PMC:7589163 / 1725-5066
Annnotations
{"target":"https://pubannotation.org/docs/sourcedb/PMC/sourceid/7589163","sourcedb":"PMC","sourceid":"7589163","source_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/7589163","text":"1. Introduction\nThe immune system defends the body against infectious agents and other internal and external insults. The immune defense system comprises a combination of anatomic physical barriers, including the skin, mucous membranes, mucous blanket, and ciliated epithelial cells [1]. If these are evaded, the components of the immune system are quickly activated to protect the body against any “non-self” molecules. The immune system integrates two fundamental response mechanisms: the innate response and the acquired one. Innate responses occur to the same extent however many times the infectious agent is encountered. Innate immunity is rapid and utilizes receptors (pattern recognition receptors, PRRs) to recognize the invading particles, known as pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). The innate defenses comprise cell-intrinsic responses to viral infections, leukocyte responses to pathogens, and soluble mediators such as complement proteins. Innate immunity is an immediate defense that is not as specific or mutable as antigen receptors. Adaptive immunity is specific to T and B cells. These cells recognize specific antigens on the invading microorganism and produce antibodies to target and destroy the pathogen, enabling identification for attack by other immune cells or neutralizing the pathogen directly. The adaptive immunity generates the immunological memory; thus, acquired responses improve on repeated exposure to a given infection [2,3,4].\nIt is today acknowledged that an adequate nutritional status is crucial for the development, maintenance, and expression of the immune response [5,6]. Micronutrients (i.e., vitamins and nutritionally essential minerals) influence and support every stage of the immune response. Deficiencies of micronutrients can affect both innate and adaptive immunity, causing immunosuppression and thus increasing the susceptibility to infections. In addition, mucosal-associated invariant T cells (MAIT), which are innate-like T cells expressing a semi-invariant T cell receptor, play a role in polarizing adaptive lymphocyte function, and contribute to metabolic dysfunction [7]. Furthermore, infections and an inadequate nutritional status have a synergistic relationship. The immune response itself to an infection exacerbates a poor nutritional state and causes an increase in the demand for micronutrients [8,9]. Viral infections are a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide [10], as is shown by both seasonal influenza, and the recent outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) [11].\nMany people of all ages have single or multiple micronutrient deficiencies. Supplementation of micronutrients may play an important role in enhancing the resistance to infections, restoring the immune function. The main objective of this manuscript is to discuss our present knowledge of the efficacy of micronutrients in supporting immunity, particularly with respect to respiratory virus infections. PubMed was used to search for all of the studies published up to April 2020 using keywords such as “Micronutrients” and “Immune system” and “Micronutrients” and “Respiratory viral infections”. The search was limited to articles published in English that provided evidence-based 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