CORD-19-Sentences  

CORD-19:00adbbcc70c39794b7d91a479943c84cc33db30a JSONTXT 9 Projects

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Id Subject Object Predicate Lexical cue
TextSentencer_T1 0-56 Sentence denotes IMMUNOLOGY AND PREVENTION OF INFECTION IN FEEDLOT CATTLE
T44967 0-56 Sentence denotes IMMUNOLOGY AND PREVENTION OF INFECTION IN FEEDLOT CATTLE
TextSentencer_T2 58-66 Sentence denotes Abstract
T96857 58-66 Sentence denotes Abstract
TextSentencer_T3 69-80 Sentence denotes mechanisms.
T6199 69-80 Sentence denotes mechanisms.
TextSentencer_T4 81-151 Sentence denotes The acquired immune system can be stimulated by effective vaccination.
T49297 81-151 Sentence denotes The acquired immune system can be stimulated by effective vaccination.
TextSentencer_T5 152-283 Sentence denotes It takes 1 to 2 weeks after vaccination or exposure to the virulent organism before the acquired immune system is fully functional.
T24393 152-283 Sentence denotes It takes 1 to 2 weeks after vaccination or exposure to the virulent organism before the acquired immune system is fully functional.
TextSentencer_T6 284-509 Sentence denotes Maintaining optimal immune function for the prevention of infectious diseases requires good management practices to prevent suppression of the immune system and sound vaccination practices to induce optimal acquired immunity.
T75106 284-509 Sentence denotes Maintaining optimal immune function for the prevention of infectious diseases requires good management practices to prevent suppression of the immune system and sound vaccination practices to induce optimal acquired immunity.
TextSentencer_T7 510-820 Sentence denotes This article briefly reviews the basic types of immunity, the factors relevant to feedlot cattle that have been shown to suppress immune function, and what is known about the basis of protective acquired immunity against the common bovine respiratory pathogens that cause significant losses in feedlot animals.
T69640 510-820 Sentence denotes This article briefly reviews the basic types of immunity, the factors relevant to feedlot cattle that have been shown to suppress immune function, and what is known about the basis of protective acquired immunity against the common bovine respiratory pathogens that cause significant losses in feedlot animals.
TextSentencer_T8 821-976 Sentence denotes The native defense mechanisms include enzymes in the saliva and tears, acids in the stomach, fatty acids in the skin, and normal flora at mucosal surfaces.
T35974 821-976 Sentence denotes The native defense mechanisms include enzymes in the saliva and tears, acids in the stomach, fatty acids in the skin, and normal flora at mucosal surfaces.
TextSentencer_T9 977-1126 Sentence denotes Native defense mechanisms also include the complement system and phagocytic white blood cells which are capable of killing some bacteria and viruses.
T61137 977-1126 Sentence denotes Native defense mechanisms also include the complement system and phagocytic white blood cells which are capable of killing some bacteria and viruses.
TextSentencer_T10 1127-1263 Sentence denotes These native defense mechanisms are functional immediately when an infectious agent enters the body even if an animal is not vaccinated.
T42258 1127-1263 Sentence denotes These native defense mechanisms are functional immediately when an infectious agent enters the body even if an animal is not vaccinated.
TextSentencer_T11 1264-1361 Sentence denotes The complement system and phagocytic cells work more efficiently in a vaccinated animal, however.
T80826 1264-1361 Sentence denotes The complement system and phagocytic cells work more efficiently in a vaccinated animal, however.
TextSentencer_T12 1362-1507 Sentence denotes Those bacteria and viruses that are capable of producing disease have evolved ways to avoid being easily killed by the native defense mechanisms.
T23815 1362-1507 Sentence denotes Those bacteria and viruses that are capable of producing disease have evolved ways to avoid being easily killed by the native defense mechanisms.
TextSentencer_T13 1508-1783 Sentence denotes In order for an animal to be adequately protected from economically important infectious diseases, it must have either been previously exposed to the disease or vaccinated against the disease so that it developed humoral immunity, cell-mediated immunity, or mucosal immunity.
T77986 1508-1783 Sentence denotes In order for an animal to be adequately protected from economically important infectious diseases, it must have either been previously exposed to the disease or vaccinated against the disease so that it developed humoral immunity, cell-mediated immunity, or mucosal immunity.
TextSentencer_T14 1784-1883 Sentence denotes Humoral immunity is due to the presence of either immunoglobulin G (IgG) or IgM in the bloodstream.
T485 1784-1883 Sentence denotes Humoral immunity is due to the presence of either immunoglobulin G (IgG) or IgM in the bloodstream.
TextSentencer_T15 1884-1993 Sentence denotes When an animal is vaccinated, B lymphocytes respond to the vaccine by producing IgM-and IgG-class antibodies.
T68652 1884-1993 Sentence denotes When an animal is vaccinated, B lymphocytes respond to the vaccine by producing IgM-and IgG-class antibodies.
TextSentencer_T16 1994-2151 Sentence denotes These antibodies are proteins that circulate in the bloodstream and can attach to the infectious agent when it is encountered in the blood or in the tissues.
T40385 1994-2151 Sentence denotes These antibodies are proteins that circulate in the bloodstream and can attach to the infectious agent when it is encountered in the blood or in the tissues.
TextSentencer_T17 2152-2214 Sentence denotes Antibodies alone are not capable of killing infectious agents.
T7034 2152-2214 Sentence denotes Antibodies alone are not capable of killing infectious agents.
TextSentencer_T18 2215-2286 Sentence denotes The presence of circulating IgG and IgM may help to control disease by:
T62580 2215-2286 Sentence denotes The presence of circulating IgG and IgM may help to control disease by:
TextSentencer_T19 2287-2290 Sentence denotes 1 .
T14780 2287-2290 Sentence denotes 1 .
TextSentencer_T20 2291-2433 Sentence denotes Agglutinating infectious agents, thereby reducing the number of infectious particles (for viruses) and facilitating removal by phagocytosis 2.
T73849 2291-2433 Sentence denotes Agglutinating infectious agents, thereby reducing the number of infectious particles (for viruses) and facilitating removal by phagocytosis 2.
TextSentencer_T21 2434-2471 Sentence denotes Binding to and neutralizing toxins 3.
T59930 2434-2471 Sentence denotes Binding to and neutralizing toxins 3.
TextSentencer_T22 2472-2547 Sentence denotes Binding to the infectious agent and blocking attachment to cell surfaces 4.
T72255 2472-2547 Sentence denotes Binding to the infectious agent and blocking attachment to cell surfaces 4.
TextSentencer_T23 2548-2642 Sentence denotes Binding to the infectious agent and initiating the classic pathway of complement activation 5.
T51569 2548-2642 Sentence denotes Binding to the infectious agent and initiating the classic pathway of complement activation 5.
TextSentencer_T24 2643-2705 Sentence denotes Opsonizing infectious agents and facilitating phagocytosis 6 .
T509 2643-2705 Sentence denotes Opsonizing infectious agents and facilitating phagocytosis 6 .
TextSentencer_T25 2706-2983 Sentence denotes Mediating attachment of cytotoxic cells to the surface of infected cells so that the infected cells may be destroyed by antibody-dependent cellmediated cytotoxicity Some disease-causing organisms, however, are resistant to control by these activities of circulating antibodies.
T48215 2706-2983 Sentence denotes Mediating attachment of cytotoxic cells to the surface of infected cells so that the infected cells may be destroyed by antibody-dependent cellmediated cytotoxicity Some disease-causing organisms, however, are resistant to control by these activities of circulating antibodies.
TextSentencer_T26 2984-3108 Sentence denotes These organisms must be attacked and destroyed by the cell-mediated immune system or controlled by the secretory IgA system.
T95558 2984-3108 Sentence denotes These organisms must be attacked and destroyed by the cell-mediated immune system or controlled by the secretory IgA system.
TextSentencer_T27 3109-3196 Sentence denotes The term cell-mediated immunity refers to immunity mediated primarily by T lymphocytes.
T40734 3109-3196 Sentence denotes The term cell-mediated immunity refers to immunity mediated primarily by T lymphocytes.
TextSentencer_T28 3197-3274 Sentence denotes The T lymphocytes have two basic methods for protecting animals from disease.
T37977 3197-3274 Sentence denotes The T lymphocytes have two basic methods for protecting animals from disease.
TextSentencer_T29 3275-3456 Sentence denotes Some lymphocytes called "cytotoxic T cells" make contact with cells presenting foreign antigens on their surface such as viral antigens or antigens from some intracellular bacteria.
T53551 3275-3456 Sentence denotes Some lymphocytes called "cytotoxic T cells" make contact with cells presenting foreign antigens on their surface such as viral antigens or antigens from some intracellular bacteria.
TextSentencer_T30 3457-3560 Sentence denotes The T cells specifically recognize the foreign antigens and kill the cell that has them on its surface.
T92014 3457-3560 Sentence denotes The T cells specifically recognize the foreign antigens and kill the cell that has them on its surface.
TextSentencer_T31 3561-3622 Sentence denotes This effectively prevents virus from replicating in the cell.
T60629 3561-3622 Sentence denotes This effectively prevents virus from replicating in the cell.
TextSentencer_T32 3623-3701 Sentence denotes The second method that T cells use to fight infection is to secrete cytokines.
T67589 3623-3701 Sentence denotes The second method that T cells use to fight infection is to secrete cytokines.
TextSentencer_T33 3702-3808 Sentence denotes Cytokines are glycoprotein molecules that activate other cells of the immune system to be more aggressive.
T17154 3702-3808 Sentence denotes Cytokines are glycoprotein molecules that activate other cells of the immune system to be more aggressive.
TextSentencer_T34 3809-3880 Sentence denotes This includes macrophages, neutrophils, and natural killer lymphocytes.
T336 3809-3880 Sentence denotes This includes macrophages, neutrophils, and natural killer lymphocytes.
TextSentencer_T35 3881-4074 Sentence denotes The activated macrophages and neutrophils are more efficient at killing bacteria, especially facultative intracellular bacterial pathogens like brucella, mycobacteria, salmonella, and listeria.
T57519 3881-4074 Sentence denotes The activated macrophages and neutrophils are more efficient at killing bacteria, especially facultative intracellular bacterial pathogens like brucella, mycobacteria, salmonella, and listeria.
TextSentencer_T36 4075-4161 Sentence denotes The activated natural killer cells are more efficient at killing virus-infected cells.
T3584 4075-4161 Sentence denotes The activated natural killer cells are more efficient at killing virus-infected cells.
TextSentencer_T37 4162-4300 Sentence denotes The T cells that secrete cytokines to enhance killing by macrophages, neutrophils, and natural killer cells are called "T-helper I" cells.
T99978 4162-4300 Sentence denotes The T cells that secrete cytokines to enhance killing by macrophages, neutrophils, and natural killer cells are called "T-helper I" cells.
TextSentencer_T38 4301-4430 Sentence denotes T lymphocytes are also essential for secreting cytokines which control the type and amount of antibody produced by B lymphocytes.
T98528 4301-4430 Sentence denotes T lymphocytes are also essential for secreting cytokines which control the type and amount of antibody produced by B lymphocytes.
TextSentencer_T39 4431-4476 Sentence denotes These T cells are called liT-helper 2" cells.
T52625 4431-4476 Sentence denotes These T cells are called liT-helper 2" cells.
TextSentencer_T40 4477-4556 Sentence denotes Therefore, production of a normal antibody response requires T-Iymphocyte help.
T8576 4477-4556 Sentence denotes Therefore, production of a normal antibody response requires T-Iymphocyte help.
TextSentencer_T41 4557-4657 Sentence denotes The activity of the T-helper 2 cells is not usually considered to be part of cell-mediated immunity.
T98429 4557-4657 Sentence denotes The activity of the T-helper 2 cells is not usually considered to be part of cell-mediated immunity.
TextSentencer_T42 4658-4849 Sentence denotes Protecting the animal from infection on mucosal surfaces such as the intestinal tract, respiratory tract, mammary glands, and reproductive tract is especially difficult for the immune system.
T71981 4658-4849 Sentence denotes Protecting the animal from infection on mucosal surfaces such as the intestinal tract, respiratory tract, mammary glands, and reproductive tract is especially difficult for the immune system.
TextSentencer_T43 4850-5111 Sentence denotes The antibodies responsible for humoral immunity and the white blood cells responsible for cell-mediated immunity are found in the bloodstream and in the tissues to some extent, including submucosal surfaces; however, they are not found on some mucosal surfaces.
T16741 4850-5111 Sentence denotes The antibodies responsible for humoral immunity and the white blood cells responsible for cell-mediated immunity are found in the bloodstream and in the tissues to some extent, including submucosal surfaces; however, they are not found on some mucosal surfaces.
TextSentencer_T44 5112-5260 Sentence denotes Therefore, they can help to prevent invasion through the mucosal surface but are not very effective at controlling infection on the mucosal surface.
T22134 5112-5260 Sentence denotes Therefore, they can help to prevent invasion through the mucosal surface but are not very effective at controlling infection on the mucosal surface.
TextSentencer_T45 5261-5571 Sentence denotes On some mucosal surfaces such as the lower respiratory tract, reproductive tract, and mammary gland, where IgG and white blood cells are found in relative abundance, they are able to provide a significant amount of protection, but they are not able to function as effectively as in the bloodstream and tissues.
T41866 5261-5571 Sentence denotes On some mucosal surfaces such as the lower respiratory tract, reproductive tract, and mammary gland, where IgG and white blood cells are found in relative abundance, they are able to provide a significant amount of protection, but they are not able to function as effectively as in the bloodstream and tissues.
TextSentencer_T46 5572-5778 Sentence denotes Protection on mucosal surfaces is due, in large part, to a special class of antibody called "secretory IgA." Secretory IgA tends to be produced in response to pathogens that enter through a mucosal surface.
T75714 5572-5778 Sentence denotes Protection on mucosal surfaces is due, in large part, to a special class of antibody called "secretory IgA." Secretory IgA tends to be produced in response to pathogens that enter through a mucosal surface.
TextSentencer_T47 5779-5900 Sentence denotes Secretory IgA is secreted onto mucosal surfaces, where it may bind to mucus and be present in fairly high concentrations.
T47 5779-5900 Sentence denotes Secretory IgA is secreted onto mucosal surfaces, where it may bind to mucus and be present in fairly high concentrations.
TextSentencer_T48 5901-6036 Sentence denotes Secretory IgA is resistant to destruction by the proteolytic enzymes on mucosal surfaces that are capable of breaking down IgA and IgM.
T48067 5901-6036 Sentence denotes Secretory IgA is resistant to destruction by the proteolytic enzymes on mucosal surfaces that are capable of breaking down IgA and IgM.
TextSentencer_T49 6037-6198 Sentence denotes IgA is the predominant immunoglobulin found in the milk of monogastrics and is important for protecting the gastrointestinal tract of the neonate from pathogens.
T59729 6037-6198 Sentence denotes IgA is the predominant immunoglobulin found in the milk of monogastrics and is important for protecting the gastrointestinal tract of the neonate from pathogens.
TextSentencer_T50 6199-6324 Sentence denotes In ruminants, IgGl is the predominant class of antibody in the milk for protecting the gastrointestinal tract of the newborn.
T86821 6199-6324 Sentence denotes In ruminants, IgGl is the predominant class of antibody in the milk for protecting the gastrointestinal tract of the newborn.
TextSentencer_T51 6325-6411 Sentence denotes Mucosal surfaces of ruminants tend to have high concentrations of IgGl as well as IgA.
T38017 6325-6411 Sentence denotes Mucosal surfaces of ruminants tend to have high concentrations of IgGl as well as IgA.
TextSentencer_T52 6412-6597 Sentence denotes The bovine respiratory disease (BRD) complex has been extensively investigated in recent years, and numerous vaccines and antibiotics have been developed and prescribed for its control.
T63185 6412-6597 Sentence denotes The bovine respiratory disease (BRD) complex has been extensively investigated in recent years, and numerous vaccines and antibiotics have been developed and prescribed for its control.
TextSentencer_T53 6598-6713 Sentence denotes Despite these efforts, BRD is still a major problem, and its pathogenesis and etiology are incompletely understood.
T49632 6598-6713 Sentence denotes Despite these efforts, BRD is still a major problem, and its pathogenesis and etiology are incompletely understood.
TextSentencer_T54 6714-6876 Sentence denotes Respiratory disease is particularly prevalent during the first 45 days after calves have been weaned, transported, and placed in a feedlot (i.e., shipping fever).
T41823 6714-6876 Sentence denotes Respiratory disease is particularly prevalent during the first 45 days after calves have been weaned, transported, and placed in a feedlot (i.e., shipping fever).
TextSentencer_T55 6877-7091 Sentence denotes 49 The economically important clinical signs, lesions, and death loss in shipping fever usually can be attributed to bacterial pneumonia due to Pasteurella haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida, or Haemophilus somnus.
T36904 6877-7091 Sentence denotes 49 The economically important clinical signs, lesions, and death loss in shipping fever usually can be attributed to bacterial pneumonia due to Pasteurella haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida, or Haemophilus somnus.
TextSentencer_T56 7092-7172 Sentence denotes These bacteria are commonly found in the nasopharyngeal area of healthy animals.
T87506 7092-7172 Sentence denotes These bacteria are commonly found in the nasopharyngeal area of healthy animals.
TextSentencer_T57 7173-7283 Sentence denotes Under normal conditions, the bacteria are unable to move into the lower respiratory tract and cause pneumonia.
T1406 7173-7283 Sentence denotes Under normal conditions, the bacteria are unable to move into the lower respiratory tract and cause pneumonia.
TextSentencer_T58 7284-7433 Sentence denotes In fact, the lungs of normal healthy cattle can withstand a challenge with surprisingly large numbers of these bacteria without serious consequences.
T98813 7284-7433 Sentence denotes In fact, the lungs of normal healthy cattle can withstand a challenge with surprisingly large numbers of these bacteria without serious consequences.
TextSentencer_T59 7434-7618 Sentence denotes If the animal is stressed, however, has a respiratory viral infection, or is otherwise immunosuppressed, a severe pneumonia can be established by a relatively small number of bacteria.
T16846 7434-7618 Sentence denotes If the animal is stressed, however, has a respiratory viral infection, or is otherwise immunosuppressed, a severe pneumonia can be established by a relatively small number of bacteria.
TextSentencer_T60 7619-7933 Sentence denotes These observations have led to the concept that BRD has a multifactorial etiology involving a complex interaction between stressors, viruses, and perhaps other immunosuppressive factors that act separately or together to suppress the defense mechanisms in the lung and predispose the animal to bacterial pneumonia.
T34181 7619-7933 Sentence denotes These observations have led to the concept that BRD has a multifactorial etiology involving a complex interaction between stressors, viruses, and perhaps other immunosuppressive factors that act separately or together to suppress the defense mechanisms in the lung and predispose the animal to bacterial pneumonia.
TextSentencer_T61 7934-8167 Sentence denotes There is ample evidence that environmental, physical, or psychologic stress (distress) can lead to increased susceptibility to disease and that the increased susceptibility is at least partially due to alterations in immune function.
T34568 7934-8167 Sentence denotes There is ample evidence that environmental, physical, or psychologic stress (distress) can lead to increased susceptibility to disease and that the increased susceptibility is at least partially due to alterations in immune function.
TextSentencer_T62 8168-8391 Sentence denotes 54, 55 A general bodily response to distress is the release of adrenocorticotropin from the anterior pituitary gland, which stimulates the adrenal cortex to increase the synthesis and secretion of cortisol (hydrocortisone).
T19418 8168-8391 Sentence denotes 54, 55 A general bodily response to distress is the release of adrenocorticotropin from the anterior pituitary gland, which stimulates the adrenal cortex to increase the synthesis and secretion of cortisol (hydrocortisone).
TextSentencer_T63 8392-8487 Sentence denotes Cortisol is responsible for many (but not all) of the effects of distress on the immune system.
T83432 8392-8487 Sentence denotes Cortisol is responsible for many (but not all) of the effects of distress on the immune system.
TextSentencer_T64 8488-8644 Sentence denotes Several stressors that are sometimes associated with the introduction of cattle to a feedlot have been proven to result in increased plasma cortisol levels.
T50655 8488-8644 Sentence denotes Several stressors that are sometimes associated with the introduction of cattle to a feedlot have been proven to result in increased plasma cortisol levels.
TextSentencer_T65 8645-8763 Sentence denotes These conditions include castration and dehorning, weaning, handling, forced exercise, acute pain, and transportation.
T58220 8645-8763 Sentence denotes These conditions include castration and dehorning, weaning, handling, forced exercise, acute pain, and transportation.
TextSentencer_T66 8764-9112 Sentence denotes 2 , 23, 41, 97, 99,102 There is evidence that high plasma cortisol concentrations affect several aspects of host defense,89 including decreased antibody response to primary immunization, decreased lymphocyte function leading to impaired cell-mediated immunity, and an inhibition of phagocytic cell ability to enter the tissues and destroy bacteria.
T67634 8764-9112 Sentence denotes 2 , 23, 41, 97, 99,102 There is evidence that high plasma cortisol concentrations affect several aspects of host defense,89 including decreased antibody response to primary immunization, decreased lymphocyte function leading to impaired cell-mediated immunity, and an inhibition of phagocytic cell ability to enter the tissues and destroy bacteria.
TextSentencer_T67 9113-9260 Sentence denotes The levels of endorphins, catecholamines, insulin, glucagon, growth hormone, prolactin, thyroid hormones, and melatonin are also altered by stress.
T31979 9113-9260 Sentence denotes The levels of endorphins, catecholamines, insulin, glucagon, growth hormone, prolactin, thyroid hormones, and melatonin are also altered by stress.
TextSentencer_T68 9261-9398 Sentence denotes These hormones may alter immune function as well, but their effects on the immune system are not understood as well as those of cortisol.
T69564 9261-9398 Sentence denotes These hormones may alter immune function as well, but their effects on the immune system are not understood as well as those of cortisol.
TextSentencer_T69 9399-9618 Sentence denotes A very important effect of elevated cortisol concentration or the administration of pharmacologic doses of glucocorticoids (e.g., dexamethasone) is the recrudescence of herpesviruses such as bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHVl).
T59097 9399-9618 Sentence denotes A very important effect of elevated cortisol concentration or the administration of pharmacologic doses of glucocorticoids (e.g., dexamethasone) is the recrudescence of herpesviruses such as bovine herpesvirus 1 (BHVl).
TextSentencer_T70 9619-9767 Sentence denotes BHVI can be recrudesced in otherwise healthy cattle by stress or dexamethasone treatment; this can be done even if the animal has an antibody titer.
T39498 9619-9767 Sentence denotes BHVI can be recrudesced in otherwise healthy cattle by stress or dexamethasone treatment; this can be done even if the animal has an antibody titer.
TextSentencer_T71 9768-9888 Sentence denotes The recrudescence of a latent BHVI infection in an animal under stress can lead to the spread of BHVI throughout a herd.
T14089 9768-9888 Sentence denotes The recrudescence of a latent BHVI infection in an animal under stress can lead to the spread of BHVI throughout a herd.
TextSentencer_T72 9889-10007 Sentence denotes Like other herpesviruses, BHVI is harbored in a latent state in animals that have recovered from an initial infection.
T10022 9889-10007 Sentence denotes Like other herpesviruses, BHVI is harbored in a latent state in animals that have recovered from an initial infection.
TextSentencer_T73 10008-10123 Sentence denotes Even a modified live virus (MLV) vaccine strain can be recrudesced and shed under the influence of glucocorticoids.
T83120 10008-10123 Sentence denotes Even a modified live virus (MLV) vaccine strain can be recrudesced and shed under the influence of glucocorticoids.
TextSentencer_T74 10124-10289 Sentence denotes 80 One clinical application of dexamethasone has been in the treatment of cattle suffering from bronchial pneumonia to reduce the inflammatory response in the lungs.
T95584 10124-10289 Sentence denotes 80 One clinical application of dexamethasone has been in the treatment of cattle suffering from bronchial pneumonia to reduce the inflammatory response in the lungs.
TextSentencer_T75 10290-10819 Sentence denotes A short-term improvement in clinical signs often occurs; however, experimentation has shown that when dexamethasone administration was combined with antibacterial and antihistamine therapy for the treatment of bronchial pneumonia in cattle, the outcome was a poorer response to treatment, more relapses, and greater death losses.· This occurred because in decreasing the inflammatory response in the lung, the dexamethasone also impaired the activity of the host defense mechanisms, thus allowing increased bacterial replication.
T75332 10290-10819 Sentence denotes A short-term improvement in clinical signs often occurs; however, experimentation has shown that when dexamethasone administration was combined with antibacterial and antihistamine therapy for the treatment of bronchial pneumonia in cattle, the outcome was a poorer response to treatment, more relapses, and greater death losses.· This occurred because in decreasing the inflammatory response in the lung, the dexamethasone also impaired the activity of the host defense mechanisms, thus allowing increased bacterial replication.
TextSentencer_T76 10820-11084 Sentence denotes 17 In general, glucocorticoids should not be used as a part of the treatment regimen for BRD unless the inflammatory response in the lung is life threatening or the clinician is confident that the antimicrobial agent being used can control the bacterial infection.
T10490 10820-11084 Sentence denotes 17 In general, glucocorticoids should not be used as a part of the treatment regimen for BRD unless the inflammatory response in the lung is life threatening or the clinician is confident that the antimicrobial agent being used can control the bacterial infection.
TextSentencer_T77 11085-11474 Sentence denotes The best evidence that viruses play an important role in predisposing to bacterial pneumonia comes from epidemiologic data indicating that a recent serologic conversion to a respiratory virus is associated with bacterial pneumonia and from challenge experiments in which cattle are infected with a virus and then infected a few days later with an aerosol of P. haemolytica or P. multocida.
T55225 11085-11474 Sentence denotes The best evidence that viruses play an important role in predisposing to bacterial pneumonia comes from epidemiologic data indicating that a recent serologic conversion to a respiratory virus is associated with bacterial pneumonia and from challenge experiments in which cattle are infected with a virus and then infected a few days later with an aerosol of P. haemolytica or P. multocida.
TextSentencer_T78 11475-11726 Sentence denotes 90 The cattle that are preinfected with either BHVl, parainfluenza 3 (PI3) virus, or bovine viral diarrhea (BVD) virus develop a severe bacterial pneumonia, although the nonvirus-infected control cattle are able to clear the bacteria from their lungs.
T39998 11475-11726 Sentence denotes 90 The cattle that are preinfected with either BHVl, parainfluenza 3 (PI3) virus, or bovine viral diarrhea (BVD) virus develop a severe bacterial pneumonia, although the nonvirus-infected control cattle are able to clear the bacteria from their lungs.
TextSentencer_T79 11727-11953 Sentence denotes These viruses may have a number of effects on the antibacterial defense mechanisms in the lung, including impairment of mucociliary clearance, suppression of phagocytic cell function, and interference with lymphocyte function.
T62036 11727-11953 Sentence denotes These viruses may have a number of effects on the antibacterial defense mechanisms in the lung, including impairment of mucociliary clearance, suppression of phagocytic cell function, and interference with lymphocyte function.
TextSentencer_T80 11954-12130 Sentence denotes The relative importance of each of these effects is not known, but it is probably a combination of activities that is responsible for the predisposition to bacterial pneumonia.
T3538 11954-12130 Sentence denotes The relative importance of each of these effects is not known, but it is probably a combination of activities that is responsible for the predisposition to bacterial pneumonia.
TextSentencer_T81 12131-12316 Sentence denotes Studies have shown that simultaneous infection with BVD virus and bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) can synergistically increase the pathologic effects of each individual virus.
T1596 12131-12316 Sentence denotes Studies have shown that simultaneous infection with BVD virus and bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) can synergistically increase the pathologic effects of each individual virus.
TextSentencer_T82 12317-12596 Sentence denotes 57 A number of respiratory viruses of cattle can inhibit mucociliary clearance in the ciliated respiratory epithelium (e.g., BHVl, PI3 virus, BVD virus, BRSV).90 Decreased mucociliary clearance is often cited as a primary reason for greater susceptibility to bacterial pneumonia.
T45925 12317-12596 Sentence denotes 57 A number of respiratory viruses of cattle can inhibit mucociliary clearance in the ciliated respiratory epithelium (e.g., BHVl, PI3 virus, BVD virus, BRSV).90 Decreased mucociliary clearance is often cited as a primary reason for greater susceptibility to bacterial pneumonia.
TextSentencer_T83 12597-12712 Sentence denotes Evidence suggests, however, that this is not as important as impairment of bactericidal mechanisms within the lung.
T52735 12597-12712 Sentence denotes Evidence suggests, however, that this is not as important as impairment of bactericidal mechanisms within the lung.
TextSentencer_T84 12713-13054 Sentence denotes This conclusion is based on the observations that the rate of bacterial killing within the healthy lung greatly exceeds the rate of mucociliary transport out of the lungs and that the period of increased susceptibility to bacterial pneumonia does not coincide with the timing of the inhibition of mucociliary clearance after viral infection.
T76679 12713-13054 Sentence denotes This conclusion is based on the observations that the rate of bacterial killing within the healthy lung greatly exceeds the rate of mucociliary transport out of the lungs and that the period of increased susceptibility to bacterial pneumonia does not coincide with the timing of the inhibition of mucociliary clearance after viral infection.
TextSentencer_T85 13055-13261 Sentence denotes 48 The current consensus seems to be that suppression of the function of phagocytic cells in the lungs (both alveolar macrophages and neutrophils) is a primary factor in predisposing to bacterial infection.
T17300 13055-13261 Sentence denotes 48 The current consensus seems to be that suppression of the function of phagocytic cells in the lungs (both alveolar macrophages and neutrophils) is a primary factor in predisposing to bacterial infection.
TextSentencer_T86 13262-13401 Sentence denotes The phagocytic cells are essential for killing bacteria that find their way to the lower respiratory tract and removing them from the lung.
T18218 13262-13401 Sentence denotes The phagocytic cells are essential for killing bacteria that find their way to the lower respiratory tract and removing them from the lung.
TextSentencer_T87 13402-13583 Sentence denotes The alveolar macrophage is the predominant phagocyte in the healthy lung and is very important in surveillance and removal of foreign material (including bacteria) from the alveoli.
T46895 13402-13583 Sentence denotes The alveolar macrophage is the predominant phagocyte in the healthy lung and is very important in surveillance and removal of foreign material (including bacteria) from the alveoli.
TextSentencer_T88 13584-13843 Sentence denotes If the alveolar macrophages are unable to control the infection or if the lung is exposed to a large challenge dose of bacteria, neutrophils migrate into the alveoli and bronchioles rapidly, and they soon (within a few hours) become the predominant cell type.
T86359 13584-13843 Sentence denotes If the alveolar macrophages are unable to control the infection or if the lung is exposed to a large challenge dose of bacteria, neutrophils migrate into the alveoli and bronchioles rapidly, and they soon (within a few hours) become the predominant cell type.
TextSentencer_T89 13844-14116 Sentence denotes Neutrophils are quite active phagocytic ally and have potent bactericidal mechanisms, including the generation of toxic oxygen products (e.g., hydrogen peroxide, superoxide anion, hydroxyl radical) and the release of cationic antibacterial peptides and hydrolytic enzymes.
T17407 13844-14116 Sentence denotes Neutrophils are quite active phagocytic ally and have potent bactericidal mechanisms, including the generation of toxic oxygen products (e.g., hydrogen peroxide, superoxide anion, hydroxyl radical) and the release of cationic antibacterial peptides and hydrolytic enzymes.
TextSentencer_T90 14117-14200 Sentence denotes In addition to being bactericidal, these products also can damage pulmonary tissue.
T55208 14117-14200 Sentence denotes In addition to being bactericidal, these products also can damage pulmonary tissue.
TextSentencer_T91 14201-14326 Sentence denotes If the infection is not brought under control relatively rapidly, the neutrophils can induce considerable damage in the lung.
T81162 14201-14326 Sentence denotes If the infection is not brought under control relatively rapidly, the neutrophils can induce considerable damage in the lung.
TextSentencer_T92 14327-14432 Sentence denotes There is evidence that BHVl, PI3 virus, BVD virus, and BRSV can each impair alveolar macrophage function.
T68713 14327-14432 Sentence denotes There is evidence that BHVl, PI3 virus, BVD virus, and BRSV can each impair alveolar macrophage function.
TextSentencer_T93 14433-14492 Sentence denotes 9o BHVl and BVD virus also can inhibit neutrophil function.
T270 14433-14492 Sentence denotes 9o BHVl and BVD virus also can inhibit neutrophil function.
TextSentencer_T94 14493-14589 Sentence denotes 90 The effects of PI3 virus and BRSV on neutrophil function apparently have not been determined.
T87921 14493-14589 Sentence denotes 90 The effects of PI3 virus and BRSV on neutrophil function apparently have not been determined.
TextSentencer_T95 14590-14726 Sentence denotes An important aspect of alveolar macrophage and neutrophil function is that they can be activated by cytokines secreted by T lymphocytes.
T2362 14590-14726 Sentence denotes An important aspect of alveolar macrophage and neutrophil function is that they can be activated by cytokines secreted by T lymphocytes.
TextSentencer_T96 14727-14852 Sentence denotes When these phagocytes are activated, they become more "aggressive" and are more effective at controlling bacterial infection.
T97759 14727-14852 Sentence denotes When these phagocytes are activated, they become more "aggressive" and are more effective at controlling bacterial infection.
TextSentencer_T97 14853-15029 Sentence denotes By interfering with lymphocyte function, the BRD viruses may inhibit alveolar macrophage and neutrophil activation and leave the animal more susceptible to bacterial pneumonia.
T44115 14853-15029 Sentence denotes By interfering with lymphocyte function, the BRD viruses may inhibit alveolar macrophage and neutrophil activation and leave the animal more susceptible to bacterial pneumonia.
TextSentencer_T98 15030-15321 Sentence denotes The BVD virus has been shown to inhibit aspects of lymphocyte,51, 82,93 macrophage,59 and neutrophil 92 ,93 function; to impair bacterial clearance from the blood 87 ; to lessen the ability of calves to clear BHVI from the lung 84 ; and to facilitate pulmonary infection with P. haemolytica.
T37695 15030-15321 Sentence denotes The BVD virus has been shown to inhibit aspects of lymphocyte,51, 82,93 macrophage,59 and neutrophil 92 ,93 function; to impair bacterial clearance from the blood 87 ; to lessen the ability of calves to clear BHVI from the lung 84 ; and to facilitate pulmonary infection with P. haemolytica.
TextSentencer_T99 15322-15449 Sentence denotes 83 At least one MLV vaccine strain of BVD virus also was shown to be capable of suppressing lymphocyte and neutrophil function.
T49153 15322-15449 Sentence denotes 83 At least one MLV vaccine strain of BVD virus also was shown to be capable of suppressing lymphocyte and neutrophil function.
TextSentencer_T100 15450-15568 Sentence denotes 91 The suppression of neutrophil function lasts for 3 to 4 weeks after infection with either a virulent or MLV strain.
T32813 15450-15568 Sentence denotes 91 The suppression of neutrophil function lasts for 3 to 4 weeks after infection with either a virulent or MLV strain.
TextSentencer_T101 15569-15990 Sentence denotes Cattle that were given adrenocorticotrophin to increase their serum cortisol levels at the same time that they received MLV BVD vaccine had more marked suppression of neutrophil function than cattle that received either the modified live BVD virus or the adrenocorticotrophin only.91 This implies that stress and the BVD virus act synergistically to cause an immunosuppression that is worse than either would cause alone.
T9817 15569-15990 Sentence denotes Cattle that were given adrenocorticotrophin to increase their serum cortisol levels at the same time that they received MLV BVD vaccine had more marked suppression of neutrophil function than cattle that received either the modified live BVD virus or the adrenocorticotrophin only.91 This implies that stress and the BVD virus act synergistically to cause an immunosuppression that is worse than either would cause alone.
TextSentencer_T102 15991-16082 Sentence denotes The clinical importance of immunosuppression by currently used MLV BVD vaccines is unknown.
T71156 15991-16082 Sentence denotes The clinical importance of immunosuppression by currently used MLV BVD vaccines is unknown.
TextSentencer_T103 16083-16174 Sentence denotes It is probably not a problem when used in healthy animals under good management conditions.
T19289 16083-16174 Sentence denotes It is probably not a problem when used in healthy animals under good management conditions.
TextSentencer_T104 16175-16309 Sentence denotes The bovine immunodeficiency virus (BIV) is a lentivirus that has antigenic and genetic homology with the human immunodeficiency virus.
T58527 16175-16309 Sentence denotes The bovine immunodeficiency virus (BIV) is a lentivirus that has antigenic and genetic homology with the human immunodeficiency virus.
TextSentencer_T105 16310-16389 Sentence denotes The true prevalence of BIV infection of cattle in the United States is unknown.
T36075 16310-16389 Sentence denotes The true prevalence of BIV infection of cattle in the United States is unknown.
TextSentencer_T106 16390-16461 Sentence denotes Various serologic surveys have detected infection rates from 4% to 18%.
T9105 16390-16461 Sentence denotes Various serologic surveys have detected infection rates from 4% to 18%.
TextSentencer_T107 16462-16650 Sentence denotes 105 Experimental infection with BIV has been associated with changes in circulating lymphocyte numbers, 15 alterations in monocyte function,77, 95, 96 and decreases in neutrophil function.
T89485 16462-16650 Sentence denotes 105 Experimental infection with BIV has been associated with changes in circulating lymphocyte numbers, 15 alterations in monocyte function,77, 95, 96 and decreases in neutrophil function.
TextSentencer_T108 16651-16814 Sentence denotes 31 , 32 These changes were relatively minor, however, and experimental BIV infection has not been shown to lead to a clinically apparent immunodeficiency syndrome.
T10527 16651-16814 Sentence denotes 31 , 32 These changes were relatively minor, however, and experimental BIV infection has not been shown to lead to a clinically apparent immunodeficiency syndrome.
TextSentencer_T109 16815-16943 Sentence denotes The potential impact of naturally occurring infection with BIV on susceptibility to diseases in feedlot cattle is still unknown.
T53334 16815-16943 Sentence denotes The potential impact of naturally occurring infection with BIV on susceptibility to diseases in feedlot cattle is still unknown.
TextSentencer_T110 16944-17126 Sentence denotes Several other viruses have been associated with the BRD complex, including bovine adenovirus, coronavirus, DN599 herpesvirus (Movar), rhinoviruses, reoviruses, and bovine parvovirus.
T70688 16944-17126 Sentence denotes Several other viruses have been associated with the BRD complex, including bovine adenovirus, coronavirus, DN599 herpesvirus (Movar), rhinoviruses, reoviruses, and bovine parvovirus.
TextSentencer_T111 17127-17338 Sentence denotes 90, 104 Little is known about the immunosuppressive effects of these viruses in cattle; however, it is logical to assume that infection with any of them may render cattle more susceptible to bacterial pneumonia.
T39572 17127-17338 Sentence denotes 90, 104 Little is known about the immunosuppressive effects of these viruses in cattle; however, it is logical to assume that infection with any of them may render cattle more susceptible to bacterial pneumonia.
TextSentencer_T112 17339-17466 Sentence denotes Mycoplasma species (Mycoplasma hovis, Mycoplasma dispar, and ureaplasmas) also may be important factors in the etiology of BRD.
T55422 17339-17466 Sentence denotes Mycoplasma species (Mycoplasma hovis, Mycoplasma dispar, and ureaplasmas) also may be important factors in the etiology of BRD.
TextSentencer_T113 17467-17579 Sentence denotes Infection with these agents that is uncomplicated by any other factors usually results in subclinical pneumonia.
T58973 17467-17579 Sentence denotes Infection with these agents that is uncomplicated by any other factors usually results in subclinical pneumonia.
TextSentencer_T114 17580-17713 Sentence denotes The mycoplasmas probably playa larger role in BRD as predisposing factors to secondary bacterial infection than as primary pathogens.
T69834 17580-17713 Sentence denotes The mycoplasmas probably playa larger role in BRD as predisposing factors to secondary bacterial infection than as primary pathogens.
TextSentencer_T115 17714-17822 Sentence denotes 101 Infection with M. bovis has been reported to enhance the severity of pneumonia caused by P. haemolytica.
T69214 17714-17822 Sentence denotes 101 Infection with M. bovis has been reported to enhance the severity of pneumonia caused by P. haemolytica.
TextSentencer_T116 17823-18111 Sentence denotes 46 The mechanisms by which mycoplasmas predispose to secondary infection are not clear, but induction of inflammation, impairment of lymphocyte function, inhibition of mucociliary transport, and inhibition of neutrophil function all have been suggested as possible contributing factors.90
T97246 17823-18111 Sentence denotes 46 The mechanisms by which mycoplasmas predispose to secondary infection are not clear, but induction of inflammation, impairment of lymphocyte function, inhibition of mucociliary transport, and inhibition of neutrophil function all have been suggested as possible contributing factors.90
TextSentencer_T117 18112-18207 Sentence denotes Nutrition plays an important role in maintaining optimal immune function and resistance to BRD.
T52971 18112-18207 Sentence denotes Nutrition plays an important role in maintaining optimal immune function and resistance to BRD.
TextSentencer_T118 18208-18263 Sentence denotes This topic is covered in another article in this issue.
T93459 18208-18263 Sentence denotes This topic is covered in another article in this issue.
TextSentencer_T119 18264-18513 Sentence denotes Immunosuppression due to the administration of glucocorticoids to cattle has been shown to exacerbate clinical signs of coccidiosis?6 In addition, there is evidence that coccidiosis itself is immunosuppressive and predisposes to secondary infection.
T53267 18264-18513 Sentence denotes Immunosuppression due to the administration of glucocorticoids to cattle has been shown to exacerbate clinical signs of coccidiosis?6 In addition, there is evidence that coccidiosis itself is immunosuppressive and predisposes to secondary infection.
TextSentencer_T120 18514-18694 Sentence denotes The feeding of coccidiostats to feedlot cattle has been associated with reduced shedding of coccidial oocysts and with reduced morbidity65 and mortality33 from respiratory disease.
T50627 18514-18694 Sentence denotes The feeding of coccidiostats to feedlot cattle has been associated with reduced shedding of coccidial oocysts and with reduced morbidity65 and mortality33 from respiratory disease.
TextSentencer_T121 18695-18794 Sentence denotes Subclinical and clinical coccidiosis has also been shown to suppress neutrophil function in cattle.
T22486 18695-18794 Sentence denotes Subclinical and clinical coccidiosis has also been shown to suppress neutrophil function in cattle.
TextSentencer_T122 18795-18929 Sentence denotes 94 Substances secreted by nematodes progressing through larval stages have been shown to suppress proliferation of bovine lymphocytes.
T53167 18795-18929 Sentence denotes 94 Substances secreted by nematodes progressing through larval stages have been shown to suppress proliferation of bovine lymphocytes.
TextSentencer_T123 18930-19090 Sentence denotes 36 Therefore, controlling coccidiosis and parasites in feedlot cattle is important for maintaining optimal immune function and resistance to infectious disease.
T54475 18930-19090 Sentence denotes 36 Therefore, controlling coccidiosis and parasites in feedlot cattle is important for maintaining optimal immune function and resistance to infectious disease.
TextSentencer_T124 19091-19184 Sentence denotes BHVl, also referred to as "infectious bovine rhinotracheitis" (IBR), is an alpha herpesvirus.
T24813 19091-19184 Sentence denotes BHVl, also referred to as "infectious bovine rhinotracheitis" (IBR), is an alpha herpesvirus.
TextSentencer_T125 19185-19296 Sentence denotes The characteristics of protective immunity against BHVI are similar to those against other alpha herpesviruses.
T22581 19185-19296 Sentence denotes The characteristics of protective immunity against BHVI are similar to those against other alpha herpesviruses.
TextSentencer_T126 19297-19402 Sentence denotes Antibody titers as measured by a serum neutralization (SN) test can protect the animal against infection.
T81143 19297-19402 Sentence denotes Antibody titers as measured by a serum neutralization (SN) test can protect the animal against infection.
TextSentencer_T127 19403-19554 Sentence denotes The evidence for this is that the passive antibodies that a calf receives from the colostrum can provide solid protection against infectious challenge.
T94928 19403-19554 Sentence denotes The evidence for this is that the passive antibodies that a calf receives from the colostrum can provide solid protection against infectious challenge.
TextSentencer_T128 19555-19664 Sentence denotes The passively acquired antibody can also prevent an MLV vaccine from inducing an antibody response in a calf.
T27740 19555-19664 Sentence denotes The passively acquired antibody can also prevent an MLV vaccine from inducing an antibody response in a calf.
TextSentencer_T129 19665-19774 Sentence denotes This maternal antibody blockage of an MLV vaccine can even occur if the serum neutralizing titer is very low.
T24633 19665-19774 Sentence denotes This maternal antibody blockage of an MLV vaccine can even occur if the serum neutralizing titer is very low.
TextSentencer_T130 19775-19958 Sentence denotes If the calf receives a lot of colostrum with a high titer against BHV1, it may be 6 to 8 months old before it is capable of responding to an MLV vaccine by the production of antibody.
T9843 19775-19958 Sentence denotes If the calf receives a lot of colostrum with a high titer against BHV1, it may be 6 to 8 months old before it is capable of responding to an MLV vaccine by the production of antibody.
TextSentencer_T131 19959-20279 Sentence denotes Even though the MLV vaccine may not induce an antibody response, it is possible that it may induce a memory response in the face of maternal antibody so that if the calf is subsequently exposed to the virulent virus, it may be capable of responding more rapidly to the viral challenge and have some degree of protection.
T40713 19959-20279 Sentence denotes Even though the MLV vaccine may not induce an antibody response, it is possible that it may induce a memory response in the face of maternal antibody so that if the calf is subsequently exposed to the virulent virus, it may be capable of responding more rapidly to the viral challenge and have some degree of protection.
TextSentencer_T132 20280-20505 Sentence denotes There is evidence to indicate that vaccination in the presence of maternal antibody against pseudorabies virus in pigs (another alpha herpesvirus) stimulates immunologic memory even though an antibody response does not occur.
T17551 20280-20505 Sentence denotes There is evidence to indicate that vaccination in the presence of maternal antibody against pseudorabies virus in pigs (another alpha herpesvirus) stimulates immunologic memory even though an antibody response does not occur.
TextSentencer_T133 20506-20633 Sentence denotes This immunologic memory has been shown to provide partial protection against disease challenge with pseudorabies virus in pigS.
T37017 20506-20633 Sentence denotes This immunologic memory has been shown to provide partial protection against disease challenge with pseudorabies virus in pigS.
TextSentencer_T134 20634-20770 Sentence denotes 111 There is also evidence that the same is likely to be true for MLV BHVl vaccines used in the presence of maternal antibody in calves.
T58572 20634-20770 Sentence denotes 111 There is also evidence that the same is likely to be true for MLV BHVl vaccines used in the presence of maternal antibody in calves.
TextSentencer_T135 20771-20934 Sentence denotes 30 ,70 An important characteristic of herpesviruses is that after an animal recovers from disease, it is latently infected with the virus for the rest of its life.
T49441 20771-20934 Sentence denotes 30 ,70 An important characteristic of herpesviruses is that after an animal recovers from disease, it is latently infected with the virus for the rest of its life.
TextSentencer_T136 20935-20995 Sentence denotes The virus resides in ganglia of nerves in a quiescent state.
T38263 20935-20995 Sentence denotes The virus resides in ganglia of nerves in a quiescent state.
TextSentencer_T137 20996-21059 Sentence denotes Even MLV BHVl vaccine has been shown to latently infect cattle.
T27544 20996-21059 Sentence denotes Even MLV BHVl vaccine has been shown to latently infect cattle.
TextSentencer_T138 21060-21130 Sentence denotes 3o The immune system is not capable of clearing this latent infection.
T20184 21060-21130 Sentence denotes 3o The immune system is not capable of clearing this latent infection.
TextSentencer_T139 21131-21314 Sentence denotes If the animal is stressed or treated with glucocorticoids later in life, the virus is likely to recrudesce and be shed even if the animal has a high serum neutralizing antibody titer.
T33576 21131-21314 Sentence denotes If the animal is stressed or treated with glucocorticoids later in life, the virus is likely to recrudesce and be shed even if the animal has a high serum neutralizing antibody titer.
TextSentencer_T140 21315-21457 Sentence denotes 30, 93, 106 Therefore, serum neutralizing antibody can prevent infection, but it cannot prevent recrudescence and shedding of the latent BHVl.
T76197 21315-21457 Sentence denotes 30, 93, 106 Therefore, serum neutralizing antibody can prevent infection, but it cannot prevent recrudescence and shedding of the latent BHVl.
TextSentencer_T141 21458-21600 Sentence denotes The latently infected animal that is shedding BHVl may not show any clinical signs but is a source of infection for other animals in the herd.
T35248 21458-21600 Sentence denotes The latently infected animal that is shedding BHVl may not show any clinical signs but is a source of infection for other animals in the herd.
TextSentencer_T142 21601-21742 Sentence denotes Once an infection with BHVl is established, a cell-mediated immune response is probably needed in order to bring the infection under control.
T28224 21601-21742 Sentence denotes Once an infection with BHVl is established, a cell-mediated immune response is probably needed in order to bring the infection under control.
TextSentencer_T143 21743-21824 Sentence denotes Cytotoxic T lymphocytes are thought to be important in controlling the infection.
T91135 21743-21824 Sentence denotes Cytotoxic T lymphocytes are thought to be important in controlling the infection.
TextSentencer_T144 21825-21903 Sentence denotes There do not seem to be important antigenic differences between BHVl isolates.
T20140 21825-21903 Sentence denotes There do not seem to be important antigenic differences between BHVl isolates.
TextSentencer_T145 21904-22035 Sentence denotes Immunity to one isolate of BHVl or one vaccine strain of virus appears to provide good cross protection against all field isolates.
T56194 21904-22035 Sentence denotes Immunity to one isolate of BHVl or one vaccine strain of virus appears to provide good cross protection against all field isolates.
TextSentencer_T146 22036-22167 Sentence denotes Therefore, an SN titer measured against any BHVl virus in the laboratory will more or less equally neutralize any other BHVl virus.
T94842 22036-22167 Sentence denotes Therefore, an SN titer measured against any BHVl virus in the laboratory will more or less equally neutralize any other BHVl virus.
TextSentencer_T147 22168-22385 Sentence denotes An antibody titer determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay may or may not measure protective (serum neutralizing) antibodies depending on the nature of the antigen used in the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.
T22420 22168-22385 Sentence denotes An antibody titer determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay may or may not measure protective (serum neutralizing) antibodies depending on the nature of the antigen used in the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.
TextSentencer_T148 22386-22637 Sentence denotes SN antibody titers approximately greater than 1 to 32 have been shown to protect against disease induced by BVD virus. ll A major problem, however, in immunity to BVD virus is that there is a great deal of antigenic diversity among BVD virus isolates.
T71959 22386-22637 Sentence denotes SN antibody titers approximately greater than 1 to 32 have been shown to protect against disease induced by BVD virus. ll A major problem, however, in immunity to BVD virus is that there is a great deal of antigenic diversity among BVD virus isolates.
TextSentencer_T149 22638-22776 Sentence denotes 27 The BVD virus, like most other RNA viruses, has a high mutation rate, resulting in almost unlimited antigenic diversity among isolates.
T8816 22638-22776 Sentence denotes 27 The BVD virus, like most other RNA viruses, has a high mutation rate, resulting in almost unlimited antigenic diversity among isolates.
TextSentencer_T150 22777-22823 Sentence denotes The E2 gene of BVD codes for the CPS3 protein.
T7500 22777-22823 Sentence denotes The E2 gene of BVD codes for the CPS3 protein.
TextSentencer_T151 22824-22909 Sentence denotes This is the major surface glycoprotein and is immunodominant for antibody production.
T83889 22824-22909 Sentence denotes This is the major surface glycoprotein and is immunodominant for antibody production.
TextSentencer_T152 22910-22957 Sentence denotes It is a major epitope for virus neutralization.
T99210 22910-22957 Sentence denotes It is a major epitope for virus neutralization.
TextSentencer_T153 22958-23038 Sentence denotes The E2 gene represents one of the hypervariable regions of the BVD virus genome.
T34992 22958-23038 Sentence denotes The E2 gene represents one of the hypervariable regions of the BVD virus genome.
TextSentencer_T154 23039-23117 Sentence denotes This hypervariability may be due to selective pressure from the immune system.
T58630 23039-23117 Sentence denotes This hypervariability may be due to selective pressure from the immune system.
TextSentencer_T155 23118-23376 Sentence denotes 26 The heterogeneity of the CPS3 protein (and other less important virus neutralizing epitopes) limits the ability of an antibody response to one strain of BVD virus to protect against a wide array of other possible strains that the animal may be exposed to.
T41417 23118-23376 Sentence denotes 26 The heterogeneity of the CPS3 protein (and other less important virus neutralizing epitopes) limits the ability of an antibody response to one strain of BVD virus to protect against a wide array of other possible strains that the animal may be exposed to.
TextSentencer_T156 23377-23514 Sentence denotes The SN antibody titer of a single serum sample may vary from 10-to 100-fold depending on which BVD virus isolate is used in the SN assay.
T59516 23377-23514 Sentence denotes The SN antibody titer of a single serum sample may vary from 10-to 100-fold depending on which BVD virus isolate is used in the SN assay.
TextSentencer_T157 23515-23739 Sentence denotes 12, 27 The animal is probably protected against the isolates that the serum can neutralize at a titer of approximately 1 to 32 or greater, but the antibody in the serum cannot protect against the other isolates of BVD virus.
T19592 23515-23739 Sentence denotes 12, 27 The animal is probably protected against the isolates that the serum can neutralize at a titer of approximately 1 to 32 or greater, but the antibody in the serum cannot protect against the other isolates of BVD virus.
TextSentencer_T158 23740-23860 Sentence denotes In a field outbreak, it is impossible to predict which antigenic type of BVD virus the animal is going to be exposed to.
T22842 23740-23860 Sentence denotes In a field outbreak, it is impossible to predict which antigenic type of BVD virus the animal is going to be exposed to.
TextSentencer_T159 23861-24101 Sentence denotes There is apparently no single vaccine strain of BVD virus (or even a combination of vaccine strains) that is capable of providing cross-protective SN antibody titers against all potential virulent BVD virus isolates that may be encountered.
T45454 23861-24101 Sentence denotes There is apparently no single vaccine strain of BVD virus (or even a combination of vaccine strains) that is capable of providing cross-protective SN antibody titers against all potential virulent BVD virus isolates that may be encountered.
TextSentencer_T160 24102-24253 Sentence denotes Little is known about the role of cell-mediated immunity (either cytotoxic T cells or T-helper 1 cells) in protection against BVD virusinduced disease.
T58714 24102-24253 Sentence denotes Little is known about the role of cell-mediated immunity (either cytotoxic T cells or T-helper 1 cells) in protection against BVD virusinduced disease.
TextSentencer_T161 24254-24336 Sentence denotes It is likely that cell-mediated immunity is important for recovery from infection.
T9207 24254-24336 Sentence denotes It is likely that cell-mediated immunity is important for recovery from infection.
TextSentencer_T162 24337-24538 Sentence denotes It is quite possible that cell-mediated immunity, especially that provided by cytotoxic T lymphocytes, provides better cross-protective immunity between different BVD virus isolates than antibody does.
T51552 24337-24538 Sentence denotes It is quite possible that cell-mediated immunity, especially that provided by cytotoxic T lymphocytes, provides better cross-protective immunity between different BVD virus isolates than antibody does.
TextSentencer_T163 24539-24658 Sentence denotes If this is true, an animal that has developed cell-mediated immunity has better protection against BVD virus challenge.
T77804 24539-24658 Sentence denotes If this is true, an animal that has developed cell-mediated immunity has better protection against BVD virus challenge.
TextSentencer_T164 24659-24841 Sentence denotes Because MLV vaccines are more likely to induce cytotoxic T lymphocytes than are killed vaccines, they may provide better cross-protective immunity to a variety of BVD virus isolates.
T46234 24659-24841 Sentence denotes Because MLV vaccines are more likely to induce cytotoxic T lymphocytes than are killed vaccines, they may provide better cross-protective immunity to a variety of BVD virus isolates.
TextSentencer_T165 24842-25012 Sentence denotes This hypothesis fits the commonly held perception that MLV vaccines provide better immunity to BVD virus than killed vaccines, but it remains to be proven experimentally.
T1311 24842-25012 Sentence denotes This hypothesis fits the commonly held perception that MLV vaccines provide better immunity to BVD virus than killed vaccines, but it remains to be proven experimentally.
TextSentencer_T166 25013-25098 Sentence denotes Recently, two separate genotypes of BVD virus have been defined,88 type 1 and type 2.
T7686 25013-25098 Sentence denotes Recently, two separate genotypes of BVD virus have been defined,88 type 1 and type 2.
TextSentencer_T167 25099-25197 Sentence denotes The type-2 BVD viruses have the potential to produce severe acute infection even in adult animals.
T14884 25099-25197 Sentence denotes The type-2 BVD viruses have the potential to produce severe acute infection even in adult animals.
TextSentencer_T168 25198-25312 Sentence denotes The homologous genotypes tend to induce better cross-neutralizing antibody titers than the heterologous genotypes.
T22191 25198-25312 Sentence denotes The homologous genotypes tend to induce better cross-neutralizing antibody titers than the heterologous genotypes.
TextSentencer_T169 25313-25492 Sentence denotes A type-l MLV BVD vaccine has been shown to provide protection from a virulent challenge with a type-2 BVD virus/ 2 probably due to cross-protective cell-mediated immune responses.
T82034 25313-25492 Sentence denotes A type-l MLV BVD vaccine has been shown to provide protection from a virulent challenge with a type-2 BVD virus/ 2 probably due to cross-protective cell-mediated immune responses.
TextSentencer_T170 25493-25692 Sentence denotes A critical factor in controlling BVD virus infection in a herd, and probably in the cattle population as a whole, is to prevent infection of the fetus and development of persistently infected calves.
T29198 25493-25692 Sentence denotes A critical factor in controlling BVD virus infection in a herd, and probably in the cattle population as a whole, is to prevent infection of the fetus and development of persistently infected calves.
TextSentencer_T171 25693-25854 Sentence denotes There are scant data on the ability of vaccines administered to the cow to prevent infection of the fetus if the cow should become exposed to virulent BVD virus.
T28332 25693-25854 Sentence denotes There are scant data on the ability of vaccines administered to the cow to prevent infection of the fetus if the cow should become exposed to virulent BVD virus.
TextSentencer_T172 25855-26013 Sentence denotes There have been some experiments conducted using killed BVD virus vaccines in cows that were subsequently challenged with virulent BVD virus during pregnancy.
T61866 25855-26013 Sentence denotes There have been some experiments conducted using killed BVD virus vaccines in cows that were subsequently challenged with virulent BVD virus during pregnancy.
TextSentencer_T173 26014-26105 Sentence denotes In most cases, these vaccines did not provide adequate immunity to prevent fetal infection.
T46537 26014-26105 Sentence denotes In most cases, these vaccines did not provide adequate immunity to prevent fetal infection.
TextSentencer_T174 26106-26233 Sentence denotes In one experiment using three doses of a killed vaccine, evidence of fetal protection from experimental challenge was obtained.
T36379 26106-26233 Sentence denotes In one experiment using three doses of a killed vaccine, evidence of fetal protection from experimental challenge was obtained.
TextSentencer_T175 26234-26603 Sentence denotes 13 Considering all of the evidence, it is likely that a killed vaccine inducing a titer of greater than 1 to 32 in the cow against a particular isolate of BVD virus can protect the fetus from becoming infected; however, there are likely to be strains of BVD virus that are antigenic ally different from the vaccine virus, which the cow and fetus are not protected from.
T91248 26234-26603 Sentence denotes 13 Considering all of the evidence, it is likely that a killed vaccine inducing a titer of greater than 1 to 32 in the cow against a particular isolate of BVD virus can protect the fetus from becoming infected; however, there are likely to be strains of BVD virus that are antigenic ally different from the vaccine virus, which the cow and fetus are not protected from.
TextSentencer_T176 26604-26775 Sentence denotes It is possible that an MLV vaccine administered to the cow prior to pregnancy may provide better crossprotective immunity against a variety of isolates as described above.
T69429 26604-26775 Sentence denotes It is possible that an MLV vaccine administered to the cow prior to pregnancy may provide better crossprotective immunity against a variety of isolates as described above.
TextSentencer_T177 26776-26939 Sentence denotes Nevertheless, the authors are unaware of any experiments demonstrating that an MLV vaccine administered to a cow is capable of protecting the fetus from infection.
T65912 26776-26939 Sentence denotes Nevertheless, the authors are unaware of any experiments demonstrating that an MLV vaccine administered to a cow is capable of protecting the fetus from infection.
TextSentencer_T178 26940-27066 Sentence denotes Fetal protection experiments are expensive to perform but are needed to answer important questions regarding vaccine efficacy.
T8158 26940-27066 Sentence denotes Fetal protection experiments are expensive to perform but are needed to answer important questions regarding vaccine efficacy.
TextSentencer_T179 27067-27156 Sentence denotes Circulating antibody does not seem to provide good immunity against BRSV-induced disease.
T78986 27067-27156 Sentence denotes Circulating antibody does not seem to provide good immunity against BRSV-induced disease.
TextSentencer_T180 27157-27392 Sentence denotes The evidence for this is the observation that calves with passive antibody are not usually protected from BRSVinduced infection or disease; however, calves that recover from disease are protected from reinfection, at least for a while.
T70288 27157-27392 Sentence denotes The evidence for this is the observation that calves with passive antibody are not usually protected from BRSVinduced infection or disease; however, calves that recover from disease are protected from reinfection, at least for a while.
TextSentencer_T181 27393-27652 Sentence denotes 60 The nature of protective immunity is not clearly understood, but there is some evidence to suggest that a strong IgA memory response is associated with protection and that a cytotoxic T-Iymphocyte response to the F protein of BRSV may protect from disease.
T55246 27393-27652 Sentence denotes 60 The nature of protective immunity is not clearly understood, but there is some evidence to suggest that a strong IgA memory response is associated with protection and that a cytotoxic T-Iymphocyte response to the F protein of BRSV may protect from disease.
TextSentencer_T182 27653-27958 Sentence denotes In one series of experiments in which calves with and without maternal antibody were primed with live BRSV via the respiratory tract, protection was associated with a strong and rapid mucosal antibody memory response after challenge but not with serum or mucosal antibody present at the time of challenge.
T40301 27653-27958 Sentence denotes In one series of experiments in which calves with and without maternal antibody were primed with live BRSV via the respiratory tract, protection was associated with a strong and rapid mucosal antibody memory response after challenge but not with serum or mucosal antibody present at the time of challenge.
TextSentencer_T183 27959-28160 Sentence denotes 61 A problem with BRSV vaccination and immunity is that maternal antibody does not provide good protection, but it does interfere with active immunization of the calf as assayed by antibody production.
T31523 27959-28160 Sentence denotes 61 A problem with BRSV vaccination and immunity is that maternal antibody does not provide good protection, but it does interfere with active immunization of the calf as assayed by antibody production.
TextSentencer_T184 28161-28313 Sentence denotes 6o This presents a real problem, because BRSV tends to cause disease in calves that are too young to effectively vaccinate because of maternal antibody.
T64939 28161-28313 Sentence denotes 6o This presents a real problem, because BRSV tends to cause disease in calves that are too young to effectively vaccinate because of maternal antibody.
TextSentencer_T185 28314-28514 Sentence denotes Additional research is needed to further characterize the nature of protective immunity to BRSV and to develop vaccines that can effectively immunize a young calf in the presence of maternal antibody.
T88116 28314-28514 Sentence denotes Additional research is needed to further characterize the nature of protective immunity to BRSV and to develop vaccines that can effectively immunize a young calf in the presence of maternal antibody.
TextSentencer_T186 28515-28995 Sentence denotes In recent years it has been shown that antibody against P. haemolytica leukotoxin and surface capsular antigens is important to help protect calves against P. haemolytica-induced pneumonia. lB , 19,37,72 When measuring antibody titers against P. haemolytica, it would be best to measure both the antileukotoxin antibody titer and the anticapsular antibody titer, because these titers correlate best with immunity when a calf is directly challenged in the lung with P. haemolytica.
T21649 28515-28995 Sentence denotes In recent years it has been shown that antibody against P. haemolytica leukotoxin and surface capsular antigens is important to help protect calves against P. haemolytica-induced pneumonia. lB , 19,37,72 When measuring antibody titers against P. haemolytica, it would be best to measure both the antileukotoxin antibody titer and the anticapsular antibody titer, because these titers correlate best with immunity when a calf is directly challenged in the lung with P. haemolytica.
TextSentencer_T187 28996-29225 Sentence denotes Lymphocytes from mediastinal lymph nodes of calves vaccinated with an MLV P. haemolytica vaccine or recovered from P. haemolytica challenge secreted gamma interferon when stimulated with outer membrane proteins of P. haemolytica.
T25238 28996-29225 Sentence denotes Lymphocytes from mediastinal lymph nodes of calves vaccinated with an MLV P. haemolytica vaccine or recovered from P. haemolytica challenge secreted gamma interferon when stimulated with outer membrane proteins of P. haemolytica.
TextSentencer_T188 29226-29328 Sentence denotes This is an indication that calves develop T-helper 1 cell-mediated immune responses to P. haemolytica.
T19584 29226-29328 Sentence denotes This is an indication that calves develop T-helper 1 cell-mediated immune responses to P. haemolytica.
TextSentencer_T189 29329-29487 Sentence denotes Protection against pneumonic lesions more closely correlated with antileukotoxin antibody responses than with lymphocyte gamma interferon production, however.
T46046 29329-29487 Sentence denotes Protection against pneumonic lesions more closely correlated with antileukotoxin antibody responses than with lymphocyte gamma interferon production, however.
TextSentencer_T190 29488-29629 Sentence denotes 25 An important component in the pathogenesis of naturally occurring P. haemolytica pneumonia is colonization of the upper respiratory tract.
T80000 29488-29629 Sentence denotes 25 An important component in the pathogenesis of naturally occurring P. haemolytica pneumonia is colonization of the upper respiratory tract.
TextSentencer_T191 29630-29737 Sentence denotes 34 P. haemolytica can be isolated in low numbers from the upper respiratory tract of normal healthy calves.
T25643 29630-29737 Sentence denotes 34 P. haemolytica can be isolated in low numbers from the upper respiratory tract of normal healthy calves.
TextSentencer_T192 29738-29911 Sentence denotes Viral infection or stress may allow the P. haemolytica in the nasal and pharyngeal areas to grow to large numbers, leading to inhalation of microcolonies deep into the lung.
T88432 29738-29911 Sentence denotes Viral infection or stress may allow the P. haemolytica in the nasal and pharyngeal areas to grow to large numbers, leading to inhalation of microcolonies deep into the lung.
TextSentencer_T193 29912-30025 Sentence denotes These microcolonies then may successfully avoid the immune defenses in the alveolus and produce severe pneumonia.
T80445 29912-30025 Sentence denotes These microcolonies then may successfully avoid the immune defenses in the alveolus and produce severe pneumonia.
TextSentencer_T194 30026-30153 Sentence denotes Little is known about the ability of current vaccines to inhibit colonization of the upper respiratory tract by P. haemolytica.
T17180 30026-30153 Sentence denotes Little is known about the ability of current vaccines to inhibit colonization of the upper respiratory tract by P. haemolytica.
TextSentencer_T195 30154-30301 Sentence denotes Further research is needed to design and test vaccines that are capable of preventing or reducing upper respiratory colonization by P. haemolytica.
T1112 30154-30301 Sentence denotes Further research is needed to design and test vaccines that are capable of preventing or reducing upper respiratory colonization by P. haemolytica.
TextSentencer_T196 30302-30391 Sentence denotes Not much is known about the nature of protective immunity to H. somnus-induced pneumonia.
T85650 30302-30391 Sentence denotes Not much is known about the nature of protective immunity to H. somnus-induced pneumonia.
TextSentencer_T197 30392-30555 Sentence denotes H. somnus has a number of potential virulence factors that have been studied, including endotoxin, antibody binding proteins, surface nucleotides, and a hemolysin.
T36412 30392-30555 Sentence denotes H. somnus has a number of potential virulence factors that have been studied, including endotoxin, antibody binding proteins, surface nucleotides, and a hemolysin.
TextSentencer_T198 30556-30762 Sentence denotes 2l , 112, 114 It is likely that antibody against these potential virulence factors may help to protect the calf against H. somnus-induced pneumonia; however, there are scant data to support this hypothesis.
T58739 30556-30762 Sentence denotes 2l , 112, 114 It is likely that antibody against these potential virulence factors may help to protect the calf against H. somnus-induced pneumonia; however, there are scant data to support this hypothesis.
TextSentencer_T199 30763-31095 Sentence denotes In addition, there are two proteins that have been isolated from H. somnus, a 40-kD protein and a 31-kD protein, that have been implicated as important antigens for inducing immunity.3B, 113 The role of T-helper 1 cells or a secretory IgA response in protection from H. somnus-induced pneumonia has not been thoroughly investigated.
T58117 30763-31095 Sentence denotes In addition, there are two proteins that have been isolated from H. somnus, a 40-kD protein and a 31-kD protein, that have been implicated as important antigens for inducing immunity.3B, 113 The role of T-helper 1 cells or a secretory IgA response in protection from H. somnus-induced pneumonia has not been thoroughly investigated.
TextSentencer_T200 31096-31265 Sentence denotes There is evidence that gamma interferon, which can be produced during aT-helper 1 cell immune response, can help to protect the calf against H. somnus-induced pneumonia.
T21342 31096-31265 Sentence denotes There is evidence that gamma interferon, which can be produced during aT-helper 1 cell immune response, can help to protect the calf against H. somnus-induced pneumonia.
TextSentencer_T201 31266-31268 Sentence denotes 16
T85552 31266-31268 Sentence denotes 16
TextSentencer_T202 31269-31306 Sentence denotes We use both live and killed vaccines.
T60421 31269-31306 Sentence denotes We use both live and killed vaccines.
TextSentencer_T203 31307-31372 Sentence denotes The advantages of one are usually the disadvantages of the other.
T58337 31307-31372 Sentence denotes The advantages of one are usually the disadvantages of the other.
TextSentencer_T204 31373-31739 Sentence denotes MLV vaccine attributes include strong long-lasting immune response achieved with fewer doses, less reliance on adjuvants, possible stimulation of interferon production, stimulation of the effector component of cell-mediated immunity (cytotoxic T lymphocytes), and the fact that the bacteria or virus may look and behave more like the pathogenic form of the organism.
T3344 31373-31739 Sentence denotes MLV vaccine attributes include strong long-lasting immune response achieved with fewer doses, less reliance on adjuvants, possible stimulation of interferon production, stimulation of the effector component of cell-mediated immunity (cytotoxic T lymphocytes), and the fact that the bacteria or virus may look and behave more like the pathogenic form of the organism.
TextSentencer_T205 31740-31897 Sentence denotes Some advantages of killed vaccines are that they are more stable in storage and are unlikely to cause disease as a result of residual virulence or reversion.
T22884 31740-31897 Sentence denotes Some advantages of killed vaccines are that they are more stable in storage and are unlikely to cause disease as a result of residual virulence or reversion.
TextSentencer_T206 31898-31988 Sentence denotes Numerous brands of vaccines provide a variety of combinations of live and killed antigens.
T11430 31898-31988 Sentence denotes Numerous brands of vaccines provide a variety of combinations of live and killed antigens.
TextSentencer_T207 31989-32082 Sentence denotes These include IBR virus, BVD virus, PI3 virus, BRSV, Pasteurella sp., and H. somnus antigens.
T768 31989-32082 Sentence denotes These include IBR virus, BVD virus, PI3 virus, BRSV, Pasteurella sp., and H. somnus antigens.
TextSentencer_T208 32083-32257 Sentence denotes IBR virus vaccines are available in MLV form for intramuscular, subcutaneous, or intranasal use as well as in killed and chemically altered virus forms for intramuscular use.
T78405 32083-32257 Sentence denotes IBR virus vaccines are available in MLV form for intramuscular, subcutaneous, or intranasal use as well as in killed and chemically altered virus forms for intramuscular use.
TextSentencer_T209 32258-32373 Sentence denotes Intramuscular MLV vaccines are thought to quickly induce immunity following proper administration of a single dose.
T88049 32258-32373 Sentence denotes Intramuscular MLV vaccines are thought to quickly induce immunity following proper administration of a single dose.
TextSentencer_T210 32374-32515 Sentence denotes Intranasal MLV vaccines induce immunity at the mucosal surface through stimulation of acquired mucosal immunity and production of interferon.
T9889 32374-32515 Sentence denotes Intranasal MLV vaccines induce immunity at the mucosal surface through stimulation of acquired mucosal immunity and production of interferon.
TextSentencer_T211 32516-32646 Sentence denotes They may be used safely in calves suckling pregnant cows and can induce immunity in the face of residual maternal antibody titers.
T21682 32516-32646 Sentence denotes They may be used safely in calves suckling pregnant cows and can induce immunity in the face of residual maternal antibody titers.
TextSentencer_T212 32647-32695 Sentence denotes They are, however, more difficult to administer.
T40477 32647-32695 Sentence denotes They are, however, more difficult to administer.
TextSentencer_T213 32696-32804 Sentence denotes Killed virus vaccines require two doses administered at a 14-to 28-day interval in order to induce immunity.
T89149 32696-32804 Sentence denotes Killed virus vaccines require two doses administered at a 14-to 28-day interval in order to induce immunity.
TextSentencer_T214 32805-32944 Sentence denotes Along with higher cost and concerns about shorter duration of immunity, this makes them less practical to use in a typical feedlot setting.
T42046 32805-32944 Sentence denotes Along with higher cost and concerns about shorter duration of immunity, this makes them less practical to use in a typical feedlot setting.
TextSentencer_T215 32945-33187 Sentence denotes In a review of IBR virus vaccine clinical efficacy studies, results were positive or neutral; however, none were negative. s1 The studies date to 1958 and 1974 and may not apply to current cattle feeding management practices in North America.
T21585 32945-33187 Sentence denotes In a review of IBR virus vaccine clinical efficacy studies, results were positive or neutral; however, none were negative. s1 The studies date to 1958 and 1974 and may not apply to current cattle feeding management practices in North America.
TextSentencer_T216 33188-33489 Sentence denotes In a field trial using IBR MLV vaccine at arrival, the incidence of upper respiratory disease was reduced from 17.2% in 3371 unvaccinated calves to 1 % in 3345 vaccinates (RR = 16; P<O.OOOO),us A well-designed trial using IBR MLV vaccine given on arrival failed to show benefits in health performance.
T10790 33188-33489 Sentence denotes In a field trial using IBR MLV vaccine at arrival, the incidence of upper respiratory disease was reduced from 17.2% in 3371 unvaccinated calves to 1 % in 3345 vaccinates (RR = 16; P<O.OOOO),us A well-designed trial using IBR MLV vaccine given on arrival failed to show benefits in health performance.
TextSentencer_T217 33490-33637 Sentence denotes 24 Another report that failed to show IBR virus vaccine efficacy involved additional antigens and is discussed in the section on multiple antigens.
T30783 33490-33637 Sentence denotes 24 Another report that failed to show IBR virus vaccine efficacy involved additional antigens and is discussed in the section on multiple antigens.
TextSentencer_T218 33638-33732 Sentence denotes The current consensus is to include IBR virus in preconditioning and arrival vaccine regimens.
T90094 33638-33732 Sentence denotes The current consensus is to include IBR virus in preconditioning and arrival vaccine regimens.
TextSentencer_T219 33733-33885 Sentence denotes BVD virus vaccines are available in MLV and killed virus forms, and they are one of the most controversial vaccines used in cattle in the United States.
T79116 33733-33885 Sentence denotes BVD virus vaccines are available in MLV and killed virus forms, and they are one of the most controversial vaccines used in cattle in the United States.
TextSentencer_T220 33886-34201 Sentence denotes The lack of large-scale efficacy trials, widespread infection in the cattle population in the United States, the presence of persistently infected cattle that subsequently develop mucosal disease, and the emerging role of heterologous and novel strains of the virus all combine to create confusion and -controversy.
T98040 33886-34201 Sentence denotes The lack of large-scale efficacy trials, widespread infection in the cattle population in the United States, the presence of persistently infected cattle that subsequently develop mucosal disease, and the emerging role of heterologous and novel strains of the virus all combine to create confusion and -controversy.
TextSentencer_T221 34202-34245 Sentence denotes There is no clear consensus concerning use.
T7923 34202-34245 Sentence denotes There is no clear consensus concerning use.
TextSentencer_T222 34246-34494 Sentence denotes Measurements of certain immune parameters suggest that immunosuppression following use of MLV may be a concern 91 ; however, the lack of complications following its use in large numbers of cattle suggests that these may not be of practical concern.
T37570 34246-34494 Sentence denotes Measurements of certain immune parameters suggest that immunosuppression following use of MLV may be a concern 91 ; however, the lack of complications following its use in large numbers of cattle suggests that these may not be of practical concern.
TextSentencer_T223 34495-34628 Sentence denotes 29 The use of MLV may be of greater concern in highly stressed cattle, but well-controlled studies evaluating this are not available.
T83259 34495-34628 Sentence denotes 29 The use of MLV may be of greater concern in highly stressed cattle, but well-controlled studies evaluating this are not available.
TextSentencer_T224 34629-34762 Sentence denotes As is the case with BHV1, dose and timing requirements of killed BVD virus vaccines are a severe limitation in most feedlot settings.
T64140 34629-34762 Sentence denotes As is the case with BHV1, dose and timing requirements of killed BVD virus vaccines are a severe limitation in most feedlot settings.
TextSentencer_T225 34763-34997 Sentence denotes There are no reliable peer-reviewed reports of field trials examining the clinical effects of BVD virus vaccines in North American beef cattle based on research that uses scientifically valid methods with clinically relevant outcomes.
T73386 34763-34997 Sentence denotes There are no reliable peer-reviewed reports of field trials examining the clinical effects of BVD virus vaccines in North American beef cattle based on research that uses scientifically valid methods with clinically relevant outcomes.
TextSentencer_T226 34998-35088 Sentence denotes 81 Use is based on extrapolation from challenge or licensing data and personal preference.
T45531 34998-35088 Sentence denotes 81 Use is based on extrapolation from challenge or licensing data and personal preference.
TextSentencer_T227 35089-35276 Sentence denotes A main concern with BVD is fetal infection with resulting abortion, congenital defects, or the development of persistently infected carriers that are a constant source of infective virus.
T56929 35089-35276 Sentence denotes A main concern with BVD is fetal infection with resulting abortion, congenital defects, or the development of persistently infected carriers that are a constant source of infective virus.
TextSentencer_T228 35277-35487 Sentence denotes 4 , 10, 85 The virus can cross the placenta in susceptible pregnant cattle and result in fetal infection either through exposure to the field virus or through the improper use of intramuscular BVD MLV vaccines.
T89110 35277-35487 Sentence denotes 4 , 10, 85 The virus can cross the placenta in susceptible pregnant cattle and result in fetal infection either through exposure to the field virus or through the improper use of intramuscular BVD MLV vaccines.
TextSentencer_T229 35488-35591 Sentence denotes 108 If this occurs during the first 6 months of pregnancy, fetal losses or immune tolerance may result.
T36563 35488-35591 Sentence denotes 108 If this occurs during the first 6 months of pregnancy, fetal losses or immune tolerance may result.
TextSentencer_T230 35592-35717 Sentence denotes Fetal infection during the last trimester of gestation usually results in the birth of an immune, seropositive, healthy calf.
T57284 35592-35717 Sentence denotes Fetal infection during the last trimester of gestation usually results in the birth of an immune, seropositive, healthy calf.
TextSentencer_T231 35718-35973 Sentence denotes 62 Current information does not conclusively document the duration of protection following natural infection or the use of BVD MLV vaccine, although available information indicates that infection confers more than a single year of protection to the fetus.
T41229 35718-35973 Sentence denotes 62 Current information does not conclusively document the duration of protection following natural infection or the use of BVD MLV vaccine, although available information indicates that infection confers more than a single year of protection to the fetus.
TextSentencer_T232 35974-36281 Sentence denotes 28 , 53, 58, 71, 85 Seronegative cattle vaccinated with BVD MLV vaccine in the last trimester of pregnancy had calves that seroconverted as fetuses, whereas over 90% of cattle that were seropositive had calves that did not, indicating that transplacental infection of previously exposed dams did not occur?8
T40577 35974-36281 Sentence denotes 28 , 53, 58, 71, 85 Seronegative cattle vaccinated with BVD MLV vaccine in the last trimester of pregnancy had calves that seroconverted as fetuses, whereas over 90% of cattle that were seropositive had calves that did not, indicating that transplacental infection of previously exposed dams did not occur?8
TextSentencer_T233 36282-36411 Sentence denotes Critical studies comparing the ability of BVD MLV and killed vaccines to protect the fetus in field situations are not available.
T95243 36282-36411 Sentence denotes Critical studies comparing the ability of BVD MLV and killed vaccines to protect the fetus in field situations are not available.
TextSentencer_T234 36412-36744 Sentence denotes At the current time, it is believed that optimum protection of the beef breeding herd is dependent on active immunization with BVD MLV vaccine prior to breeding. lO , 28, 45, 53, 85 To ensure a response, the vaccine should be administered to replacement heifers two or more times between weaning (6 to 8 months of age) and breeding.
T64610 36412-36744 Sentence denotes At the current time, it is believed that optimum protection of the beef breeding herd is dependent on active immunization with BVD MLV vaccine prior to breeding. lO , 28, 45, 53, 85 To ensure a response, the vaccine should be administered to replacement heifers two or more times between weaning (6 to 8 months of age) and breeding.
TextSentencer_T235 36745-36871 Sentence denotes 10, 45, 53 The final injection should be at least 1 month before breeding in order to avoid detrimental effects on conception.
T39456 36745-36871 Sentence denotes 10, 45, 53 The final injection should be at least 1 month before breeding in order to avoid detrimental effects on conception.
TextSentencer_T236 36872-37037 Sentence denotes Although not documented, the use of different strains or serotypes of MLV vaccine for each injection has been proposed so as to expand the range of cross protection.
T24279 36872-37037 Sentence denotes Although not documented, the use of different strains or serotypes of MLV vaccine for each injection has been proposed so as to expand the range of cross protection.
TextSentencer_T237 37038-37174 Sentence denotes The genetic and antigenic instability of BVD virus may result in the emergence of isolates that have reduced antigenic cross reactivity.
T94845 37038-37174 Sentence denotes The genetic and antigenic instability of BVD virus may result in the emergence of isolates that have reduced antigenic cross reactivity.
TextSentencer_T238 37175-37331 Sentence denotes 20, 56 The importance of the specificity of circulating antibody and effects on cellular immunity due to viral mutation are largely unanswered at this time.
T37069 37175-37331 Sentence denotes 20, 56 The importance of the specificity of circulating antibody and effects on cellular immunity due to viral mutation are largely unanswered at this time.
TextSentencer_T239 37332-37442 Sentence denotes A temperature-sensitive, BVD MLV vaccine was shown to be safe and to induce seroconversion in pregnant cattle.
T68238 37332-37442 Sentence denotes A temperature-sensitive, BVD MLV vaccine was shown to be safe and to induce seroconversion in pregnant cattle.
TextSentencer_T240 37443-37534 Sentence denotes 63 A killed Singer-strain vaccine prevented clinical signs following intrav~nous challenge.
T41343 37443-37534 Sentence denotes 63 A killed Singer-strain vaccine prevented clinical signs following intrav~nous challenge.
TextSentencer_T241 37535-37720 Sentence denotes 68 Pregnant cows vaccinated with a polyvalent killed BVD virus vaccine and challenged at 80 days of gestation showed resistance to fetal infections compared with nonvaccinated controls.
T26074 37535-37720 Sentence denotes 68 Pregnant cows vaccinated with a polyvalent killed BVD virus vaccine and challenged at 80 days of gestation showed resistance to fetal infections compared with nonvaccinated controls.
TextSentencer_T242 37721-37883 Sentence denotes 43 The long duration of immunity and the cross protection between serotypes following the use of MLV vaccines make them preferable for use in beef breeding herds.
T16831 37721-37883 Sentence denotes 43 The long duration of immunity and the cross protection between serotypes following the use of MLV vaccines make them preferable for use in beef breeding herds.
TextSentencer_T243 37884-38011 Sentence denotes The opportunities for planned vaccination at noncritical stages of production and during times of minimal stress are available.
T62766 37884-38011 Sentence denotes The opportunities for planned vaccination at noncritical stages of production and during times of minimal stress are available.
TextSentencer_T244 38012-38116 Sentence denotes This makes infection from field strain viruses during critical periods of fetal development less likely.
T21439 38012-38116 Sentence denotes This makes infection from field strain viruses during critical periods of fetal development less likely.
TextSentencer_T245 38117-38322 Sentence denotes If immunity has declined enough to permit natural infection, it may stimulate an immediate immune response without severe disease consequences, and this may be the basis for maintaining long-term immunity.
T17258 38117-38322 Sentence denotes If immunity has declined enough to permit natural infection, it may stimulate an immediate immune response without severe disease consequences, and this may be the basis for maintaining long-term immunity.
TextSentencer_T246 38323-38485 Sentence denotes 53 Depending on the circumstances of each herd, annual, biannual, or less frequent MLV vaccine injections to cows between calving and breeding may be recommended.
T68307 38323-38485 Sentence denotes 53 Depending on the circumstances of each herd, annual, biannual, or less frequent MLV vaccine injections to cows between calving and breeding may be recommended.
TextSentencer_T247 38486-38549 Sentence denotes BRSV vaccines are available in MLV and inactivated virus forms.
T31145 38486-38549 Sentence denotes BRSV vaccines are available in MLV and inactivated virus forms.
TextSentencer_T248 38550-38743 Sentence denotes Because recovery from natural infection with respiratory syncytial virus does not engender protective immunity in most species, it is unlikely that vaccination can prevent subsequent infection.
T41677 38550-38743 Sentence denotes Because recovery from natural infection with respiratory syncytial virus does not engender protective immunity in most species, it is unlikely that vaccination can prevent subsequent infection.
TextSentencer_T249 38744-38880 Sentence denotes Nevertheless, it may still be possible for vaccination to attenuate clinical signs of subsequent infections and reduce time to recovery.
T29316 38744-38880 Sentence denotes Nevertheless, it may still be possible for vaccination to attenuate clinical signs of subsequent infections and reduce time to recovery.
TextSentencer_T250 38881-39197 Sentence denotes One experimental challenge of a small number of calves showed that passive antibodies reduce the pathology associated with BRSV.8 Moreover, there are reports of improvement in gain and feed efficiency.3 Mixed results are reported from studies investigating clinical efficacy of BRSV vaccination of calves on arrival.
T4466 38881-39197 Sentence denotes One experimental challenge of a small number of calves showed that passive antibodies reduce the pathology associated with BRSV.8 Moreover, there are reports of improvement in gain and feed efficiency.3 Mixed results are reported from studies investigating clinical efficacy of BRSV vaccination of calves on arrival.
TextSentencer_T251 39198-39420 Sentence denotes A statistically significant benefit of BRSV vaccination was shown in auction-or market-purchased and transported calves, with vaccinated calves being two times less likely to be treated for BRD complex (OR=2.0, P<O.OOOOl).
T1304 39198-39420 Sentence denotes A statistically significant benefit of BRSV vaccination was shown in auction-or market-purchased and transported calves, with vaccinated calves being two times less likely to be treated for BRD complex (OR=2.0, P<O.OOOOl).
TextSentencer_T252 39421-39536 Sentence denotes Freshly weaned and transported calves were 1.4 times less likely to be treated for BRD complex (OR = 1.4; P<O.OOl).
T39084 39421-39536 Sentence denotes Freshly weaned and transported calves were 1.4 times less likely to be treated for BRD complex (OR = 1.4; P<O.OOl).
TextSentencer_T253 39537-39655 Sentence denotes A statistically significant benefit of BRSV vaccination was not shown in the two classes of calves with low morbidity.
T30965 39537-39655 Sentence denotes A statistically significant benefit of BRSV vaccination was not shown in the two classes of calves with low morbidity.
TextSentencer_T254 39656-39999 Sentence denotes These included preconditioned calves (P = 0.11) and freshly weaned calves that were not transported (P = 0.75).42 In a Canadian study, results of five separate trials designed to assess BRSV vaccine efficacy were equivocal for calves vaccinated before weaning; however, reduction of treatment rate was reported in calves vaccinated on arrival.
T7073 39656-39999 Sentence denotes These included preconditioned calves (P = 0.11) and freshly weaned calves that were not transported (P = 0.75).42 In a Canadian study, results of five separate trials designed to assess BRSV vaccine efficacy were equivocal for calves vaccinated before weaning; however, reduction of treatment rate was reported in calves vaccinated on arrival.
TextSentencer_T255 40000-40221 Sentence denotes No benefit was found for vaccination on arrival of yearling cattle.l1o Two additional trials involving calves 5 ,73 and one trial involving stocker cattle 50 failed to demonstrate a benefit of BRSV vaccination on arrival.
T90681 40000-40221 Sentence denotes No benefit was found for vaccination on arrival of yearling cattle.l1o Two additional trials involving calves 5 ,73 and one trial involving stocker cattle 50 failed to demonstrate a benefit of BRSV vaccination on arrival.
TextSentencer_T256 40222-40357 Sentence denotes Although there is evidence to support BRSV vaccine usage in naive or mismanaged calves, inclusion in vaccine regimens is not universal.
T96325 40222-40357 Sentence denotes Although there is evidence to support BRSV vaccine usage in naive or mismanaged calves, inclusion in vaccine regimens is not universal.
TextSentencer_T257 40358-40443 Sentence denotes Studies show that PI3 virus compromises the innate defenses of the respiratory tract.
T57230 40358-40443 Sentence denotes Studies show that PI3 virus compromises the innate defenses of the respiratory tract.
TextSentencer_T258 40444-40593 Sentence denotes 64 ,86 Because many older cattle arriving at feedlots are likely to be immune, the value of PI3 virus vaccination in yearling cattle is questionable.
T74951 40444-40593 Sentence denotes 64 ,86 Because many older cattle arriving at feedlots are likely to be immune, the value of PI3 virus vaccination in yearling cattle is questionable.
TextSentencer_T259 40594-40700 Sentence denotes Vaccination may be valuable in preweaning or arrival programs for less immunologically experienced calves.
T51583 40594-40700 Sentence denotes Vaccination may be valuable in preweaning or arrival programs for less immunologically experienced calves.
TextSentencer_T260 40701-40931 Sentence denotes There are no reliable peer-reviewed reports of field trials examining clinical effects of PI3 virus vaccines in North American beef cattle based on research that uses scientifically valid methods with clinically relevant outcomes.
T63291 40701-40931 Sentence denotes There are no reliable peer-reviewed reports of field trials examining clinical effects of PI3 virus vaccines in North American beef cattle based on research that uses scientifically valid methods with clinically relevant outcomes.
TextSentencer_T261 40932-41080 Sentence denotes 81 As a practical matter, it is difficult to select a multivirus BRD vaccine that does not include PI3 virus, making its inclusion less of an issue.
T3825 40932-41080 Sentence denotes 81 As a practical matter, it is difficult to select a multivirus BRD vaccine that does not include PI3 virus, making its inclusion less of an issue.
TextSentencer_T262 41081-41224 Sentence denotes Findings reported in the literature are equivocal on the use of more recently available Pasteurella sp. vaccines before and on feedlot arrival.
T53992 41081-41224 Sentence denotes Findings reported in the literature are equivocal on the use of more recently available Pasteurella sp. vaccines before and on feedlot arrival.
TextSentencer_T263 41225-41307 Sentence denotes The largest body of Pasteurella sp. vaccine data exists for P. haemolytica toxoid.
T56003 41225-41307 Sentence denotes The largest body of Pasteurella sp. vaccine data exists for P. haemolytica toxoid.
TextSentencer_T264 41308-41610 Sentence denotes Three studies have shown statistically significant reduction in morbidity or mortality in calves administered a P. haemolytica toxoid on arrival?, 40, 66 Nevertheless, two clinical trials showed no significant effects when the same vaccine was given on arrival 69 or 3 weeks before shipment or arrival.
T54851 41308-41610 Sentence denotes Three studies have shown statistically significant reduction in morbidity or mortality in calves administered a P. haemolytica toxoid on arrival?, 40, 66 Nevertheless, two clinical trials showed no significant effects when the same vaccine was given on arrival 69 or 3 weeks before shipment or arrival.
TextSentencer_T265 41611-41690 Sentence denotes 107 Health performance in vaccinates was not affected negatively in any report.
T45786 41611-41690 Sentence denotes 107 Health performance in vaccinates was not affected negatively in any report.
TextSentencer_T266 41691-41789 Sentence denotes There are individual reports on various other commercial or experimental Pasteurella sp. vaccines.
T37839 41691-41789 Sentence denotes There are individual reports on various other commercial or experimental Pasteurella sp. vaccines.
TextSentencer_T267 41790-42169 Sentence denotes These include reports of significant efficacy in field studies of a streptomycin-dependent live Pasteurella sp. vaccine 52 and an intradermally administered live P. haemolytica vaccine. lOo Alternatively, a field study of a P. haemolytica capsular antigen vaccine failed to show significant health effects 44 as did a study using a tissue culture-derived P. haemolytica bacterin.
T65693 41790-42169 Sentence denotes These include reports of significant efficacy in field studies of a streptomycin-dependent live Pasteurella sp. vaccine 52 and an intradermally administered live P. haemolytica vaccine. lOo Alternatively, a field study of a P. haemolytica capsular antigen vaccine failed to show significant health effects 44 as did a study using a tissue culture-derived P. haemolytica bacterin.
TextSentencer_T268 42170-42436 Sentence denotes 35 For some currently available Pasteurella sp. vaccines, there are no reliable peer-reviewed reports of field trials examining clinical effects in North American beef cattle based on research that uses scientifically valid methods with clinically relevant outcomes.
T19331 42170-42436 Sentence denotes 35 For some currently available Pasteurella sp. vaccines, there are no reliable peer-reviewed reports of field trials examining clinical effects in North American beef cattle based on research that uses scientifically valid methods with clinically relevant outcomes.
TextSentencer_T269 42437-42807 Sentence denotes There are reports of lack of field efficacy with earlier Pasteurella sp. bacterins.1, 75 There is also a report of increased health problems following vaccination with earlier Pasteurella sp. bacterins 9 ; however, this study did not mention whether treatment assignment was random, and the experimental unit is unclear, making the validity of the data analysis suspect.
T81047 42437-42807 Sentence denotes There are reports of lack of field efficacy with earlier Pasteurella sp. bacterins.1, 75 There is also a report of increased health problems following vaccination with earlier Pasteurella sp. bacterins 9 ; however, this study did not mention whether treatment assignment was random, and the experimental unit is unclear, making the validity of the data analysis suspect.
TextSentencer_T270 42808-42997 Sentence denotes Because of dose and timing requirements for optimal immunity (7-10 days following a 14-to 21-day booster dose) their value should be compromised when used only in a feedlot arrival program.
T34563 42808-42997 Sentence denotes Because of dose and timing requirements for optimal immunity (7-10 days following a 14-to 21-day booster dose) their value should be compromised when used only in a feedlot arrival program.
TextSentencer_T271 42998-43084 Sentence denotes Paradoxically, the available data support the use of P. haemolytica toxoid on arrival.
T89678 42998-43084 Sentence denotes Paradoxically, the available data support the use of P. haemolytica toxoid on arrival.
TextSentencer_T272 43085-43212 Sentence denotes The current consensus is that it is best to administer at least the priming dose and sometimes the booster dose before weaning.
T90851 43085-43212 Sentence denotes The current consensus is that it is best to administer at least the priming dose and sometimes the booster dose before weaning.
TextSentencer_T273 43213-43358 Sentence denotes As with other vaccine antigens for BRD prophylaxis, results of field trials evaluating the efficacy of H. somnus bacterins have been conflicting.
T92301 43213-43358 Sentence denotes As with other vaccine antigens for BRD prophylaxis, results of field trials evaluating the efficacy of H. somnus bacterins have been conflicting.
TextSentencer_T274 43359-43695 Sentence denotes One group of investigators has reported negative effects of a single vaccination with a commercial H. somnus bacterin in that significantly more animals in groups of calves vaccinated once were treated for respiratory disease compared with groups of unvaccinated control calves or groups of calves vaccinated twice at a 21-day interval.
T96623 43359-43695 Sentence denotes One group of investigators has reported negative effects of a single vaccination with a commercial H. somnus bacterin in that significantly more animals in groups of calves vaccinated once were treated for respiratory disease compared with groups of unvaccinated control calves or groups of calves vaccinated twice at a 21-day interval.
TextSentencer_T275 43696-44364 Sentence denotes 74 These findings are in conflict with earlier reports by these authors that no significant difference in the number of animals treated was found between groups of calves immunized once with a commercial H. somnus bacterin and groups of nonimmunized control calves?5 Conversely, these investigators had reported earlier that morbidity (number of animals treated for respiratory disease) was significantly reduced in groups of calves vaccinated with a commercial H. somnus bacterin on arrival at the feedlot and revaccinated 21 days later compared with morbidity of groups vaccinated twice with a bivalent P. haemolytica, P. multocida bacterin or unvaccinated controls.
T23562 43696-44364 Sentence denotes 74 These findings are in conflict with earlier reports by these authors that no significant difference in the number of animals treated was found between groups of calves immunized once with a commercial H. somnus bacterin and groups of nonimmunized control calves?5 Conversely, these investigators had reported earlier that morbidity (number of animals treated for respiratory disease) was significantly reduced in groups of calves vaccinated with a commercial H. somnus bacterin on arrival at the feedlot and revaccinated 21 days later compared with morbidity of groups vaccinated twice with a bivalent P. haemolytica, P. multocida bacterin or unvaccinated controls.
TextSentencer_T276 44365-44518 Sentence denotes 1 The ability of H. somnus vaccine to reduce BRD in feedlots in the United States may be limited by the low incidence and sporadic nature of the disease.
T32455 44365-44518 Sentence denotes 1 The ability of H. somnus vaccine to reduce BRD in feedlots in the United States may be limited by the low incidence and sporadic nature of the disease.
TextSentencer_T277 44519-44629 Sentence denotes 45 Although studies demonstrate vaccine efficacy, most have shown vaccine efficacy using septicemic challenge.
T94797 44519-44629 Sentence denotes 45 Although studies demonstrate vaccine efficacy, most have shown vaccine efficacy using septicemic challenge.
TextSentencer_T278 44630-44697 Sentence denotes 103 Some have shown efficacy in experimental respiratory challenge.
T11330 44630-44697 Sentence denotes 103 Some have shown efficacy in experimental respiratory challenge.
TextSentencer_T279 44698-44821 Sentence denotes 14 , 39 To date, however, efficacy has not been unequivocally demonstrated in well-controlled trials in a US field setting.
T58829 44698-44821 Sentence denotes 14 , 39 To date, however, efficacy has not been unequivocally demonstrated in well-controlled trials in a US field setting.
TextSentencer_T280 44822-44946 Sentence denotes It is logical to assume that these vaccines are subject to the same dose and timing limitations as Pasteurella sp. vaccines.
T96977 44822-44946 Sentence denotes It is logical to assume that these vaccines are subject to the same dose and timing limitations as Pasteurella sp. vaccines.
TextSentencer_T281 44947-44984 Sentence denotes There is no clear consensus on usage.
T25762 44947-44984 Sentence denotes There is no clear consensus on usage.
TextSentencer_T282 44985-45134 Sentence denotes Field trials have been carried out with vaccinates receiving multiple antigens, making it impossible to determine the effects of individual antigens.
T53412 44985-45134 Sentence denotes Field trials have been carried out with vaccinates receiving multiple antigens, making it impossible to determine the effects of individual antigens.
TextSentencer_T283 45135-45304 Sentence denotes These can be subdivided into two broad groups: vaccine administered at or near the time of feedlot arrival and vaccine administered several weeks before feedlot arrival.
T99888 45135-45304 Sentence denotes These can be subdivided into two broad groups: vaccine administered at or near the time of feedlot arrival and vaccine administered several weeks before feedlot arrival.
TextSentencer_T284 45305-45413 Sentence denotes Assuming valid design, execution, and analysis, interpretation of the first group is fairly straightforward.
T8508 45305-45413 Sentence denotes Assuming valid design, execution, and analysis, interpretation of the first group is fairly straightforward.
TextSentencer_T285 45414-45524 Sentence denotes Some studies of arrival vaccination suggest that it does not affect or may even compromise health performance.
T88700 45414-45524 Sentence denotes Some studies of arrival vaccination suggest that it does not affect or may even compromise health performance.
TextSentencer_T286 45525-45661 Sentence denotes A well-designed study using IBR MLV and PI3 virus vaccine along with a P. haemolytica toxoid failed to show health performance benefits.
T93586 45525-45661 Sentence denotes A well-designed study using IBR MLV and PI3 virus vaccine along with a P. haemolytica toxoid failed to show health performance benefits.
TextSentencer_T287 45662-45978 Sentence denotes 6 This is supported by findings in a multiyear observational study in Ontario, Canada, which reported that administration of respiratory vaccines (IBR virus, IBR-PI3 virus, or IBR-PI3-Pasteurella sp. virus) to calves vaccinated within 2 weeks of arrival was associated with an increased risk of mortality (RR = 2.4).
T27059 45662-45978 Sentence denotes 6 This is supported by findings in a multiyear observational study in Ontario, Canada, which reported that administration of respiratory vaccines (IBR virus, IBR-PI3 virus, or IBR-PI3-Pasteurella sp. virus) to calves vaccinated within 2 weeks of arrival was associated with an increased risk of mortality (RR = 2.4).
TextSentencer_T288 45979-46122 Sentence denotes 67 In contrast, subcutaneous vaccination with a P. haemolytica and H. somnus vaccine on arrival reduced BRD complex morbidity from 41 % to 29%.
T85092 45979-46122 Sentence denotes 67 In contrast, subcutaneous vaccination with a P. haemolytica and H. somnus vaccine on arrival reduced BRD complex morbidity from 41 % to 29%.
TextSentencer_T289 46123-46237 Sentence denotes 109 The second type of mixed antigen study is when vaccines are administered several weeks before feedlot arrival.
T88979 46123-46237 Sentence denotes 109 The second type of mixed antigen study is when vaccines are administered several weeks before feedlot arrival.
TextSentencer_T290 46238-46300 Sentence denotes These are often part of a preconditioning or preweaning study.
T40641 46238-46300 Sentence denotes These are often part of a preconditioning or preweaning study.
TextSentencer_T291 46301-46513 Sentence denotes Because an unvaccinated but similarly managed group is rarely included in these studies, the effects of management interventions such as preweaning and bunk acclimation are totally confounded with vaccine effect.
T95976 46301-46513 Sentence denotes Because an unvaccinated but similarly managed group is rarely included in these studies, the effects of management interventions such as preweaning and bunk acclimation are totally confounded with vaccine effect.
TextSentencer_T292 46514-46613 Sentence denotes Hence, it is impossible to know which intervention accounts for improvements in health performance.
T93419 46514-46613 Sentence denotes Hence, it is impossible to know which intervention accounts for improvements in health performance.
TextSentencer_T293 46614-46781 Sentence denotes Vaccine injection only ensures that the animal has been exposed to the antigens contained in that vaccine; it does not ensure that a protective immune response ensues.
T21838 46614-46781 Sentence denotes Vaccine injection only ensures that the animal has been exposed to the antigens contained in that vaccine; it does not ensure that a protective immune response ensues.
TextSentencer_T294 46782-46899 Sentence denotes The two key components required for successful immunization are an efficacious vaccine and an immunocompetent animal.
T82880 46782-46899 Sentence denotes The two key components required for successful immunization are an efficacious vaccine and an immunocompetent animal.
TextSentencer_T295 46900-47032 Sentence denotes Achieving a protective immune response to every pathogen in every animal in a population is probably impossible for several reasons.
T13755 46900-47032 Sentence denotes Achieving a protective immune response to every pathogen in every animal in a population is probably impossible for several reasons.
TextSentencer_T296 47033-47095 Sentence denotes Even if it were possible, it would likely be cost-prohibitive.
T94611 47033-47095 Sentence denotes Even if it were possible, it would likely be cost-prohibitive.
TextSentencer_T297 47096-47227 Sentence denotes Based on their pathogenesis, some pathogens require each individual in a population to be immune for the vaccine to be efficacious.
T42122 47096-47227 Sentence denotes Based on their pathogenesis, some pathogens require each individual in a population to be immune for the vaccine to be efficacious.
TextSentencer_T298 47228-47301 Sentence denotes One example is an infectious but noncommunicable disease such as tetanus.
T88809 47228-47301 Sentence denotes One example is an infectious but noncommunicable disease such as tetanus.
TextSentencer_T299 47302-47563 Sentence denotes For other pathogens, especially those that are highly contagious, reducing the number of susceptible animals below a critical threshold may be suffi-cient for the vaccine to be efficacious by preventing a disease outbreak, that is, the concept of herd immunity.
T69972 47302-47563 Sentence denotes For other pathogens, especially those that are highly contagious, reducing the number of susceptible animals below a critical threshold may be suffi-cient for the vaccine to be efficacious by preventing a disease outbreak, that is, the concept of herd immunity.
TextSentencer_T300 47564-47725 Sentence denotes A vaccine may seem to be ineffective if it does not contain antigens that induce protective immunity to the disease-causing agent currently challenging the calf.
T15077 47564-47725 Sentence denotes A vaccine may seem to be ineffective if it does not contain antigens that induce protective immunity to the disease-causing agent currently challenging the calf.
TextSentencer_T301 47726-48021 Sentence denotes There are respiratory pathogens that can influence calf health for which no vaccines are available such as Chlamydia Sp.79 There are situations where antigenic differences between strains and species of pathogens or changes in antigens that the organism displays may compromise vaccine efficacy.
T64127 47726-48021 Sentence denotes There are respiratory pathogens that can influence calf health for which no vaccines are available such as Chlamydia Sp.79 There are situations where antigenic differences between strains and species of pathogens or changes in antigens that the organism displays may compromise vaccine efficacy.
TextSentencer_T302 48022-48096 Sentence denotes One example of this is the genetic and antigenic instability of BVD virus.
T40260 48022-48096 Sentence denotes One example of this is the genetic and antigenic instability of BVD virus.
TextSentencer_T303 48097-48246 Sentence denotes 20 This instability was thought to contribute to the failure of repeated annual doses of inactivated virus vaccine to protect animals from infection.
T41290 48097-48246 Sentence denotes 20 This instability was thought to contribute to the failure of repeated annual doses of inactivated virus vaccine to protect animals from infection.
TextSentencer_T304 48247-48345 Sentence denotes 56 For many infectious agents of cattle, immunologically important antigens are relatively stable.
T50053 48247-48345 Sentence denotes 56 For many infectious agents of cattle, immunologically important antigens are relatively stable.
TextSentencer_T305 48346-48425 Sentence denotes A more likely cause of vaccine ineffectiveness is improper storage or handling.
T73322 48346-48425 Sentence denotes A more likely cause of vaccine ineffectiveness is improper storage or handling.
TextSentencer_T306 48426-48544 Sentence denotes We must store and administer vaccines according to the manufacturers' recommendations or risk reducing their efficacy.
T24829 48426-48544 Sentence denotes We must store and administer vaccines according to the manufacturers' recommendations or risk reducing their efficacy.
TextSentencer_T307 48545-48667 Sentence denotes Once we have done everything to properly care for the vaccine and the equipment, we must carefully administer the vaccine.
T94896 48545-48667 Sentence denotes Once we have done everything to properly care for the vaccine and the equipment, we must carefully administer the vaccine.
TextSentencer_T308 48668-48818 Sentence denotes Training sessions should be conducted to ensure that personnel are knowledgeable about the proper locations and techniques for vaccine administration.
T90835 48668-48818 Sentence denotes Training sessions should be conducted to ensure that personnel are knowledgeable about the proper locations and techniques for vaccine administration.
TextSentencer_T309 48819-48894 Sentence denotes 47 Intramuscular injections should not be made behind the calf's front leg.
T3810 48819-48894 Sentence denotes 47 Intramuscular injections should not be made behind the calf's front leg.
TextSentencer_T310 48895-48972 Sentence denotes The subcutaneous route should be used whenever allowed by label instructions.
T49280 48895-48972 Sentence denotes The subcutaneous route should be used whenever allowed by label instructions.
TextSentencer_T311 48973-49073 Sentence denotes As a general rule, the smallest needle through which the product is easily delivered should be used.
T77146 48973-49073 Sentence denotes As a general rule, the smallest needle through which the product is easily delivered should be used.
TextSentencer_T312 49074-49130 Sentence denotes For thin watery products, an IS-gauge needle works well.
T81706 49074-49130 Sentence denotes For thin watery products, an IS-gauge needle works well.
TextSentencer_T313 49131-49246 Sentence denotes Strict attention to proper restraint and changing needles to keep them sharp is critical if using IS-gauge needles.
T68482 49131-49246 Sentence denotes Strict attention to proper restraint and changing needles to keep them sharp is critical if using IS-gauge needles.
TextSentencer_T314 49247-49314 Sentence denotes Needle length should be adjusted for calf size and injection route.
T50021 49247-49314 Sentence denotes Needle length should be adjusted for calf size and injection route.
TextSentencer_T315 49315-49451 Sentence denotes Intramuscular injections should be given with a loS-in needle, except in the case of small calves in which a I-in needle should be used.
T52550 49315-49451 Sentence denotes Intramuscular injections should be given with a loS-in needle, except in the case of small calves in which a I-in needle should be used.
TextSentencer_T316 49452-49523 Sentence denotes Subcutaneous injections should be made with a needle shorter than 1 in.
T52303 49452-49523 Sentence denotes Subcutaneous injections should be made with a needle shorter than 1 in.
TextSentencer_T317 49524-49593 Sentence denotes Needles should be changed whenever they become dull, barbed, or bent.
T50159 49524-49593 Sentence denotes Needles should be changed whenever they become dull, barbed, or bent.
TextSentencer_T318 49594-49690 Sentence denotes A clean needle should be used when refilling syringes to avoid contaminating the vaccine bottle.
T6609 49594-49690 Sentence denotes A clean needle should be used when refilling syringes to avoid contaminating the vaccine bottle.
TextSentencer_T319 49691-49877 Sentence denotes Good handling facilities help minimize injection site reactions by ensuring that cattle are adequately restrained, thereby preventing movement should a calf struggle during an injection.
T91422 49691-49877 Sentence denotes Good handling facilities help minimize injection site reactions by ensuring that cattle are adequately restrained, thereby preventing movement should a calf struggle during an injection.
TextSentencer_T320 49878-49997 Sentence denotes Sanitation is an important component of any vaccination plan and helps minimize injection site reactions and abscesses.
T77791 49878-49997 Sentence denotes Sanitation is an important component of any vaccination plan and helps minimize injection site reactions and abscesses.
TextSentencer_T321 49998-50100 Sentence denotes Contamination of a multidose container can result in vaccine inactivation and injection site problems.
T21137 49998-50100 Sentence denotes Contamination of a multidose container can result in vaccine inactivation and injection site problems.
TextSentencer_T322 50101-50225 Sentence denotes Disinfectants inactivate MLV vaccines, so we must properly clean and rinse all equipment that comes in contact with vaccine.
T38517 50101-50225 Sentence denotes Disinfectants inactivate MLV vaccines, so we must properly clean and rinse all equipment that comes in contact with vaccine.
TextSentencer_T323 50226-50318 Sentence denotes Timing of vaccine administration can also influence our perception of vaccine effectiveness.
T99300 50226-50318 Sentence denotes Timing of vaccine administration can also influence our perception of vaccine effectiveness.
TextSentencer_T324 50319-50490 Sentence denotes If an animal is incubating a disease or if it is exposed to the disease-causing agent soon following vaccination, it may get sick, and the vaccine seems to be ineffective.
T45447 50319-50490 Sentence denotes If an animal is incubating a disease or if it is exposed to the disease-causing agent soon following vaccination, it may get sick, and the vaccine seems to be ineffective.
TextSentencer_T325 50491-50651 Sentence denotes It takes several days for an animal's immune system to respond to a vaccine and for the animal to be protected, especially if the calf is immunologically naive.
T28738 50491-50651 Sentence denotes It takes several days for an animal's immune system to respond to a vaccine and for the animal to be protected, especially if the calf is immunologically naive.
TextSentencer_T326 50652-50763 Sentence denotes Experimentally, if we give enough of the disease-causing organism, we can cause disease even in immune animals.
T4822 50652-50763 Sentence denotes Experimentally, if we give enough of the disease-causing organism, we can cause disease even in immune animals.
TextSentencer_T327 50764-50928 Sentence denotes When cattle are assem-bled in close quarters, the amount of disease agent to which they are exposed may be quite large, resulting in disease even in immune animals.
T9800 50764-50928 Sentence denotes When cattle are assem-bled in close quarters, the amount of disease agent to which they are exposed may be quite large, resulting in disease even in immune animals.
TextSentencer_T328 50929-51132 Sentence denotes In summary, specific vaccine recommendations should be made by the veterinarian familiar with the management of the operation, including type of cattle handled and disease problems typically experienced.
T90304 50929-51132 Sentence denotes In summary, specific vaccine recommendations should be made by the veterinarian familiar with the management of the operation, including type of cattle handled and disease problems typically experienced.
TextSentencer_T329 51133-51166 Sentence denotes There are few cookbook solutions.
T77563 51133-51166 Sentence denotes There are few cookbook solutions.
TextSentencer_T330 51167-51319 Sentence denotes Fine-tuning the program by including or excluding certain vaccines requires the identification of the specific disease entities present in an operation.
T75134 51167-51319 Sentence denotes Fine-tuning the program by including or excluding certain vaccines requires the identification of the specific disease entities present in an operation.
TextSentencer_T331 51320-51419 Sentence denotes This requires good records, complete postmortem examinations, and a good diagnostic support system.
T37691 51320-51419 Sentence denotes This requires good records, complete postmortem examinations, and a good diagnostic support system.
TextSentencer_T332 51420-51584 Sentence denotes Effective management to optimize immunocompetence and timing of vaccine administration is as important as selecting the correct antigens and types of vaccines used.
T59864 51420-51584 Sentence denotes Effective management to optimize immunocompetence and timing of vaccine administration is as important as selecting the correct antigens and types of vaccines used.