally, Neospora tachyzoites have >11 rhoptries, whereas there are few in Toxoplasma.
T53822 1206314-1206455 Sentence denotes Toxoplasma is always found in a membrane-bound vacuole in the cytoplasm; Neospora tachyzoites are often not within a parasitophorous vacuole.
T36972 1206456-1206543 Sentence denotes Neospora tissue cysts are relatively uncommonly encountered, especially in acute cases.
T4071 1206544-1206639 Sentence denotes They are distinguished from Toxoplasma by the thicker wall (thinner than 0.5 µm in Toxoplasma).
T80946 1206640-1206781 Sentence denotes Perhaps the most common method of distinction is by immunohistochemistry using specific antibodies; polymerase chain reaction is also useful.
T9592 1206782-1206934 Sentence denotes Sarcocystis meronts divide by endopolygony in endothelium in domestic animals; they are not in a parasitophorous vacuole; and merozoites lack rhoptries.
T25974 1206935-1207079 Sentence denotes Sarcocysts in muscle cells are within a parasitophorous vacuole; they have a distinct wall; and they are usually subdivided internally by septa.
T45911 1207080-1207092 Sentence denotes Neosporosis.
T85484 1207093-1207170 Sentence denotes Neospora caninum causes disease in dogs and ruminants over much of the world.
T64148 1207171-1207306 Sentence denotes Dogs, Australian dingoes, and coyotes are definitive hosts; cattle, water buffalo, and white-tailed deer can act as intermediate hosts.
T43459 1207307-1207450 Sentence denotes Neospora has been associated with systemic and central nervous system disease in dogs, and with abortion and CNS disease in neonatal ruminants.
T17079 1207451-1207564 Sentence denotes Tachyzoites undergoing endodyogeny and cysts containing bradyzoites are found in the tissues of affected animals.
T60386 1207565-1207622 Sentence denotes Transplacental transmission occurs in ruminants and dogs.
T52477 1207623-1207834 Sentence denotes Infection may be maintained in lines of cattle in this manner, whereas some subclinically infected bitches have given birth to successive litters of pups that became affected within the first few months of life.
T12506 1207835-1207916 Sentence denotes Transmission may also occur by ingestion of infected tissue, as in toxoplasmosis.
T41107 1207917-1208141 Sentence denotes Dogs of all ages may be affected, but disease seems most characteristic as encephalomyelitis, polyradiculoneuritis, and polymyositis in puppies greater than ∼5 weeks of age, and perhaps involving several animals in a litter.
T97962 1208142-1208318 Sentence denotes Ascending paralysis, muscle contraction causing hyperextension of the limbs, cervical weakness, and dysphagia may progress to death, or animals stabilize with caudal paralysis.
T4085 1208319-1208510 Sentence denotes In adult dogs there are signs of widespread involvement of the CNS, and disseminated disease may be evident, with polymyositis, myocarditis, and dermatitis associated with parasite infection.
T63423 1208511-1208691 Sentence denotes Although disease may be precipitated or exacerbated by glucocorticoid administration, Neospora is regarded as a primary pathogen. abortion occurs during this phase in some species.
T42788 1208692-1208812 Sentence denotes Abortion associated with the acute disease is the result of the systemic illness, and the fetus is usually not infected.
T4712 1208813-1209057 Sentence denotes However, in cattle, some abortions, seen in otherwise clinically normal animals, are associated with meronts of Sarcocystis in the placenta and in vascular endothelium of the fetus, especially in the brain, and with nonsuppurative encephalitis.
T16446 1209058-1209204 Sentence denotes Encephalitis is occasionally associated with Sarcocystis infection in sheep, and in horses S. neurona is the cause of protozoal myeloencephalitis.
T37127 1209205-1209253 Sentence denotes Details of these syndromes are discussed in Vol.
T62471 1209254-1209280 Sentence denotes 1, Muscle and tendon; Vol.
T15205 1209281-1209311 Sentence denotes 3, Female genital system; Vol.
T32696 1209312-1209330 Sentence denotes 1, Nervous system.
T47936 1209331-1209452 Sentence denotes Sarcocystis spp. have been identified as causing rare incidents of severe myositis in dogs and encephalomyelitis in cats.
T26874 1209453-1209580 Sentence denotes A Sarcocystis-like agent also has been implicated in mortality of Rottweiler dogs with hepatitis, encephalitis, and dermatitis.
T49644 1209581-1209597 Sentence denotes to another host.
T70219 1209598-1209765 Sentence denotes Multiple generations of merogony, and autoinfection by excystment of thin-walled oocysts, result in a large biotic potential and promote heavy colonization of the gut.
T97886 1209766-1209974 Sentence denotes The organisms are enclosed within a parasitophorous vacuole formed by apposition of two unit membranes of the host cell, probably caused by inversion of a microvillus by the infecting sporozoite or merozoite.
T30993 1209975-1210136 Sentence denotes A specialized "feeder" organelle is present at the attachment zone in the base of the vacuole, between the infecting organism and the cytoplasm of the host cell.
T3571 1210137-1210203 Sentence denotes Developmental stages are small, in most cases ∼2-6 µm in diameter.
T30424 1210204-1210289 Sentence denotes Undifferentiated meronts and gamonts are recognized as small basophilic trophozoites.
T49263 1210290-1210342 Sentence denotes Mature schizonts contain small falciform merozoites.
T8397 1210343-1210406 Sentence denotes Macrogamonts are ∼5 µm in diameter, and contain small granules.
T45886 1210407-1210476 Sentence denotes Oocysts in tissue sections are often collapsed into a crescent shape.
T71326 1210477-1210629 Sentence denotes The various stages may be recognized in wax- or plastic-embedded sections under the light microscope, but are best studied with the electron microscope.
T25086 1210630-1210869 Sentence denotes Oocysts containing 4 sporozoites may be demonstrated by fecal flotation, or in fecal smears stained with Giemsa, by a modified Ziehl-Neelsen technique, or with Auramine O or fluorescein-labeled antibody and examined with ultraviolet light.
T71133 1210870-1210975 Sentence denotes Cryptosporidia are found in many circumstances, and in some species infection appears to be asymptomatic.
T831 1210976-1211145 Sentence denotes Neonates are particularly susceptible to intestinal infections, and this is especially so among ruminants (calves, lambs, kids, red deer calves) infected with C. parvum.
T21482 1211146-1211264 Sentence denotes Diarrhea, anorexia, and depression in calves usually occur between ∼1 and 4 weeks of age, and in lambs ∼5-14 days old.
T49149 1211265-1211363 Sentence denotes However, naïve calves up to 3 months of age are susceptible to infection and may develop diarrhea.
T22596 1211364-1211540 Sentence denotes Cryptosporidial infections are mainly eliminated by cellmediated immune responses, including γ-interferon production by CD4 T lymphocytes, but the humoral arm also contributes.
T52386 1211541-1211629 Sentence denotes Immunosuppression is contributory to, but not essential for, the development of disease.
T51604 1211630-1211824 Sentence denotes Heavy infections are reported in Arabian foals with combined immunodeficiency, and cryptosporidiosis has occurred in cats with feline leukemia virus infection, and in dogs with canine distemper.
T88540 1211825-1211951 Sentence denotes In immunocompromised individuals organisms may be present at any level of the gastrointestinal tract, from esophagus to colon.
T44868 1211952-1212049 Sentence denotes Liver, gallbladder, pancreas, and their ducts also may be involved, as may the respiratory tract.
T79816 1212050-1212222 Sentence denotes Cryptosporidia frequently occur concurrently with enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, rotaviral, or coronaviral infection in neonatal ruminants, but can be primary pathogens.
T79084 1212223-1212419 Sentence denotes In all species, intestinal cryptosporidiosis is associated with villus atrophy of variable severity, characterized by blunting and some fusion of villi, and by hypertrophy of crypts of Lieberkühn.
T90545 1212420-1212562 Sentence denotes Surface epithelium is usually cuboidal, rounded, or low columnar, and sometimes exfoliating or forming irregular projections at tips of villi.
T16268 1212563-1212755 Sentence denotes Large numbers of cryptosporidia are usually visible in the microvillus border of cells on the villi ( Fig. 1-193) , and not in crypts of Lieberkühn, although occasionally, the reverse is true.
T25446 1212756-1212939 Sentence denotes Organisms typically are most heavily distributed in the distal half of the small intestine, especially in ileum, although occasionally cryptosporidia may occur in the cecum and colon.
T101 1212940-1213104 Sentence denotes Mild proprial infiltrates of neutrophils and mixed mononuclear cells are present, probably attracted by proinflammatory cytokines released from infected epithelium.
T98919 1213105-1213206 Sentence denotes An increase in intraepithelial T lymphocytes has been documented in the intestine of infected calves.
T51543 1213207-1213261 Sentence denotes A B similar species of Cryptosporidium are recognized.
T75963 1213262-1213454 Sentence denotes Five of these occur in domestic animals: (1) C. parvum, small, and initially described in the mouse intestine, but parasitic in cattle, other ruminants, and humans; (2) C. andersoni in cattle;
T2511 1213455-1213523 Sentence denotes (3) C. suis in pigs; (4) C. felis in cats; and (5) C. canis in dogs.
T30636 1213524-1213756 Sentence denotes C. parvum is zoonotic, as are C. suis, C. felis, and C. canis to a lesser extent, and disease in humans has been associated with contamination of water sources, food and milk products, as well as close contact with infected animals.
T19959 1213757-1213946 Sentence denotes However, humans also have a primate-adapted species, C. hominis, and it is probably responsible for the majority of outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis not associated with direct animal contact.
T98349 1213947-1214169 Sentence denotes All 3 stages of the Cryptosporidium life cycle-merogony, gametogony, and sporogony-occur extracytoplasmically in a vacuole within the apical region of epithelial cells, protruding above the cell surface ( Fig. 1-192A, B) .
T56395 1214170-1214321 Sentence denotes The prepatent period of C. parvum in calves is ∼7 days and infections usually persist for weeks or, if the animal is immunocompromised, perhaps months.
T75745 1214322-1214457 Sentence denotes Type I merozoites recycle in a new host cell to produce another meront generation, whereas type II merozoites differentiate to gamonts.
T71464 1214458-1214676 Sentence denotes Thin-walled oocysts excyst in the gut of the same host, resulting in autoinfection by the sporozoites released, whereas thick-walled oocysts are excreted to the external environment and are responsible for transmission
T10304 1214678-1214930 Sentence denotes Diarrhea in cryptosporidiosis is mainly attributable to malabsorption associated with villus atrophy and a population of immature enterocytes; and perhaps to the occupation of a large proportion of the surface area of absorptive cells by the organisms.
T24333 1214931-1215124 Sentence denotes Release of inflammatory mediators, principally prostaglandins, may stimulate mucosal secretion, and an increase in epithelial cell permeability to macromolecules has been demonstrated in vitro.
T64975 1215125-1215318 Sentence denotes Cryptosporidium parvum is most significant in calves, as a cause of undifferentiated neonatal diarrhea, in which it must be differentiated particularly from coronaviral and rotaviral infection.
T19125 1215319-1215442 Sentence denotes Frequently it is concurrent with other agents causing this syndrome; it tends to be most prevalent in animals ∼2 weeks old.
T96516 1215443-1215564 Sentence denotes A similar situation occurs in lambs, although disease does not appear to be as common or well recognized in that species.
T11098 1215565-1215655 Sentence denotes It is a sporadic or minor cause of sometimes fatal diarrhea in other species of ruminants.
T97535 1215656-1215759 Sentence denotes Several species are susceptible to Cryptosporidium infection; however, many infections are subclinical.
T6521 1215760-1215885 Sentence denotes Although cryptosporidiosis can be induced experimentally in piglets, it is a very rare cause of spontaneous disease in swine.
T87415 1215886-1216002 Sentence denotes It is only occasionally associated with disease of carnivores, and then often in probably immunocompromised animals.
T48817 1216003-1216183 Sentence denotes Although infection of foals is not uncommon, Cryptosporidium has been associated with disease mainly in animals with combined immunodeficiency, complicated by adenoviral infection.
T35852 1216184-1216419 Sentence denotes Disease has not occurred in successful experimental infections in foals, and the role of cryptosporidia in the etiology of neonatal diarrhea in foals is poorly defined, although occasional outbreaks attributable to C. parvum may occur.
T959 1216420-1216592 Sentence denotes The diagnosis is based on the presence of large numbers of cryptosporidia in sections of freshly fixed lower small intestine, preferably in association with villus atrophy.
T77819 1216593-1216747 Sentence denotes Examination of smears of ileal mucosa stained with Giemsa may allow a rapid diagnosis, or permit a diagnosis on tissue from an animal dead for some hours.
T55433 1216748-1216948 Sentence denotes C. andersoni, in the abomasum of weaned calves and older cattle, is not associated with diarrhea, but plasma pepsinogen levels rise, and weight gains of some growing animals may be adversely affected.
T67946 1216949-1217110 Sentence denotes There is mucous metaplasia/ hyperplasia in the fundic glands, which are dilated, with attenuation of the lining epithelium, on which cryptosporidia are numerous.
T75027 1217111-1217174 Sentence denotes Infections have been associated with decreased milk production.
T52533 1217175-1217279 Sentence denotes Rarely, cryptosporidia are seen in gastric biopsies from cats, sometimes associated with mild gastritis.
T28952 1217280-1217406 Sentence denotes There is some indication that concurrent infection with Helicobacter felis will precipitate disease because of cryptosporidia.
T20455 1217407-1217568 Sentence denotes A mixed infection of C. muris (stomach) and C. felis (small intestine) was identified in an adult cat with diarrhea that was refractory to therapy. with disease.
T27506 1217569-1217744 Sentence denotes Tritrichomonas foetus is associated with persistent large-bowel diarrhea, refractory to treatment, in cats <1 year of age, and the syndrome has been reproduced experimentally.
T78821 1217745-1217857 Sentence denotes The microscopic lesions are typical of chronic mucosal colitis, most severe in areas colonized by the organisms.
T25378 1217858-1218114 Sentence denotes The diagnosis is confirmed in section by detection of pyriform or crescent-shaped organisms, ∼5 × 7 µm in size, with a faint nucleus and eosinophilic cytoplasm, applied to the surface epithelium, or in the lumen of colonic glands, usually in large numbers.
T3906 1218115-1218307 Sentence denotes However, the organisms are present in only a little more than half the sections examined from infected cats, and multiple samples may be necessary to have a high probability of detecting them.
T17140 1218308-1218611 Sentence denotes In some cases trichomonads appear to disrupt the epithelium, attaining the subepithelial lamina propria around crypts, or they are associated with ulceration and foci of necrosis and pyogranulomatous inflammation that are distributed transmurally in affected areas of colon, and in draining lymph nodes.
T6407 1218612-1218628 Sentence denotes Foster DM, et al
T28109 1218630-1218790 Sentence denotes Balantidium is a large oval protist ∼50-60 µm or more long, and ∼25-45 µm wide, with a macronucleus and micronucleus, and covered by many cilia arrayed in rows.
T29619 1218791-1218865 Sentence denotes B. coli occurs in the large bowel of swine, humans, and nonhuman primates.
T5003 1218866-1218951 Sentence denotes It is very common in pigs, and many infected humans live in close contact with swine.
T68059 1218952-1219069 Sentence denotes It has been reported from a horse and from several dogs with access to swine yards, as a complication of trichurosis.
T16414 1219070-1219232 Sentence denotes Balantidium is normally present as a commensal in the lumen of the cecum and colon, but is capable of opportunistic invasion of tissues injured by other diseases.
T44660 1219233-1219280 Sentence denotes On rare occasions it may be a primary pathogen.
T26455 1219281-1219602 Sentence denotes In swine, in which the organisms are most commonly encountered by veterinary pathologists, Balantidium may be found at the leading edge of the crateriform necrotizing or ulcerative lesions of the large intestine that develop secondary to intestinal adenomatosis ( Fig. 1-194 ), swine dysentery, or perhaps salmonellosis.
T45069 1219603-1219808 Sentence denotes Balantidium is recognized in tissue by large size, ovoid shape, the dense curved or kidney-shaped macronucleus, and the presence of cilia (which may be accentuated by silver stains) in rows on the surface.
T37933 1219809-1219884 Sentence denotes Also, D-xylose malabsorption was not demonstrated in a dog with giardiosis.
T41525 1219885-1220001 Sentence denotes Selective deficiencies in some brush border enzymes occur in humans with giardiosis, and in Giardia-infected calves.
T97254 1220002-1220153 Sentence denotes Possibly these are related to the direct effects of Giardia on microvilli, which may be deformed adjacent to adherent organisms or diffusely shortened.
T10124 1220154-1220240 Sentence denotes Giardia may also inhibit the activity of pancreatic lipase, causing fat malabsorption.
T15348 1220241-1220407 Sentence denotes However, bacterial overgrowth of the small intestine may occur with Giardia infection, and associated bile salt deconjugation could explain steatorrhea in giardiosis.
T30750 1220408-1220472 Sentence denotes Several mechanisms have been proposed to explain these findings.
T25498 1220473-1220606 Sentence denotes Although villus atrophy may occur in humans with giardiosis, this mainly occurs in a subgroup of patients with hypogammaglobulinemia.
T76659 1220607-1220747 Sentence denotes Marked histologic abnormality is not found in many cases of giardiosis in humans, and this also seems to be true for dogs, cats, and calves.
T73364 1220748-1220980 Sentence denotes In experimental murine giardiosis, infection is associated with hypertrophy of crypts and increased production of cells, combined with an increased rate of movement of enterocytes along villi, with an increased crypt : villus ratio.
T11165 1220981-1221164 Sentence denotes Deficiencies in brush border form and function may be attributable to incomplete differentiation of enterocytes in this circumstance, or perhaps to damage mediated by mucosal T cells.
T65434 1221165-1221322 Sentence denotes Intraepithelial lymphocytes are common in infected intestine, and altered epithelial kinetics may be related to cell-mediated immune reactions in the mucosa.
T8458 1221323-1221424 Sentence denotes Infection may lead to increased enterocyte apoptosis, and alterations in epithelial barrier function.
T63813 1221425-1221525 Sentence denotes Infection has been shown in experimental models to interfere with tight junctions in the epithelium.
T4622 1221526-1221744 Sentence denotes Atrophy of villi has been associated with restoration of cell-mediated immune competence in Giardia-infected athymic mice, reinforcing the notion that immune phenomena may be involved in the pathogenesis of giardiosis.
T91446 1221745-1222021 Sentence denotes Giardiosis is usually diagnosed clinically on the basis of typical cysts in fecal flotations, or trophozoites in intestinal aspirates or fecal smears, coupled with remission of clinical signs following therapy, and an inability to identify other potential causes of the signs.
T96129 1222022-1222110 Sentence denotes Sometimes a diagnosis is based on findings in biopsies of small intestine or at autopsy.
T26105 1222111-1222217 Sentence denotes In all species, morphologic changes in the mucosa are not well defined in spontaneous cases of giardiosis.
T56663 1222218-1222442 Sentence denotes The mucosa may appear normal but there may be equivocal blunting of villi, perhaps associated with a moderate infiltrate of mononuclear cells into the core of the villus, or a heavy population of intraepithelial lymphocytes.
T60793 1222443-1222508 Sentence denotes Giardia should be sought in animals with malabsorption syndromes.
T14363 1222509-1222650 Sentence denotes They lie between villi, and are usually evident as crescent shapes, applied by their concave surface to the brush border of epithelial cells.
T39020 1222651-1222891 Sentence denotes In favorable sections through the level of the nuclei, they may appear to have a pair of "eyes." Trophozoites oriented along the plane of section may look as they do in smears, the paired nuclei giving the organism a "face-like" appearance.
T17371 1222892-1223029 Sentence denotes An abnormal number of bacteria, suggestive of overgrowth, may be present in the mucus and content in the vicinity in symptomatic animals.
T9582 1223030-1223163 Sentence denotes A diagnosis of giardiosis always should be reserved for those cases in which no other explanation for the syndrome can be identified.
T70872 1223164-1223258 Sentence denotes Giardiosis has been associated with colitis in dogs but the association is not clearly causal.
T87247 1223259-1223464 Sentence denotes Trichomonads, small flagellate protists that reproduce by binary fission, and are transmitted directly between hosts, are sometimes encountered in the feces of horses, cattle, dogs, and cats with diarrhea.
T48319 1223465-1223520 Sentence denotes Only in cats is there a causal association mesenteries.
T4413 1223521-1223686 Sentence denotes Mesothelial cells vary in appearance from squamous to low cuboidal with single small round nuclei and share characteristics of both epithelial and mesenchymal cells.
T12717 1223687-1223832 Sentence denotes Surface microvilli play a role in retention of hyaluronatebased secretions, and are more abundant on the visceral than parietal pleural surfaces.
T23099 1223833-1223980 Sentence denotes Tight junctions and desmosomes are discontinuous in the mesothelial layer, allowing for diffusion of water and small molecules across the membrane.
T45405 1223981-1224143 Sentence denotes Mesothelial cells are fragile and are readily injured after exposure to such mild insults as air, physiologic saline, intestinal dilation, and transient ischemia.
T49766 1224144-1224445 Sentence denotes Mesothelial wounds heal rapidly however, and although cell division and migration of adjacent mesothelium is important, a number of studies have suggested other sources of regenerating mesothelial cells, including freefloating serosal progenitor cells, that are capable of mesothelial differentiation.
T94916 1224446-1224827 Sentence denotes Traditionally, the function of the peritoneum was considered to be providing a protective nonadhesive surface in the abdominal cavity; however, it is now clear that these cells are a dynamic membrane with several physiologic functions, including fluid and solute transport, immune surveillance and production of extracellular matrix, cytokines, growth factors, and other molecules.
T20307 1224828-1224933 Sentence denotes Both parietal and visceral peritoneum are continuously involved in transport of fluid in both directions.
T61224 1224934-1225172 Sentence denotes Normal fluid contains only traces of protein and secreted macromolecules that reduce permeability, and the electronegativity of the endothelium relative to mesothelium inhibits transfer of plasma proteins from capillaries into the cavity.
T51697 1225173-1225253 Sentence denotes Thus the net hydraulic forces favor movement of fluid into the abdominal cavity.
T77952 1225254-1225318 Sentence denotes Several pathways contribute to the drainage of peritoneal fluid.
T91791 1225319-1225599 Sentence denotes Direct transfer through stomata in the membrane to subserosal lymphatics is the main mechanism, dominated by transfer into lymphatics of the ventral diaphragm, and thence via the sternal lymph nodes to the right lymphatic duct, or via mediastinal lymph nodes to the thoracic duct.
T4561 1225600-1225708 Sentence denotes Respiratory diaphragmatic movements assist transfer through the diaphragm to ventral mediastinal lymphatics.
T19476 1225709-1225847 Sentence denotes Less fluid is taken up through the omentum and abdominal viscera, and drains via visceral lymphatics and lymph nodes to the thoracic duct.
T74005 1225848-1225912 Sentence denotes There is a lesser contribution to drainage by the pelvic serosa.
T40911 1225913-1226040 Sentence denotes Transfer of peritoneal fluid through and between mesothelial cells occurs but is a minor contributor to overall fluid movement.
T22444 1226041-1226157 Sentence denotes Mesothelial cells secrete glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans and surface lubricants to provide a nonadhesive surface.
T97883 1226158-1226323 Sentence denotes They also produce many cytokines and growth factors, which regulate inflammatory processes, leukocyte trafficking into and out of serosal cavities, or tissue repair.
T12080 1226324-1226434 Sentence denotes They produce fibrinolytic mediators, which aid in fibrin clearance and protect against formation of adhesions.
T64204 1226435-1226544 Sentence denotes Mesothelial cells have been implicated in both the spread and inhibition of tumor growth in serosal cavities.
T48779 1226545-1226845 Sentence denotes The basement membrane is absent in minute foci, so-called peritoneal milky spots, pale semitransparent focal nests of macrophages mixed with lesser numbers of lymphocytes and plasma cells that allow transfer of particulate matter from the peritoneal cavity to lymphatics in the mesentery and omentum.
T89229 1226846-1226983 Sentence denotes They are also probably preferential sites for leukocyte trafficking and for the migration of neoplastic cells from the peritoneal cavity.
T47057 1226984-1227161 Sentence denotes Generally recognized as omental structures, milky spots also may be functional on the parietal membranes of peritoneal, pericardial, and pleural cavities and in the mediastinum.
T90371 1227162-1227302 Sentence denotes Peritoneal diseases are commonly secondary to processes either involving the organs covered by peritoneum or arising in the retroperitoneum.
T63065 1227303-1227518 Sentence denotes The peritoneum lines the abdominal cavity, which is incompletely divided into compartments by the mesentery, omentum, and ligaments covered by the peritoneum, with a total surface area greater than that of the skin.
T8431 1227519-1227725 Sentence denotes During organogenesis, the coelomic cavity is partitioned into peritoneal, pleural, and pericardial cavities lined by mesothelial cells that become known as peritoneum, pleura, and pericardium, respectively.
T49708 1227726-1227850 Sentence denotes The normal peritoneum is a smooth, shiny membrane that is semipermeable to the movement of water and small solute molecules.
T5071 1227851-1227926 Sentence denotes There is normally just enough fluid present in the cavity to keep it moist.
T70632 1227927-1228110 Sentence denotes Peritoneal fluid is normally clear and watery, but in neonatal pigs and lambs fluid may contain strands of mucinous coagulum lying on the intact serosal surfaces of abdominal viscera.
T38462 1228111-1228277 Sentence denotes The fluid is in osmotic equilibrium with plasma, but does not contain fibrinogen or other high-molecular-weight proteins, and generally does not clot, except in pigs.
T52707 1228278-1228521 Sentence denotes The peritoneum consists of a single serosal lining layer of mesothelial cells on a basement membrane supported by submesothelial connective tissue containing a mixture of resident inflammatory cells, fibroblasts, blood vessels, and lymphatics.
T1012 1228522-1228734 Sentence denotes The submesothelial layer is inapparent in some places such as the liver, and prominent in other places such as the ligament, varies in size among species and individuals; it is typically largest in young animals.
T17945 1228735-1228850 Sentence denotes There is potential for entrapment or strangulation of bowel if a large persistent falciform ligament is perforated.
T63482 1228851-1229086 Sentence denotes Partitioning of the coelom to separate the thoracic cavity from the developing gastrointestinal tract begins with the formation of the septum transversum from the ventral body wall, eventually forming the ventral part of the diaphragm.
T57926 1229087-1229231 Sentence denotes The dorsal part of the diaphragm is provided by downgrowth from the dorsal body wall of the paired pleuroperitoneal and pleuropericardial folds.
T26203 1229232-1229364 Sentence denotes Congenital pleuroperitoneal diaphragmatic hernias are most commonly observed in dogs, but occasionally are observed in herd animals.
T56593 1229365-1229610 Sentence denotes They usually involve a defect in the left dorsal quadrant of the diaphragm, presumably from failure of the left pleuroperitoneal fold to fuse with the septum transversum; the reason for the particular susceptibility for the left side is unknown.
T73666 1229611-1229697 Sentence denotes The lesion in some breeds of dogs may have an autosomal recessive mode of inheritance.
T71742 1229698-1229839 Sentence denotes Some congenital pleuroperitoneal defects in small animals may be more extensive, to the point that virtually the entire diaphragm is missing.
T550 1229840-1230109 Sentence denotes The margins of the diaphragmatic defect are smooth, and a large mass of abdominal viscera may pass into the thoracic cavity through the opening; large defects result in respiratory difficulties, abdominal pain, and bloating if incarceration of herniated viscera occurs.
T32810 1230110-1230183 Sentence denotes Most small animals born with these defects die at or shortly after birth.
T2059 1230184-1230311 Sentence denotes In large animals, the lesions may be clinically silent, especially when only a small portion of liver is present in the hernia.
T97388 1230312-1230467 Sentence denotes Peritoneopericardial diaphragmatic hernias are triangular and ventral, and presumably result from abnormal development or fusion of the septum transversum.
T96482 1230468-1230577 Sentence denotes They are more common than pleuroperitoneal hernias in small animals, perhaps because the animals live longer.
T49318 1230578-1230704 Sentence denotes They can be associated with cardiac anomalies, malformations of the sternum and costochondral junctions, or umbilical hernias.
T31789 1230705-1230965 Sentence denotes Although various portions of the liver, spleen, omentum, and small intestine may herniate into the pericardial sac and cause cardiac tamponade, compromised respiratory function or gastrointestinal tract obstruction, these lesions also can be clinically silent.
T37653 1230966-1231121 Sentence denotes External hernias are the result of abnormal openings in the abdominal wall that permit passage of the abdominal contents and may be congenital or acquired.
T18992 1231122-1231424 Sentence denotes Congenital defects resulting in hernias are of several types and include abnormally increased size of normal opening such as the inguinal canal; persistence of fetal openings as in umbilical hernias; and defects in closure of the abdominal cavity, as in schistosomus reflexus and diaphragmatic hernias.
T24074 1231425-1231497 Sentence denotes Even minor injuries to peritoneum cause rapid loss of mesothelial cells.
T73288 1231498-1231584 Sentence denotes The denuded area is rapidly covered by a layer of fibrin, neutrophils and macrophages.
T15174 1231585-1231762 Sentence denotes If the injury is minor, the mesothelial layer is soon regenerated; however, regeneration may be delayed if the injury is severe or prolonged, and subsurface tissues are damaged.
T32044 1231763-1231832 Sentence denotes Under normal conditions, the mesothelium is a slowly renewing tissue.
T89066 1231833-1232118 Sentence denotes Restoration of the mesothelial surface may not be provided solely by proliferation and migration of adjacent mesothelial cells; current experimental evidence favors involvement of multipotent mesenchymal cells either lying in the immediate subserosa or free-floating in the peritoneum.
T29405 1232119-1232266 Sentence denotes Therefore, unlike other The retroperitoneum is the adipose and connective tissue immediately beneath the peritoneal lining of the abdominal cavity.
T41573 1232267-1232537 Sentence denotes The concept of retroperitoneum properly includes the lymphatics and draining lymph nodes in addition to connective tissues, blood vessels, nerves, and the fixed and migratory mononuclear cell populations, most significant along the dorsum from the diaphragm to the anus.
T60614 1232538-1232668 Sentence denotes Its volume is small, except when adipose tissue accumulates, commonly around the kidneys, pelvic cavity, omentum, and mesenteries.
T99536 1232669-1232825 Sentence denotes With emaciation, fat stores of the retroperitoneum undergo serous atrophy, as do fat deposits in subcutaneous tissues, the thorax, and bone marrow cavities.
T86213 1232826-1233092 Sentence denotes There appear to be no absolute barriers to movement of fluid or exudates within the retroperitoneal space of dogs; it may travel in the fascia around the dorsal and ventral aspects of the sublumbar muscles, to gain access to the fascial planes of the abdominal wall.
T80180 1233093-1233337 Sentence denotes Suppurative inflammation or exudates in the retroperitoneum of dogs may drain at the flank, by passing along the fascial planes of the abdominal and the iliopsoas muscles, to emerge in the lumbodorsal triangle, cranioventral to the tuber coxae.
T47541 1233338-1233441 Sentence denotes Antemortem and postmortem effusions and discoloration in the peritoneal cavity should be distinguished.
T8516 1233442-1233591 Sentence denotes Fluid accumulates in the peritoneal cavity after death, and this becomes stained with hemoglobin as soon as erythrocytes in the serosal vessels lyse.
T9046 1233592-1233682 Sentence denotes Such fluid does not clot and similar fluid is often also present in other serous cavities.
T66677 1233683-1233812 Sentence denotes Diffusion of bile pigments through the wall of the gallbladder, the bile ducts, or the duodenum will also stain adjacent viscera.
T36237 1233814-1234000 Sentence denotes Congenital abnormalities affecting the peritoneal membranes are associated most frequently with retention of effete embryonic structures or defective partitioning of the coelomic cavity.
T62132 1234001-1234143 Sentence denotes A persistent vitelline or omphalomesenteric duct may form a fibrous ligament between the intestine or Meckel's diverticulum and the umbilicus.
T85046 1234144-1234265 Sentence denotes The remnant may be partial and not reach the umbilicus, or it may be attached to the mesentery or to a loop of intestine.
T92145 1234266-1234403 Sentence denotes These structures may become involved in herniation and obstruction or strangulation of the intestine; persisting ducts may become cystic.
T92296 1234404-1234475 Sentence denotes A mesodiverticular band is the result of a persistent vitelline artery.
T81687 1234476-1234754 Sentence denotes The band is a fold of mesentery, occasionally carrying a patent vitelline artery in its free edge, which extends from the cranial mesenteric artery, or from a spot partway down the mesenteric veil, to the antimesenteric side of the intestine (the site of Meckel's diverticulum).
T40105 1234755-1234910 Sentence denotes The pocket formed between this fold and the normal mesentery may entrap intestine; defects may develop in it that permit strangulation of intestinal loops.
T68000 1234911-1234984 Sentence denotes Occasionally, double (left and right) mesodiverticular bands are present.
T82793 1234985-1235117 Sentence denotes Rarely, fibrous cords of mesenteric tissue may be found that do not appear to be part of embryonic remnants of vitelline structures.
T9965 1235118-1235315 Sentence denotes The falciform ligament, which in its free margin may contain the remnant of the umbilical vein as the round especially when complicated by an event such as hydrops amnios, may cause ventral hernia.
T97222 1235316-1235500 Sentence denotes Straining during defecation or parturition may also cause herniation; the former is associated with perineal hernias in dogs; the latter, with acquired diaphragmatic hernias in horses.
T40055 1235501-1235639 Sentence denotes Tympany of the large bowel in horses or the forestomachs in ruminants may also cause herniation involving the abdominal wall or diaphragm.
T38398 1235640-1235767 Sentence denotes Antemortem lesions must be differentiated from postmortem tears resulting from bloating of viscera during postmortem autolysis.
T63856 1235768-1235927 Sentence denotes The presence of hemorrhage, fibrin deposits, and acute inflammation in torn muscle, or strangulation of herniated gut, is evidence for an antemortem condition.
T71395 1235928-1236036 Sentence denotes Acquired diaphragmatic hernia can occur secondary to penetrating or blunt trauma; the latter is more common.
T14324 1236037-1236338 Sentence denotes The diaphragm is weaker than the abdominal wall, so during blunt trauma, a large pressure differential is generated between the abdominal and thoracic sides of the diaphragm, and this is relieved by rupture of the diaphragm and herniation of abdominal contents into the thoracic cavity ( Fig. 1-195 ).
T22058 1236339-1236557 Sentence denotes In small animals, the diaphragmatic muscle usually ruptures before the tendinous part; in general the location and orientation of the lesion are the result of the type of trauma and the location or direction of impact.
T75457 1236558-1236705 Sentence denotes Almost any of the abdominal viscera may herniate into the thoracic cavity through the defect, but liver and small bowel are most commonly involved.
T18542 1236706-1236903 Sentence denotes The lesion may be clinically silent for a considerable period, but eventually typically causes respiratory difficulty, hydrothorax, ascites, chylothorax, gastric tympany, or intestinal obstruction.
T22943 1236904-1236978 Sentence denotes At surgery or autopsy, acute diaphragmatic laceration is readily observed.
T87122 1236979-1237092 Sentence denotes If chronic, the margin of laceration is usually thickened by fibroplasia, and may even be adhered to the viscera.
T87854 1237093-1237256 Sentence denotes Differentiation from congenital hernias is based on the age, clinical history, and any evidence of scarring or adhesions at the margin of the diaphragmatic defect.
T48740 1237257-1237487 Sentence denotes In horses, acquired lesions usually involve the area where the tendinous portion meets the pars costalis, whereas postmortem laceration of the diaphragm in the horse is most common at the ventral midline, near the xiphoid process.
T82089 1237488-1237613 Sentence denotes Most horses with acquired diaphragmatic hernias develop abdominal pain and signs of colic; respiratory signs are less common.
T81654 1237614-1237763 Sentence denotes epithelial-like surfaces, in which wounds heal only from the edges, mesothelial healing occurs more rapidly and diffusely across the denuded surface.
T11304 1237764-1237833 Sentence denotes Metaplasia of mesothelium is frequently seen in histologic specimens.
T81489 1237834-1238010 Sentence denotes Simple metaplasia also occurs where alterations to surface contours of organs produce clefts or valleys in which fluid movement slows; for example, in cases of hydroperitoneum.
T42070 1238011-1238156 Sentence denotes In these cases mesothelial cells become cuboidal, columnar, or if the stimulus persists, nodules of hyperplastic mesothelial cells are generated.
T21899 1238157-1238381 Sentence denotes Papillary hyperplasia of mesothelium is frequent in some chronic forms of peritonitis, such as those caused by actinomycotic infections in dogs and cats, and in organization of subserosal hemorrhages in spleen and intestine.
T38496 1238382-1238662 Sentence denotes Proliferative mesothelial cells may mimic neoplasia and in humans they are occasionally observed in lymph nodes where they can be confused with metastatic neoplasia; this phenomenon, known as benign epithelial inclusions in humans, has been described in the lymph nodes of cattle.
T73984 1238663-1238850 Sentence denotes Physical trauma to the abdomen is common, and sequelae include hemorrhage, peritoneal sepsis, uremia caused by the escape of urine into the abdomen, and dysfunction of traumatized organs.
T50662 1238851-1239110 Sentence denotes Blunt trauma to the abdomen may result in contusion of abdominal viscera; avulsion of organs from supporting mesenteries or ligaments, and from their vascular supply; and perhaps laceration of the capsule of solid organs such as the liver, spleen, and kidney.
T91557 1239111-1239248 Sentence denotes Hollow organs, including the stomach, gallbladder, and urinary bladder, may rupture and release their contents into the abdominal cavity.
T29603 1239249-1239541 Sentence denotes Sudden increase in intraabdominal pressure resulting from such trauma may cause acquired hernias by forcing viscera through natural apertures such as the inguinal canal, weak points such as the perineum, or through lacerations in the diaphragm or the abdominal wall, resulting in eventration.
T49014 1239542-1239740 Sentence denotes Following abdominal trauma, contusions, lacerations, or perforation may be evident on the underside of the skin or in subcutaneous tissues; these lesions are often in apposition to internal lesions.
T77948 1239741-1239843 Sentence denotes Lacerations of the liver or spleen may result in internal hemorrhage and diffuse pallor of the animal.
T61710 1239844-1239948 Sentence denotes Contusion or laceration of the kidney results in subcapsular, retroperitoneal, or peritoneal hemorrhage.
T53126 1239949-1240083 Sentence denotes The source of hemorrhage may be subtle slits or crevasses in the capsule of the organ involved, or the laceration may be more obvious.
T24912 1240084-1240154 Sentence denotes In animals that die of exsanguination, the spleen is often contracted.
T44275 1240155-1240323 Sentence denotes Following splenic rupture, portions of spleen may implant and persist ectopically elsewhere in the abdomen (splenosis), and may be encountered as an incidental finding.
T7099 1240324-1240508 Sentence denotes Urine in the abdominal cavity may be easily mistaken for ascitic fluid; uroperitoneum should be confirmed by comparing creatinine concentration of the abdominal fluid to that of serum.
T82366 1240509-1240676 Sentence denotes Lacerations of the urinary bladder may be small and difficult to detect, particularly because the bladder contracts as urine is lost through the laceration or rupture.
T60007 1240677-1240748 Sentence denotes If the pregnant uterus is ruptured, fetuses may be free in the abdomen.
T1200 1240749-1240830 Sentence denotes They will die and cause peritonitis if the dam survives and they are not removed.
T56583 1240831-1240879 Sentence denotes Endogenous forces may also result in herniation.
T85530 1240880-1241024 Sentence denotes The additional weight of intestinal contents during pregnancy, lipomatosis, but the lesions are not considered to be hyperplastic or neoplastic.
T98098 1241025-1241142 Sentence denotes The hard lumps of fat may be confused with fetal structures, lymphoid tumors, or other masses on abdominal palpation.
T43755 1241143-1241240 Sentence denotes Clinical signs, although uncommon, are most often caused by intestinal obstruction (Fig. 1-196) .
T50339 1241241-1241447 Sentence denotes Histologically, the lesions are a mixture of acute and chronic fat necrosis with infiltration of many macrophages and multinucleated giant cells, as well as fewer neutrophils, lymphocytes, and plasma cells.
T51553 1241448-1241494 Sentence denotes There is variable fibrosis and mineralization.
T89277 1241495-1241626 Sentence denotes The pathogenesis remains unclear, although it has been linked to alterations in lipid metabolism; there may be a genetic component.
T56574 1241627-1241765 Sentence denotes Abdominal fat necrosis also is probably related to dietary factors, including ingestion of feeds high in long-chain saturated fatty acids.
T23707 1241766-1241926 Sentence denotes In several ruminant species, including cattle, sheep, goats, and deer, the condition also has been linked to grazing of endophyte-infested tall fescue pastures.
T90256 1241927-1242100 Sentence denotes Massive necrosis of abdominal fat is reported infrequently in cats; some cases are subsequent to trauma or pancreatitis, whereas in other cases the cause was not determined.
T40045 1242101-1242186 Sentence denotes Nodular necrosis of abdominal fat can be an incidental finding in aged dogs and cats.
T14441 1242187-1242317 Sentence denotes Steatitis (yellow-fat disease) occurs in many species affecting the abdominal and peritoneal fat, along with other adipose tissue.
T64264 1242318-1242432 Sentence denotes It is associated with diets high in polyunsaturated fat and low in tocopherols, favoring oxidation of fatty acids.
T76569 1242433-1242681 Sentence denotes Peroxidation of susceptible lipids and membranes creates free radicals that provoke the characteristic inflammatory reaction in response to formation of irritant soaps, cholesterol deposits and ceroid-lipofuscin (see section on Panniculitis in Vol.
T86329 1242682-1242707 Sentence denotes 1, Integumentary system).
T18602 1242708-1242762 Sentence denotes Diffuse fibrinopurulent peritonitis is common in pigs.
T52846 1242763-1242914 Sentence denotes Acute diffuse serofibrinous peritonitis with fibrinous arthritis and meningitis is characteristic of Glasser's disease, caused by Haemophilus parasuis.
T89301 1242915-1243013 Sentence denotes In chronic infections pigs have reduced growth rate because of severe polyserositis and arthritis.
T82879 1243014-1243183 Sentence denotes Similar clinical signs and lesions also can be associated with a number of other septicemic bacterial infections, especially Streptococcus suis and Mycoplasma hyorhinis.
T31592 1243184-1243324 Sentence denotes Small firm nodules and flattened disks of inspissated fibrin are often found free in the peritoneal cavity in chronic Mycoplasma infections.
T81322 1243325-1243442 Sentence denotes Further diagnostic testing using bacteriology or molecular methods often is required to differentiate these diseases.
T81713 1243443-1243619 Sentence denotes A variety of other bacterial organisms can be isolated from cases of peritonitis in pigs, including Trueperella pyogenes, Escherichia coli, or several organisms simultaneously.
T73207 1243620-1243688 Sentence denotes In some cases the cause can be traced to castration or other wounds.
T73809 1243689-1243841 Sentence denotes Peritonitis may be localized to the inguinal and pelvic regions, or the intestines may be so adhered together with fibrin that they cannot be separated.
T37556 1243842-1243948 Sentence denotes Occasionally, T. pyogenes produces multifocal discrete abscesses on both visceral and parietal peritoneum.
T68457 1243949-1244049 Sentence denotes Tuberculosis in swine may cause lymphadenitis or peritonitis and induce adhesions in the peritoneum.
T59507 1244050-1244215 Sentence denotes In cases of rectal stricture there is marked dilation of the colon and cecum and the serosa may be covered with fibrin tags, similar to that of infectious serositis.
T20434 1244216-1244351 Sentence denotes Peritonitis also can occur in pigs with perforating gastric ulcers, but many pigs die from acute gastric hemorrhage before perforation.
T8882 1244352-1244577 Sentence denotes Stephanurus dentatus larvae cause subserosal focal hepatitis and a mild reaction with edema in the perirenal fat and retroperitoneal tissue, and sometimes in the mesentery and local lymph nodes, as they migrate to the kidney.
T14802 1244578-1244588 Sentence denotes Kang I, et
T27829 1244590-1244850 Sentence denotes Septic peritonitis is an inflammatory lesion of the peritoneum that occurs secondary to microbial contamination in a variety of scenarios, including perforation of the gastrointestinal tract, reproductive tract, urinary bladder or other viscera, or bacteremia.
T98049 1244851-1244962 Sentence denotes Microorganisms associated with septic peritonitis are varied and typically reflect the source of contamination.
T516 1244963-1245130 Sentence denotes Mild fibrinohemorrhagic peritonitis and serositis associated with canine parvoviral enteritis, infectious canine hepatitis, and toxoplasmosis can be easily overlooked.
T31055 1245131-1245238 Sentence denotes There may be edema of the intestinal subserosa and frequent petechiae or larger hemorrhages in these cases.
T42548 1245239-1245383 Sentence denotes Suppurative peritonitis is uncommon in dogs; it has been observed in puppies as an extension from umbilical and hepatic streptococcal abscesses.
T10604 1245384-1245598 Sentence denotes Septic peritonitis involving a variety of agents, including E. coli and anaerobes, may follow surgical contamination of the abdomen; a penetrating wound or perforation of the gut; rupture of the urinary bladder; or
T37096 1245600-1245651 Sentence denotes Peritonitis of specific cause is uncommon in sheep.
T99113 1245652-1245768 Sentence denotes A local inflammatory reaction accompanies penetration of the intestine by the larvae of Oesophagostomum columbianum.
T9318 1245769-1245902 Sentence denotes Rare cases of peritonitis in sheep with caseous lymphadenitis are described, caused by rupture of caseous lesions in internal organs.
T59702 1245903-1246015 Sentence denotes The postpartum uterus is probably the most common site in adults from which infection spreads to the peritoneum.
T46361 1246016-1246102 Sentence denotes Outbreaks of peritonitis in lamb flocks are frequently ascribed to coliform infection.
T35005 1246103-1246251 Sentence denotes Mycoplasma mycoides may cause acute fibrinous peritonitis in goats, although acute death from septicemia, or arthritis and mastitis are more common.
T31990 1246252-1246450 Sentence denotes Paratuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis frequently produces nodular granulomatous lymphangitis in the mesentery and sometimes caseous or mineralized lymphadenitis.
T67016 1246451-1246467 Sentence denotes Dennis MM, et al
T91853 1246469-1246795 Sentence denotes A few filmy strands of mucin with appearances of fibrin frequently overlie the intestine, mesentery, and liver in many acute infectious diseases of swine, and in conditions that result in vascular damage, such as edema disease and vitamin E/ selenium-responsive conditions; this does not qualify as peritonitis ( Fig. 1-198) .
T54200 1246796-1246982 Sentence denotes However, peritonitis is well recognized as part of the pathologic picture in several defined infectious syndromes in pigs. peritonitis virus (FIPV) and feline enteric coronavirus (FECV).
T31168 1246983-1247303 Sentence denotes FCoVs can also be divided into two antigenically distinct serotypes (I and II) based on cell culture cytopathic effect and other features; both FIPV and FECV strains are represented among FCoV types I and II, though type I FCoV induce higher antibody titers and are more frequently associated with FIP than type II FCoV.
T879 1247304-1247609 Sentence denotes In domestic and wild felids, the various FCoV strains have a spectrum of virulence, from asymptomatic enteric infection and healthy lifelong carrier status, through symptomatic enteric infection (see the section on enteric coronaviral infections) to virulent systemic infection, which is expressed as FIP.
T48334 1247610-1247745 Sentence denotes FCoVs are ubiquitous in cats, but the disease FIP is sporadic with a low prevalence that predominantly affects young, intact male cats.
T45850 1247746-1247798 Sentence denotes Purebred cats appear to be more susceptible to FCoV.
T82869 1247799-1247935 Sentence denotes FECV is transmitted by the fecal-oral route, and the virus initially infects enterocytes but soon becomes restricted to cecum and colon.
T32703 1247936-1248058 Sentence denotes Some cats become persistently infected and although they remain clinically healthy, continue to shed virus in their feces.
T93327 1248059-1248188 Sentence denotes FECV is generally regarded as the avirulent pathotype of FCoV, although some cats may develop catarrhal to hemorrhagic enteritis.
T85971 1248189-1248276 Sentence denotes Enteric infection with FCoV may produce mild, subclinical blunting and fusion of villi.
T42754 1248277-1248488 Sentence denotes FIPV was initially thought to have evolved as a deletion mutation of FECV; however, analysis of the viruses has revealed a much more complex picture of several genes and proteins involved in mediating virulence.
T22815 1248489-1248614 Sentence denotes There is strong evidence that FIPV is not transmitted horizontally, but emerges within each cat that eventually develops FIP.
T44037 1248615-1248730 Sentence denotes A requirement for development of FIP is likely the capacity of the virus to replicate within monocytes of the host.
T9691 1248731-1248797 Sentence denotes In comparison to FECV, FIPV strains have less tropism for the gut.
T50025 1248798-1249054 Sentence denotes FIPV replicates in macrophages, and it is thought that macrophages from the intestine acquire virus from the intestinal epithelium and carry it to regional lymph nodes and disseminate the virus to many parts of the body; this is central to their virulence.
T41012 1249055-1249224 Sentence denotes It has been proposed that mutation and transformation of FECV to FIPV can also take place within these macrophages; however, this has not been definitively demonstrated.
T1704 1249225-1249493 Sentence denotes Incidence of the disease is apparently not higher in cats infected with feline leukemia virus or feline immunodeficiency virus; however, FCoV replicates 10-100 fold more in macrophages of cats infected with FIV, thus enhancing the probability of spontaneous mutations.
T43048 1249494-1249756 Sentence denotes Resistance to FIPV infection is cell mediated, and systemic clinical disease probably only occurs if the cell-mediated response is ineffective; the lack of cell-mediated immunity may allow viral persistence or more pronounced virus production within macrophages.
T51064 1249757-1250022 Sentence denotes The cytokine response appears to be important in the response to FIPV infection, and immunity against FIPV may be associated with low tumor necrosis factor-α/high interferon-γ responses, whereas high tumor necrosis factor-α/low interferon-γ responses favor disease.
T31861 1250023-1250198 Sentence denotes There is also evidence that type III and type IV immune reactions play a role in vasculitis and CD4+ cell-heavy granulomatous inflammation of FIPV-infected cats, respectively.
T41207 1250199-1250410 Sentence denotes Cats that recover from FIP have humoral immune responses and immune complexes that are demonstrable in blood, but although clearance of virus occurs, persistence and fecal shedding may extend for several months.
T9110 1250411-1250644 Sentence denotes Cats that do not clear FIPV develop either the dry or wet clinical forms of the disease depending on whether ineffective cell-mediated or humoral immunity dominates the clinical rupture of pancreatic, hepatic, or prostatic abscesses.
T20011 1250645-1250769 Sentence denotes Peritonitis also occurs when the uterus ruptures, either as a result of pyometra or septic metritis with fetal putrefaction.
T66300 1250770-1250837 Sentence denotes A distinctive pyogranulomatous peritonitis occurs in dogs and cats.
T27867 1250838-1251009 Sentence denotes Actinomyces spp., most commonly A. viscosus, or bacteria of the Nocardia asteroides complex, are mainly responsible for the lesions that include copious red-brown exudate.
T98141 1251010-1251195 Sentence denotes The exudate often contains small yellow sulfur granules free in the exudate or within granulomas adhered to serosal surfaces, including omentum, mesenteries, and mesenteric lymph nodes.
T44171 1251196-1251332 Sentence denotes The color is from blood derived from proliferation of thin-walled capillaries on serous surfaces that are thickened, red, and edematous.
T86936 1251333-1251484 Sentence denotes Chronic pyogranulomatous or granulomatous peritonitis occurs in the rare cases of eumycotic mycetoma and zygomycosis that involve the abdominal cavity.
T79866 1251485-1251689 Sentence denotes There is usually serosal thickening and fibrosis of affected segments of gut, with formation of adhesions, and the development of firm granulomatous masses on the gut wall, in the mesenteries and omentum.
T19039 1251690-1251823 Sentence denotes Mycobacterium microti (llama-type), the vole bacillus, has been reported as a rare cause of severe diffuse granulomatous peritonitis.
T9746 1251824-1251925 Sentence denotes Sclerosing encapsulating peritonitis, a characteristic pathologic syndrome, occurs rarely in the dog.
T39804 1251926-1252187 Sentence denotes A thick layer of progressively maturing granulation tissue lines parts or all of the abdominal cavity and abdominal visceral organs, which effectively produces one or more thick-walled cystic spaces enclosing some or most of the abdominal cavity and its organs.
T87352 1252188-1252300 Sentence denotes Within the space is a large volume of clear or serosanguineous fluid, with strands of variably organized fibrin.
T11180 1252301-1252403 Sentence denotes Involved organs are often atrophic or misshapen because of the thick fibrous capsule on their surface.
T2085 1252404-1252727 Sentence denotes Body cavity parasitism by larval stages of some tapeworms, including Mesocestoides and Spirometra, causes proliferative to granulomatous peritonitis with cysts containing cestode larvae, and occurs mostly in dogs who act as intermediate hosts for these parasites (see later section on Parasitic diseases of the peritoneum).
T67120 1252728-1252739 Sentence denotes Dayer T, et
T6314 1252741-1252827 Sentence denotes Peritonitis occurs when the uterus ruptures because of pyometra or fetal putrefaction.
T83009 1252828-1253030 Sentence denotes Peritonitis also occurs from penetrating wounds or by extension from retroperitoneal tissues, and occasionally septic peritonitis is caused by anaerobes such as those associated with cat-bite abscesses.
T37057 1253031-1253199 Sentence denotes Actinomycotic peritonitis similar in appearance to the disease in dogs may complicate feline leukemia virus infection in cats and the other myeloproliferative diseases.
T58892 1253200-1253230 Sentence denotes Feline infectious peritonitis.
T13289 1253231-1253450 Sentence denotes The genus Alphacoronavirus, family Coronaviridae, includes species Feline coronavirus (FCoV), and its two biological pathotypes, feline infectious previously, or lesions may be restricted to the eyes and nervous system.
T23962 1253451-1253576 Sentence denotes Diffuse uveitis, chorioretinitis, and sometimes panophthalmitis are present; fibrin is often present in the anterior chamber.
T25913 1253577-1253722 Sentence denotes Lesions in the central nervous system can involve the leptomeninges, spinal cord, or brain, but usually are subtle grossly and easily overlooked.
T94269 1253723-1253855 Sentence denotes Occasionally, hydrocephalus, hydromyelia, and syringomyelia may result from ependymitis and obstruction of cerebrospinal fluid flow.
T77933 1253856-1253980 Sentence denotes The kidneys may be enlarged and nodular with multifocal random variably sized white firm nodules protruding from the cortex.
T42971 1253981-1254099 Sentence denotes Hepatitis and pancreatitis of variable degree also may be present, characterized by small, white foci of inflammation.
T16754 1254100-1254180 Sentence denotes The tunica vaginalis may be affected, resulting in periorchitis in intact males.
T45485 1254181-1254407 Sentence denotes In the intestine, there may be marked thickening of the cecum and colon by nodular, firm, white inflammatory exudate extending through the wall of the affected gut; there is often adhesion to the adjacent enlarged lymph nodes.
T79974 1254408-1254618 Sentence denotes The characteristic microscopic lesion is generalized vasculitis and perivasculitis, especially of small to medium-sized venules of the leptomeninges, renal cortex, eyes, and less frequently the lungs and liver.
T74424 1254619-1254801 Sentence denotes Macrophages predominate and probably mediate lesion development; however, variable numbers of neutrophils, lymphocytes, and plasma cells also accumulate in and around affected veins.
T59960 1254802-1254968 Sentence denotes The endothelium swells, and medial vascular necrosis may be evident in some cases; narrowed vascular lumina may predispose to thrombosis and infarction in these cats.
T10773 1254969-1255111 Sentence denotes The proportion of neutrophils in the reaction varies, and some lesions may be comprised mainly of a mixture of macrophages and lymphoid cells.
T85213 1255112-1255211 Sentence denotes Fibroplasia is variable; occasionally, adventitial fibrosis occurs with little cellular infiltrate.
T55141 1255212-1255374 Sentence denotes The vascular lesion results in the serofibrinous and cellular exudate on the serosal surfaces, and the nodules visible on the surfaces and deeper in solid organs.
T39776 1255375-1255463 Sentence denotes The microscopic changes in the omentum, mesentery, and serosal tissues vary in severity.
T37788 1255464-1255616 Sentence denotes Mild changes include proliferation of mesothelial cells, fibrin accumulation, fibroblast proliferation, and scattered neutrophils and mononuclear cells.
T62331 1255617-1255732 Sentence denotes Severe changes include dense fibrin accumulation on serosal surfaces, with necrosis and/or mesothelial hyperplasia.
T6172 1255733-1255832 Sentence denotes Large numbers of neutrophils, mononuclear cells, and necrotic debris may be embedded in the fibrin.
T80901 1255833-1256002 Sentence denotes Vasculitis may extend from the serosa into the intestine, affecting the muscularis, myenteric ganglia, the submucosa, and the mucosa, which may be segmentally infarcted.
T56006 1256003-1256219 Sentence denotes Lesions in various organs, including kidney, liver, lung, and pancreas, are largely caused by the vascular damage that occurs because of inflammatory cellular infiltrates in the capsule and stromal connective tissue.
T52213 1256220-1256423 Sentence denotes Severe multifocal lymphoplasmacytic interstitial nephritis may develop; in addition to focal lung lesions, there may be diffuse interstitial pneumonia, sometimes most severe close to the visceral pleura.
T32234 1256424-1256601 Sentence denotes Degenerative and necrotic lesions in the parenchyma of the central nervous system, including the meninges, choroid plexus, and ependyma, also appear to be related to vasculitis.
T42795 1256602-1256686 Sentence denotes The ependyma may be visibly roughened and develop reactive syncytia of lining cells.
T47362 1256687-1256747 Sentence denotes Ocular lesions are common, but usually subclinical (see Vol.
T31504 1256748-1256767 Sentence denotes 1, Special senses).
T91520 1256768-1256831 Sentence denotes Effusive FIP must be differentiated from bacterial peritonitis.
T3219 1256832-1256944 Sentence denotes Noneffusive forms may appear grossly similar to lymphosarcoma, steatitis, mycotic infections, and toxoplasmosis.
T87534 1256945-1257115 Sentence denotes With thorough postmortem examination, the constellation of lesions is usually sufficiently distinctive to allow a gross diagnosis with a high degree of accuracy. disease.
T23044 1257116-1257330 Sentence denotes Although often described as distinct entities, the effusive (wet) and noneffusive (dry) forms of FIP are the extremes of a continuum of syndromes, with vasculitis and pyogranulomatous inflammation as the hallmarks.
T80971 1257331-1257426 Sentence denotes Effusive disease is more common than the noneffusive form, and mixed forms are probably common.
T12687 1257427-1257504 Sentence denotes Cats with the effusive form of FIP often develop severe abdominal distention.
T95442 1257505-1257572 Sentence denotes Pleural effusion is present in ∼25% of cases and may cause dyspnea.
T71294 1257573-1257630 Sentence denotes Cardiac tamponade caused by pericardial effusion is rare.
T37711 1257631-1257686 Sentence denotes Ocular and central nervous signs are rare in this form.
T82687 1257687-1257763 Sentence denotes Up to 1 liter of abdominal exudate may be present in cats with effusive FIP.
T27735 1257764-1257886 Sentence denotes The fluid is usually viscous, clear, and pale to deep yellow, although it may be flocculent and contain strands of fibrin.
T54773 1257887-1258020 Sentence denotes The serosal surfaces may be covered with fibrin, giving them a granular appearance; fragile adhesions may be present between viscera.
T45269 1258021-1258224 Sentence denotes There are foci of necrosis, raised plaques, or nodular cellular infiltrations that vary in size from a few millimeters to a centimeter in diameter on the serosa that extend into the parenchyma of organs.
T44958 1258225-1258403 Sentence denotes The mesentery is often thickened and opaque; the omentum may be contracted into a mass in the cranial abdomen, and adherent to itself and other abdominal surfaces ( Fig. 1-199) .
T721 1258404-1258555 Sentence denotes Fibrin is usually less prominent in the thoracic cavity, but firm white nodules may be present under the pleura, and the lungs may be dark and rubbery.
T32791 1258556-1258607 Sentence denotes Abdominal and thoracic lymph nodes may be enlarged.
T71818 1258608-1258722 Sentence denotes Some cats with FIP are lame because of generalized synovitis caused by migration of macrophages into the synovium.
T6672 1258723-1258802 Sentence denotes The cats are hypergammaglobulinemic and may have leukocytosis and neutrophilia.
T34659 1258803-1258957 Sentence denotes The clinical course for effusive FIP is rapid; most cats die within a few weeks and very few recover after passing through a phase of noneffusive disease.
T23818 1258958-1259112 Sentence denotes Cats with noneffusive FIP have a chronic disease of insidious onset and frequently develop signs specific to organs severely affected by vascular lesions.
T70640 1259113-1259366 Sentence denotes These may include ocular disease; central nervous disorders such as ataxia, paraparesis, head tilt; specific nerve palsies, nystagmus, and behavioral changes; renal failure; hepatic or pancreatic insufficiency; and diarrhea caused by ulcerative colitis.
T92052 1259367-1259487 Sentence denotes Peritonitis is present in most animals, although marked effusion is not found in those with the noneffusive form of FIP.
T32105 1259488-1259597 Sentence denotes In cats with noneffusive FIP, there may be inflammatory foci in the abdominal or thoracic organs as described
T92860 1259599-1259718 Sentence denotes Most parasites found in the peritoneal cavity are in the normal course of migration to another site, or as an accident.
T53115 1259719-1259806 Sentence denotes Only a few larval and adult helminths use the abdominal cavity as their normal habitat.
T89410 1259807-1260054 Sentence denotes Cysticerci (Cysticercus tenuicollis in ruminants; C. pisiformis in lagomorphs) may be found on the peritoneum during their normal development; they are nonpathogenic, and excite virtually no tissue response beyond their thin bland fibrous capsule.
T64927 1260055-1260151 Sentence denotes Rarely, cysticerci have been encountered in the abdomen of carnivores, which are abnormal hosts.
T62487 1260152-1260291 Sentence denotes Spargana, elongate larval forms of Spirometra spp., may encyst in a bland fibrous capsule in the peritoneal cavity of carnivores and swine.
T22515 1260292-1260524 Sentence denotes Tetrathyridia, the larvae of the tapeworm Mesocestoides, may proliferate extensively in the abdominal cavity of carnivores, where they cause a characteristic pyogranulomatous and proliferative peritonitis known as parasitic ascites.
T97502 1260525-1260742 Sentence denotes Fasciola hepatica larvae can cause acute and chronic peritonitis in cattle and sheep; inflammation involves the parietal peritoneum and sometimes the visceral peritoneum, especially that of liver, spleen, and omentum.
T98442 1260743-1260923 Sentence denotes The lesions may consist of many fibrin tags, or more diffuse thickening of the peritoneum; young flukes may be found in the inflammatory lesions both on and beneath the peritoneum.
T51613 1260924-1260997 Sentence denotes Dioctophyma renale seems to be better adapted to dogs compared with cats.
T98476 1260998-1261220 Sentence denotes In most cases in dogs, worms are located in the kidney; however, they have been observed in the abdominal cavity, suggesting that they did not complete their normal migration pathway from the small intestine to the kidney.
T68170 1261221-1261304 Sentence denotes Migration of the worm or its ova may initiate chronic perihepatitis or peritonitis.
T59645 1261305-1261482 Sentence denotes Stephanurus dentatus, in the course of its migrations through the liver and peritoneal cavity to the kidneys in pigs, may cause local hemorrhage, peritonitis, and perihepatitis.
T57988 1261483-1261615 Sentence denotes Strongylus edentatus and S. equinus normally migrate through the liver, as well as the ligaments and lumen of the peritoneal cavity.
T3368 1261616-1261735 Sentence denotes Fibrous tags on the liver, particularly the diaphragmatic aspect, are thought to be sequelae of S. edentatus migration.
T41870 1261736-1261902 Sentence denotes The larvae of both species may be found in the retroperitoneal tissues of the dorsal abdomen in horses, and in the mesenteries supported by thin fibrovascular stroma.
T57077 1261903-1261946 Sentence denotes Mitotic figures are typically not numerous.
T97079 1261947-1262059 Sentence denotes Some tumors have atypical cells with marked anisokaryosis and prominent nucleoli, or large multinucleated cells.
T85944 1262060-1262179 Sentence denotes Mesothelial cells form clusters and whorls, or they line cystic spaces forming tubular structures with mucinous matrix.
T58746 1262180-1262434 Sentence denotes Mesotheliomas resembling carcinoma can mimic implantation and metastasis via subserosal lymphatics so completely that adequate differentiation from a true carcinoma may rest on very careful examination for, and exclusion of, a primary malignant neoplasm.
T7618 1262435-1262550 Sentence denotes Mesothelioma must be differentiated from activated or hyperplastic mesothelium, which can be extremely challenging.
T8211 1262551-1262653 Sentence denotes No single feature can be used reliably to distinguish between hyperplastic and neoplastic mesothelium.
T47681 1262654-1262804 Sentence denotes Histochemistry and immunohistochemistry have not been particularly successful in uniquely identifying malignant mesothelial cells in domestic animals.
T29272 1262805-1262887 Sentence denotes Lipomas are the most frequently encountered tumors of the peritoneal interstitium.
T59143 1262888-1262985 Sentence denotes These benign tumors are well known in horses, in which they usually originate in the mesenteries.
T23993 1262986-1263173 Sentence denotes They may reach enormous size, but their greatest significance is when they become pedunculated and cause acute strangulation obstruction when the pedicle wraps around a loop of intestine.
T63524 1263174-1263398 Sentence denotes The core of many lipomas is friable and necrotic, probably from ischemia; in many lipomas, only the superficial centimeter or so remains viable, perhaps nourished by diffusion from the peritoneal environment ( Fig. 1-201) .
T23853 1263399-1263504 Sentence denotes In the dog, lipomas arise in the omentum, rather than the mesenteries, and settle on the abdominal floor.
T89288 1263505-1263611 Sentence denotes They may become very large, but tend not to become pedunculated and therefore do not cause acute distress.
T73165 1263612-1263663 Sentence denotes Lipomas are benign lesions that do not metastasize.
T49140 1263664-1263890 Sentence denotes Other tumors of the subserosal connective tissues, including myxomas, fibromas, and their malignant counterparts, are rare, although fibrosarcomas are observed in dogs, and an omental fibrosarcoma has been reported in a horse.
T50506 1263891-1264020 Sentence denotes Neurofibromatosis of cattle may involve the abdominal nerves and plexuses, and ganglioneuromas are also observed in this species.
T70135 1264021-1264113 Sentence denotes Secondary tumors of the peritoneum are not common, but may occur in any abdominal neoplasia.
T60145 1264114-1264209 Sentence denotes These mainly arise by direct implantation, rather than by lymphatic or hematogenous metastasis.
T58901 1264210-1264260 Sentence denotes Carcinomas occur much more commonly than sarcomas.
T70195 1264261-1264459 Sentence denotes They may induce a robust scirrhous response, and when accompanied by ascites may resemble chronic Miscellaneous lesions of the peritoneum Cysts of the peritoneum are rather common but insignificant.
T45561 1264460-1264530 Sentence denotes Those associated with genital adnexa are described with those systems.
T28881 1264531-1264688 Sentence denotes Cysticerci were previously discussed; Echinococcus granulosus may develop cysts on the peritoneum following the rupture of a mature hydatid into the abdomen.
T276 1264689-1264855 Sentence denotes Multiple small fluid-filled cysts are occasionally observed in the omentum; these inconsequential lesions are inclusion cysts or sites of localized lymphatic ectasia.
T18133 1264856-1264968 Sentence denotes The normal squamous mesothelial cells of the serosa may undergo metaplasia to a cuboidal or columnar epithelium.
T36994 1264969-1265089 Sentence denotes Such metaplasia is probably the mildest response of the peritoneum to irritation but also may be a response to estrogen.
T64024 1265090-1265189 Sentence denotes Inflammatory metaplasia leading to ossification may occur in peritoneal scars, especially in swine.
T85461 1265190-1265347 Sentence denotes It also may be found in the mesenteries and the dorsal retroperitoneum without obvious cause, although ossification may occur following fat necrosis as well.
T97291 1265348-1265444 Sentence denotes Ossified areas are discoid, of variable size and shape, and are usually found in adipose tissue.
T53910 1265445-1265613 Sentence denotes Primary tumors of the peritoneum may arise from the serosa itself, from the subserous connective tissues, and from various differentiated tissues such as nerve sheaths.
T78178 1265614-1265670 Sentence denotes Tumors arising from the serosa are called mesotheliomas.
T50544 1265671-1265873 Sentence denotes The qualification term malignant is applied to mesothelioma; however, this term is without meaning because virtually all mesotheliomas can readily spread by implantation and less commonly by metastasis.
T20654 1265874-1265897 Sentence denotes Mesotheliomas are rare.
T55666 1265898-1266023 Sentence denotes They occur with greatest frequency in cattle and dogs but are occasionally reported in horses, cats, pigs, and other species.
T2159 1266024-1266157 Sentence denotes Interest in mesotheliomas has increased following the discovery of the association between asbestos fiber and mesothelioma in humans.
T78407 1266158-1266446 Sentence denotes This association has not been confirmed in animals, although ferruginous bodies, which are suggestive of asbestos exposure, have been found in the lungs of some urban dogs with mesothelioma, and an association has been made between mesothelioma in dogs and exposure of owners to asbestos.
T60416 1266447-1266595 Sentence denotes Many fiber types other than asbestos are capable of causing mesotheliomas, and this ability seems to be related mostly to fiber size and solubility.
T37535 1266596-1266725 Sentence denotes In domestic animals, mesothelioma is notable because it occurs most frequently as a congenital neoplasm in fetal or young cattle.
T84930 1266726-1266885 Sentence denotes Mesotheliomas arise from the cells of the serous linings of pericardial, pleural, and peritoneal cavities, and they may involve all 3 locations simultaneously.
T25403 1266886-1266921 Sentence denotes They are typically pleural in pigs.
T45799 1266922-1267167 Sentence denotes They usually appear as multiple firm sessile or pedunculated nodules, from a few millimeters to 6-10 cm in diameter ( Fig. 1-200) ; as villus projections on a thickened mesentery or serosal surface; or as plaque-like fibrous or sclerosing forms.
T98881 1267168-1267288 Sentence denotes In sclerosing tumors in which adhesions more often occur, mesothelioma might resemble chronic granulomatous peritonitis.
T278 1267289-1267409 Sentence denotes The tumor is frequently associated with ascites or a milky to blood-tinged effusion as the result of blocked lymphatics.
T98543 1267410-1267510 Sentence denotes Mesotheliomas of the pleura, pericardium, or peritoneum may assume a variety of histologic patterns.
T34239 1267511-1267673 Sentence denotes They appear as papillary arrangements of epithelial cells resembling carcinoma, as spindle cells resembling fibrosarcoma, or most commonly as biphasic in pattern.
T43997 1267674-1267837 Sentence denotes The epithelial form is composed of single layers of dark plump cuboidal, columnar, or rounded, epithelioid cells with a distinct border and abundant pink cytoplasm