PMC:7546716 / 4903-9661
Annnotations
LitCovid-PD-FMA-UBERON
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and cellular drivers of mild–moderate COVID-19\nIn susceptible individuals who develop symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 pneumonia (eg, in the presence of individual cytokine or receptor polymorphisms), IL-33 might abnormally upregulate expression of its own receptor ST2 (also known as IL-1RL1) on Treg cells, resulting in increased expression of the canonical Th2 transcription factor GATA-binding factor 3 (GATA3), which impairs the suppressive function of Treg cells. The dysregulation of GATA3+ Foxp3+ Treg cells might result in impaired immunological tolerance and increased secretion of type 2 cytokines, thus promoting autoinflammatory lung disease.16 TGFβ2, which is also increased in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of patients with COVID-19,11 might further enhance ST2 expression in innate lymphoid cells, and IL-33 is the key cytokine that drives these cells to differentiate into type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2).17 ILC2 subsequently elicit lung inflammation by releasing large amounts of IL-9, which promotes their own survival and expands γδ T cells.18, 19 IL-9 is known to stimulate proliferation and expansion of Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells that have a predominantly effector memory phenotype and a combined Th1–Th17 cytokine response profile.19 When exposed to TGFβ, γδ T cells can also become an important source of IL-9.20 By acting in both autocrine and paracrine manners, IL-33-induced IL-9 might sustain a proinflammatory ILC2–γδT cell axis in the lungs of patients with COVID-19, thus initiating mild–moderate forms of pneumonia.\nBoth ILC2 and γδ T cells are centrally involved in lung homoeostasis and are rapidly activated in response to pathogens including viruses;19, 21 in COVID-19, IL-4 is upregulated at early stages and in milder forms of the disease,10 whereas IL-9 and activated γδ T cells are observed more frequently in mild-to-moderate disease,9, 22 and IFNγ and IL-17 progressively increase with disease severity.6 Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells from patients with COVID-19 have been found to express an effector memory phenotype three times more frequently than do conventional αβ T cells,23 thus suggesting that this T cell subset is selectively stimulated in COVID-19. Because of significantly higher expression of the chemokine receptor CXCR3 compared with their αβ counterparts,24 γδ T cells might be rapidly recruited into inflamed lungs of patients with COVID-19 in response to the observed strong upregulation of the CXCR3 ligands CXCL9 and CXCL10 (figure 1 ).6, 9, 11, 15, 25, 26, 27, 28\nFigure 1 T-cell polarisation in COVID-19\nIL-33 released from virus-damaged cells might induce dysregulated GATA3+Foxp3+ Tregs and promote IL-2 production by dendritic cells, resulting in further expansion of Tregs. IL-33 might also elicit differentiation of ILC2, with TGFβ enhancing ST2 expression on these cells and facilitating production of IL-9. IL-9 in turn stimulates expansion of effector memory Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells with mixed Th1 and Th17 profiles that express CXCR3 and are recruited to the lungs by CXCL9 and CXCL10. IL-9 possibly induces its own transcription factor PU.1 and thus act in an autocrine and paracrine manner (along with TGFβ) to drive proliferation and survival of ILC2 and γδ T cells. Additional positive loops might be fed by IFNγ, which triggers production of CXCL9 and CXCL10 by macrophages. In severe forms of COVID-19, IL-33, along with IL-2 and IL-7 released by dendritic cells, might further stimulate T-cell expansion through STAT5 and induce production of large amounts of GM-CSF by γδ and T helper cells. At advanced stages of disease, aberrant activation of the MyD88-related NF-κB pathway and activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome might induce virus-exposed cells and infiltrating monocytes–macrophages to overproduce IL-1β, IL-23, and IL-6. IL-1β, IL-23, IL-6, and IL-7 act on STAT3 and RORC, thus promoting differentiation of CCR2+ T cells that are recruited to the lungs by CCL2 and CCL8 into γδT17 and Th17 cells producing IL-17 and GM-CSF. In turn, GM-CSF might further recruit and activate proinflammatory monocytes–macrophages. CCR=C-C motif chemokine receptor. CCL=C-C motif chemokine ligand. CXCL=C-X-C motif chemokine ligand. CXCR=C-X-C chemokine receptor. Foxp=forkhead box protein. GATA=GATA-binding factor. GM-CSF=granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor. IL=interleukin. ILC2=type 2 innate lymphoid cell. MyD88=myeloid differentiation primary response protein. NF-κB=nuclear factor-kappa B. NLRP=NACHT, LRR, and PYD domains-containing protein. PU.1=transcription factor PU.1. RORC=nuclear receptor ROR-gamma. ST2=ST2 receptor. STAT=signal transducer and transcription activator. TGF=transforming growth factor. Th=T-helper. TLR=toll-like receptors. Treg=regulatory T cell."}
LitCovid-PD-UBERON
{"project":"LitCovid-PD-UBERON","denotations":[{"id":"T7","span":{"begin":661,"end":665},"obj":"Body_part"},{"id":"T8","span":{"begin":976,"end":980},"obj":"Body_part"},{"id":"T9","span":{"begin":1615,"end":1619},"obj":"Body_part"}],"attributes":[{"id":"A7","pred":"uberon_id","subj":"T7","obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/UBERON_0002048"},{"id":"A8","pred":"uberon_id","subj":"T8","obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/UBERON_0002048"},{"id":"A9","pred":"uberon_id","subj":"T9","obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/UBERON_0002048"}],"text":"IL-33 and cellular drivers of mild–moderate COVID-19\nIn susceptible individuals who develop symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 pneumonia (eg, in the presence of individual cytokine or receptor polymorphisms), IL-33 might abnormally upregulate expression of its own receptor ST2 (also known as IL-1RL1) on Treg cells, resulting in increased expression of the canonical Th2 transcription factor GATA-binding factor 3 (GATA3), which impairs the suppressive function of Treg cells. The dysregulation of GATA3+ Foxp3+ Treg cells might result in impaired immunological tolerance and increased secretion of type 2 cytokines, thus promoting autoinflammatory lung disease.16 TGFβ2, which is also increased in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of patients with COVID-19,11 might further enhance ST2 expression in innate lymphoid cells, and IL-33 is the key cytokine that drives these cells to differentiate into type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2).17 ILC2 subsequently elicit lung inflammation by releasing large amounts of IL-9, which promotes their own survival and expands γδ T cells.18, 19 IL-9 is known to stimulate proliferation and expansion of Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells that have a predominantly effector memory phenotype and a combined Th1–Th17 cytokine response profile.19 When exposed to TGFβ, γδ T cells can also become an important source of IL-9.20 By acting in both autocrine and paracrine manners, IL-33-induced IL-9 might sustain a proinflammatory ILC2–γδT cell axis in the lungs of patients with COVID-19, thus initiating mild–moderate forms of pneumonia.\nBoth ILC2 and γδ T cells are centrally involved in lung homoeostasis and are rapidly activated in response to pathogens including viruses;19, 21 in COVID-19, IL-4 is upregulated at early stages and in milder forms of the disease,10 whereas IL-9 and activated γδ T cells are observed more frequently in mild-to-moderate disease,9, 22 and IFNγ and IL-17 progressively increase with disease severity.6 Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells from patients with COVID-19 have been found to express an effector memory phenotype three times more frequently than do conventional αβ T cells,23 thus suggesting that this T cell subset is selectively stimulated in COVID-19. Because of significantly higher expression of the chemokine receptor CXCR3 compared with their αβ counterparts,24 γδ T cells might be rapidly recruited into inflamed lungs of patients with COVID-19 in response to the observed strong upregulation of the CXCR3 ligands CXCL9 and CXCL10 (figure 1 ).6, 9, 11, 15, 25, 26, 27, 28\nFigure 1 T-cell polarisation in COVID-19\nIL-33 released from virus-damaged cells might induce dysregulated GATA3+Foxp3+ Tregs and promote IL-2 production by dendritic cells, resulting in further expansion of Tregs. IL-33 might also elicit differentiation of ILC2, with TGFβ enhancing ST2 expression on these cells and facilitating production of IL-9. IL-9 in turn stimulates expansion of effector memory Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells with mixed Th1 and Th17 profiles that express CXCR3 and are recruited to the lungs by CXCL9 and CXCL10. IL-9 possibly induces its own transcription factor PU.1 and thus act in an autocrine and paracrine manner (along with TGFβ) to drive proliferation and survival of ILC2 and γδ T cells. Additional positive loops might be fed by IFNγ, which triggers production of CXCL9 and CXCL10 by macrophages. In severe forms of COVID-19, IL-33, along with IL-2 and IL-7 released by dendritic cells, might further stimulate T-cell expansion through STAT5 and induce production of large amounts of GM-CSF by γδ and T helper cells. At advanced stages of disease, aberrant activation of the MyD88-related NF-κB pathway and activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome might induce virus-exposed cells and infiltrating monocytes–macrophages to overproduce IL-1β, IL-23, and IL-6. IL-1β, IL-23, IL-6, and IL-7 act on STAT3 and RORC, thus promoting differentiation of CCR2+ T cells that are recruited to the lungs by CCL2 and CCL8 into γδT17 and Th17 cells producing IL-17 and GM-CSF. In turn, GM-CSF might further recruit and activate proinflammatory monocytes–macrophages. CCR=C-C motif chemokine receptor. CCL=C-C motif chemokine ligand. CXCL=C-X-C motif chemokine ligand. CXCR=C-X-C chemokine receptor. Foxp=forkhead box protein. GATA=GATA-binding factor. GM-CSF=granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor. IL=interleukin. ILC2=type 2 innate lymphoid cell. MyD88=myeloid differentiation primary response protein. NF-κB=nuclear factor-kappa B. NLRP=NACHT, LRR, and PYD domains-containing protein. PU.1=transcription factor PU.1. RORC=nuclear receptor ROR-gamma. ST2=ST2 receptor. STAT=signal transducer and transcription activator. TGF=transforming growth factor. Th=T-helper. TLR=toll-like receptors. Treg=regulatory T cell."}
LitCovid-PD-MONDO
{"project":"LitCovid-PD-MONDO","denotations":[{"id":"T48","span":{"begin":44,"end":52},"obj":"Disease"},{"id":"T49","span":{"begin":104,"end":112},"obj":"Disease"},{"id":"T50","span":{"begin":115,"end":124},"obj":"Disease"},{"id":"T51","span":{"begin":129,"end":137},"obj":"Disease"},{"id":"T52","span":{"begin":138,"end":147},"obj":"Disease"},{"id":"T53","span":{"begin":661,"end":673},"obj":"Disease"},{"id":"T54","span":{"begin":981,"end":993},"obj":"Disease"},{"id":"T55","span":{"begin":1504,"end":1512},"obj":"Disease"},{"id":"T56","span":{"begin":1553,"end":1562},"obj":"Disease"},{"id":"T57","span":{"begin":1712,"end":1720},"obj":"Disease"},{"id":"T58","span":{"begin":1998,"end":2006},"obj":"Disease"},{"id":"T59","span":{"begin":2195,"end":2203},"obj":"Disease"},{"id":"T60","span":{"begin":2394,"end":2402},"obj":"Disease"},{"id":"T61","span":{"begin":2562,"end":2570},"obj":"Disease"},{"id":"T62","span":{"begin":3367,"end":3375},"obj":"Disease"},{"id":"T63","span":{"begin":4099,"end":4106},"obj":"Disease"}],"attributes":[{"id":"A48","pred":"mondo_id","subj":"T48","obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/MONDO_0100096"},{"id":"A49","pred":"mondo_id","subj":"T49","obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/MONDO_0005091"},{"id":"A50","pred":"mondo_id","subj":"T50","obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/MONDO_0005550"},{"id":"A51","pred":"mondo_id","subj":"T51","obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/MONDO_0100096"},{"id":"A52","pred":"mondo_id","subj":"T52","obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/MONDO_0005249"},{"id":"A53","pred":"mondo_id","subj":"T53","obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/MONDO_0005275"},{"id":"A54","pred":"mondo_id","subj":"T54","obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/MONDO_0021166"},{"id":"A55","pred":"mondo_id","subj":"T55","obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/MONDO_0100096"},{"id":"A56","pred":"mondo_id","subj":"T56","obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/MONDO_0005249"},{"id":"A57","pred":"mondo_id","subj":"T57","obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/MONDO_0100096"},{"id":"A58","pred":"mondo_id","subj":"T58","obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/MONDO_0100096"},{"id":"A59","pred":"mondo_id","subj":"T59","obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/MONDO_0100096"},{"id":"A60","pred":"mondo_id","subj":"T60","obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/MONDO_0100096"},{"id":"A61","pred":"mondo_id","subj":"T61","obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/MONDO_0100096"},{"id":"A62","pred":"mondo_id","subj":"T62","obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/MONDO_0100096"},{"id":"A63","pred":"mondo_id","subj":"T63","obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/MONDO_0007763"}],"text":"IL-33 and cellular drivers of mild–moderate COVID-19\nIn susceptible individuals who develop symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 pneumonia (eg, in the presence of individual cytokine or receptor polymorphisms), IL-33 might abnormally upregulate expression of its own receptor ST2 (also known as IL-1RL1) on Treg cells, resulting in increased expression of the canonical Th2 transcription factor GATA-binding factor 3 (GATA3), which impairs the suppressive function of Treg cells. The dysregulation of GATA3+ Foxp3+ Treg cells might result in impaired immunological tolerance and increased secretion of type 2 cytokines, thus promoting autoinflammatory lung disease.16 TGFβ2, which is also increased in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of patients with COVID-19,11 might further enhance ST2 expression in innate lymphoid cells, and IL-33 is the key cytokine that drives these cells to differentiate into type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2).17 ILC2 subsequently elicit lung inflammation by releasing large amounts of IL-9, which promotes their own survival and expands γδ T cells.18, 19 IL-9 is known to stimulate proliferation and expansion of Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells that have a predominantly effector memory phenotype and a combined Th1–Th17 cytokine response profile.19 When exposed to TGFβ, γδ T cells can also become an important source of IL-9.20 By acting in both autocrine and paracrine manners, IL-33-induced IL-9 might sustain a proinflammatory ILC2–γδT cell axis in the lungs of patients with COVID-19, thus initiating mild–moderate forms of pneumonia.\nBoth ILC2 and γδ T cells are centrally involved in lung homoeostasis and are rapidly activated in response to pathogens including viruses;19, 21 in COVID-19, IL-4 is upregulated at early stages and in milder forms of the disease,10 whereas IL-9 and activated γδ T cells are observed more frequently in mild-to-moderate disease,9, 22 and IFNγ and IL-17 progressively increase with disease severity.6 Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells from patients with COVID-19 have been found to express an effector memory phenotype three times more frequently than do conventional αβ T cells,23 thus suggesting that this T cell subset is selectively stimulated in COVID-19. Because of significantly higher expression of the chemokine receptor CXCR3 compared with their αβ counterparts,24 γδ T cells might be rapidly recruited into inflamed lungs of patients with COVID-19 in response to the observed strong upregulation of the CXCR3 ligands CXCL9 and CXCL10 (figure 1 ).6, 9, 11, 15, 25, 26, 27, 28\nFigure 1 T-cell polarisation in COVID-19\nIL-33 released from virus-damaged cells might induce dysregulated GATA3+Foxp3+ Tregs and promote IL-2 production by dendritic cells, resulting in further expansion of Tregs. IL-33 might also elicit differentiation of ILC2, with TGFβ enhancing ST2 expression on these cells and facilitating production of IL-9. IL-9 in turn stimulates expansion of effector memory Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells with mixed Th1 and Th17 profiles that express CXCR3 and are recruited to the lungs by CXCL9 and CXCL10. IL-9 possibly induces its own transcription factor PU.1 and thus act in an autocrine and paracrine manner (along with TGFβ) to drive proliferation and survival of ILC2 and γδ T cells. Additional positive loops might be fed by IFNγ, which triggers production of CXCL9 and CXCL10 by macrophages. In severe forms of COVID-19, IL-33, along with IL-2 and IL-7 released by dendritic cells, might further stimulate T-cell expansion through STAT5 and induce production of large amounts of GM-CSF by γδ and T helper cells. At advanced stages of disease, aberrant activation of the MyD88-related NF-κB pathway and activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome might induce virus-exposed cells and infiltrating monocytes–macrophages to overproduce IL-1β, IL-23, and IL-6. IL-1β, IL-23, IL-6, and IL-7 act on STAT3 and RORC, thus promoting differentiation of CCR2+ T cells that are recruited to the lungs by CCL2 and CCL8 into γδT17 and Th17 cells producing IL-17 and GM-CSF. In turn, GM-CSF might further recruit and activate proinflammatory monocytes–macrophages. CCR=C-C motif chemokine receptor. CCL=C-C motif chemokine ligand. CXCL=C-X-C motif chemokine ligand. CXCR=C-X-C chemokine receptor. Foxp=forkhead box protein. GATA=GATA-binding factor. GM-CSF=granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor. IL=interleukin. ILC2=type 2 innate lymphoid cell. MyD88=myeloid differentiation primary response protein. NF-κB=nuclear factor-kappa B. NLRP=NACHT, LRR, and PYD domains-containing protein. PU.1=transcription factor PU.1. RORC=nuclear receptor ROR-gamma. ST2=ST2 receptor. STAT=signal transducer and transcription activator. TGF=transforming growth factor. Th=T-helper. TLR=toll-like receptors. Treg=regulatory T cell."}
LitCovid-PD-CLO
{"project":"LitCovid-PD-CLO","denotations":[{"id":"T54","span":{"begin":285,"end":288},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CLO_0051025"},{"id":"T55","span":{"begin":316,"end":320},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0000792"},{"id":"T56","span":{"begin":321,"end":326},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/GO_0005623"},{"id":"T57","span":{"begin":427,"end":432},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CLO_0053477"},{"id":"T58","span":{"begin":477,"end":481},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0000792"},{"id":"T59","span":{"begin":482,"end":487},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/GO_0005623"},{"id":"T60","span":{"begin":510,"end":515},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CLO_0053477"},{"id":"T61","span":{"begin":517,"end":522},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/PR_000001350"},{"id":"T62","span":{"begin":524,"end":528},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0000792"},{"id":"T63","span":{"begin":529,"end":534},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/GO_0005623"},{"id":"T64","span":{"begin":661,"end":665},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/UBERON_0002048"},{"id":"T65","span":{"begin":661,"end":665},"obj":"http://www.ebi.ac.uk/efo/EFO_0000934"},{"id":"T66","span":{"begin":795,"end":798},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CLO_0051025"},{"id":"T67","span":{"begin":813,"end":834},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0001065"},{"id":"T68","span":{"begin":884,"end":889},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/GO_0005623"},{"id":"T69","span":{"begin":919,"end":940},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0001065"},{"id":"T70","span":{"begin":976,"end":980},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/UBERON_0002048"},{"id":"T71","span":{"begin":976,"end":980},"obj":"http://www.ebi.ac.uk/efo/EFO_0000934"},{"id":"T72","span":{"begin":1079,"end":1086},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0000084"},{"id":"T73","span":{"begin":1087,"end":1089},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CLO_0050510"},{"id":"T74","span":{"begin":1160,"end":1167},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0000084"},{"id":"T75","span":{"begin":1178,"end":1179},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CLO_0001020"},{"id":"T76","span":{"begin":1224,"end":1225},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CLO_0001020"},{"id":"T77","span":{"begin":1298,"end":1305},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0000084"},{"id":"T78","span":{"begin":1437,"end":1438},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CLO_0001020"},{"id":"T79","span":{"begin":1462,"end":1468},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0000084"},{"id":"T80","span":{"begin":1481,"end":1486},"obj":"http://www.ebi.ac.uk/efo/EFO_0000934"},{"id":"T81","span":{"begin":1581,"end":1588},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0000084"},{"id":"T82","span":{"begin":1615,"end":1619},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/UBERON_0002048"},{"id":"T83","span":{"begin":1615,"end":1619},"obj":"http://www.ebi.ac.uk/efo/EFO_0000934"},{"id":"T84","span":{"begin":1649,"end":1658},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CLO_0001658"},{"id":"T85","span":{"begin":1694,"end":1701},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/NCBITaxon_10239"},{"id":"T86","span":{"begin":1813,"end":1822},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CLO_0001658"},{"id":"T87","span":{"begin":1826,"end":1833},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0000084"},{"id":"T88","span":{"begin":1894,"end":1896},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CLO_0050507"},{"id":"T89","span":{"begin":1971,"end":1978},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0000084"},{"id":"T90","span":{"begin":2115,"end":2122},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0000084"},{"id":"T91","span":{"begin":2152,"end":2158},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0000084"},{"id":"T92","span":{"begin":2322,"end":2329},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0000084"},{"id":"T93","span":{"begin":2371,"end":2376},"obj":"http://www.ebi.ac.uk/efo/EFO_0000934"},{"id":"T94","span":{"begin":2507,"end":2509},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CLO_0053733"},{"id":"T95","span":{"begin":2523,"end":2525},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CLO_0050509"},{"id":"T96","span":{"begin":2539,"end":2545},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0000084"},{"id":"T97","span":{"begin":2591,"end":2596},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/NCBITaxon_10239"},{"id":"T98","span":{"begin":2605,"end":2610},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/GO_0005623"},{"id":"T99","span":{"begin":2637,"end":2642},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CLO_0053477"},{"id":"T100","span":{"begin":2643,"end":2648},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/PR_000001350"},{"id":"T101","span":{"begin":2650,"end":2655},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0000792"},{"id":"T102","span":{"begin":2668,"end":2672},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/PR_000001379"},{"id":"T103","span":{"begin":2687,"end":2702},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0000451"},{"id":"T104","span":{"begin":2738,"end":2743},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0000792"},{"id":"T105","span":{"begin":2814,"end":2817},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CLO_0051025"},{"id":"T106","span":{"begin":2838,"end":2843},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/GO_0005623"},{"id":"T107","span":{"begin":2942,"end":2949},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0000084"},{"id":"T108","span":{"begin":3027,"end":3032},"obj":"http://www.ebi.ac.uk/efo/EFO_0000934"},{"id":"T109","span":{"begin":3084,"end":3109},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/PR_000001944"},{"id":"T110","span":{"begin":3229,"end":3236},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0000084"},{"id":"T111","span":{"begin":3395,"end":3399},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/PR_000001379"},{"id":"T112","span":{"begin":3421,"end":3436},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0000451"},{"id":"T113","span":{"begin":3462,"end":3468},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0000084"},{"id":"T114","span":{"begin":3552,"end":3566},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0000912"},{"id":"T115","span":{"begin":3608,"end":3618},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CLO_0001658"},{"id":"T116","span":{"begin":3644,"end":3645},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CLO_0001021"},{"id":"T117","span":{"begin":3658,"end":3668},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CLO_0001658"},{"id":"T118","span":{"begin":3708,"end":3713},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/NCBITaxon_10239"},{"id":"T119","span":{"begin":3722,"end":3727},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/GO_0005623"},{"id":"T120","span":{"begin":3745,"end":3754},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0000576"},{"id":"T121","span":{"begin":3898,"end":3905},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0000084"},{"id":"T122","span":{"begin":3932,"end":3937},"obj":"http://www.ebi.ac.uk/efo/EFO_0000934"},{"id":"T123","span":{"begin":3962,"end":3965},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CLO_0050389"},{"id":"T124","span":{"begin":3975,"end":3980},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/GO_0005623"},{"id":"T125","span":{"begin":4051,"end":4059},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CLO_0001658"},{"id":"T126","span":{"begin":4076,"end":4085},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0000576"},{"id":"T127","span":{"begin":4172,"end":4175},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CLO_0009645"},{"id":"T128","span":{"begin":4172,"end":4175},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CLO_0050824"},{"id":"T129","span":{"begin":4207,"end":4210},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CLO_0009645"},{"id":"T130","span":{"begin":4207,"end":4210},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CLO_0050824"},{"id":"T131","span":{"begin":4369,"end":4389},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0001065"},{"id":"T132","span":{"begin":4451,"end":4452},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CLO_0001021"},{"id":"T133","span":{"begin":4474,"end":4475},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CLO_0001021"},{"id":"T134","span":{"begin":4535,"end":4560},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/PR_000001944"},{"id":"T135","span":{"begin":4595,"end":4598},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CLO_0051025"},{"id":"T136","span":{"begin":4599,"end":4602},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CLO_0051025"},{"id":"T137","span":{"begin":4618,"end":4624},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/SO_0000418"},{"id":"T138","span":{"begin":4654,"end":4663},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CLO_0001658"},{"id":"T139","span":{"begin":4735,"end":4739},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0000792"},{"id":"T140","span":{"begin":4740,"end":4757},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/CL_0000815"}],"text":"IL-33 and cellular drivers of mild–moderate COVID-19\nIn susceptible individuals who develop symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 pneumonia (eg, in the presence of individual cytokine or receptor polymorphisms), IL-33 might abnormally upregulate expression of its own receptor ST2 (also known as IL-1RL1) on Treg cells, resulting in increased expression of the canonical Th2 transcription factor GATA-binding factor 3 (GATA3), which impairs the suppressive function of Treg cells. The dysregulation of GATA3+ Foxp3+ Treg cells might result in impaired immunological tolerance and increased secretion of type 2 cytokines, thus promoting autoinflammatory lung disease.16 TGFβ2, which is also increased in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of patients with COVID-19,11 might further enhance ST2 expression in innate lymphoid cells, and IL-33 is the key cytokine that drives these cells to differentiate into type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2).17 ILC2 subsequently elicit lung inflammation by releasing large amounts of IL-9, which promotes their own survival and expands γδ T cells.18, 19 IL-9 is known to stimulate proliferation and expansion of Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells that have a predominantly effector memory phenotype and a combined Th1–Th17 cytokine response profile.19 When exposed to TGFβ, γδ T cells can also become an important source of IL-9.20 By acting in both autocrine and paracrine manners, IL-33-induced IL-9 might sustain a proinflammatory ILC2–γδT cell axis in the lungs of patients with COVID-19, thus initiating mild–moderate forms of pneumonia.\nBoth ILC2 and γδ T cells are centrally involved in lung homoeostasis and are rapidly activated in response to pathogens including viruses;19, 21 in COVID-19, IL-4 is upregulated at early stages and in milder forms of the disease,10 whereas IL-9 and activated γδ T cells are observed more frequently in mild-to-moderate disease,9, 22 and IFNγ and IL-17 progressively increase with disease severity.6 Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells from patients with COVID-19 have been found to express an effector memory phenotype three times more frequently than do conventional αβ T cells,23 thus suggesting that this T cell subset is selectively stimulated in COVID-19. Because of significantly higher expression of the chemokine receptor CXCR3 compared with their αβ counterparts,24 γδ T cells might be rapidly recruited into inflamed lungs of patients with COVID-19 in response to the observed strong upregulation of the CXCR3 ligands CXCL9 and CXCL10 (figure 1 ).6, 9, 11, 15, 25, 26, 27, 28\nFigure 1 T-cell polarisation in COVID-19\nIL-33 released from virus-damaged cells might induce dysregulated GATA3+Foxp3+ Tregs and promote IL-2 production by dendritic cells, resulting in further expansion of Tregs. IL-33 might also elicit differentiation of ILC2, with TGFβ enhancing ST2 expression on these cells and facilitating production of IL-9. IL-9 in turn stimulates expansion of effector memory Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells with mixed Th1 and Th17 profiles that express CXCR3 and are recruited to the lungs by CXCL9 and CXCL10. IL-9 possibly induces its own transcription factor PU.1 and thus act in an autocrine and paracrine manner (along with TGFβ) to drive proliferation and survival of ILC2 and γδ T cells. Additional positive loops might be fed by IFNγ, which triggers production of CXCL9 and CXCL10 by macrophages. In severe forms of COVID-19, IL-33, along with IL-2 and IL-7 released by dendritic cells, might further stimulate T-cell expansion through STAT5 and induce production of large amounts of GM-CSF by γδ and T helper cells. At advanced stages of disease, aberrant activation of the MyD88-related NF-κB pathway and activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome might induce virus-exposed cells and infiltrating monocytes–macrophages to overproduce IL-1β, IL-23, and IL-6. IL-1β, IL-23, IL-6, and IL-7 act on STAT3 and RORC, thus promoting differentiation of CCR2+ T cells that are recruited to the lungs by CCL2 and CCL8 into γδT17 and Th17 cells producing IL-17 and GM-CSF. In turn, GM-CSF might further recruit and activate proinflammatory monocytes–macrophages. CCR=C-C motif chemokine receptor. CCL=C-C motif chemokine ligand. CXCL=C-X-C motif chemokine ligand. CXCR=C-X-C chemokine receptor. Foxp=forkhead box protein. GATA=GATA-binding factor. GM-CSF=granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor. IL=interleukin. ILC2=type 2 innate lymphoid cell. MyD88=myeloid differentiation primary response protein. NF-κB=nuclear factor-kappa B. NLRP=NACHT, LRR, and PYD domains-containing protein. PU.1=transcription factor PU.1. RORC=nuclear receptor ROR-gamma. ST2=ST2 receptor. STAT=signal transducer and transcription activator. TGF=transforming growth factor. Th=T-helper. TLR=toll-like receptors. Treg=regulatory T cell."}
LitCovid-PD-CHEBI
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and cellular drivers of mild–moderate COVID-19\nIn susceptible individuals who develop symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 pneumonia (eg, in the presence of individual cytokine or receptor polymorphisms), IL-33 might abnormally upregulate expression of its own receptor ST2 (also known as IL-1RL1) on Treg cells, resulting in increased expression of the canonical Th2 transcription factor GATA-binding factor 3 (GATA3), which impairs the suppressive function of Treg cells. The dysregulation of GATA3+ Foxp3+ Treg cells might result in impaired immunological tolerance and increased secretion of type 2 cytokines, thus promoting autoinflammatory lung disease.16 TGFβ2, which is also increased in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of patients with COVID-19,11 might further enhance ST2 expression in innate lymphoid cells, and IL-33 is the key cytokine that drives these cells to differentiate into type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2).17 ILC2 subsequently elicit lung inflammation by releasing large amounts of IL-9, which promotes their own survival and expands γδ T cells.18, 19 IL-9 is known to stimulate proliferation and expansion of Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells that have a predominantly effector memory phenotype and a combined Th1–Th17 cytokine response profile.19 When exposed to TGFβ, γδ T cells can also become an important source of IL-9.20 By acting in both autocrine and paracrine manners, IL-33-induced IL-9 might sustain a proinflammatory ILC2–γδT cell axis in the lungs of patients with COVID-19, thus initiating mild–moderate forms of pneumonia.\nBoth ILC2 and γδ T cells are centrally involved in lung homoeostasis and are rapidly activated in response to pathogens including viruses;19, 21 in COVID-19, IL-4 is upregulated at early stages and in milder forms of the disease,10 whereas IL-9 and activated γδ T cells are observed more frequently in mild-to-moderate disease,9, 22 and IFNγ and IL-17 progressively increase with disease severity.6 Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells from patients with COVID-19 have been found to express an effector memory phenotype three times more frequently than do conventional αβ T cells,23 thus suggesting that this T cell subset is selectively stimulated in COVID-19. Because of significantly higher expression of the chemokine receptor CXCR3 compared with their αβ counterparts,24 γδ T cells might be rapidly recruited into inflamed lungs of patients with COVID-19 in response to the observed strong upregulation of the CXCR3 ligands CXCL9 and CXCL10 (figure 1 ).6, 9, 11, 15, 25, 26, 27, 28\nFigure 1 T-cell polarisation in COVID-19\nIL-33 released from virus-damaged cells might induce dysregulated GATA3+Foxp3+ Tregs and promote IL-2 production by dendritic cells, resulting in further expansion of Tregs. IL-33 might also elicit differentiation of ILC2, with TGFβ enhancing ST2 expression on these cells and facilitating production of IL-9. IL-9 in turn stimulates expansion of effector memory Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells with mixed Th1 and Th17 profiles that express CXCR3 and are recruited to the lungs by CXCL9 and CXCL10. IL-9 possibly induces its own transcription factor PU.1 and thus act in an autocrine and paracrine manner (along with TGFβ) to drive proliferation and survival of ILC2 and γδ T cells. Additional positive loops might be fed by IFNγ, which triggers production of CXCL9 and CXCL10 by macrophages. In severe forms of COVID-19, IL-33, along with IL-2 and IL-7 released by dendritic cells, might further stimulate T-cell expansion through STAT5 and induce production of large amounts of GM-CSF by γδ and T helper cells. At advanced stages of disease, aberrant activation of the MyD88-related NF-κB pathway and activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome might induce virus-exposed cells and infiltrating monocytes–macrophages to overproduce IL-1β, IL-23, and IL-6. IL-1β, IL-23, IL-6, and IL-7 act on STAT3 and RORC, thus promoting differentiation of CCR2+ T cells that are recruited to the lungs by CCL2 and CCL8 into γδT17 and Th17 cells producing IL-17 and GM-CSF. In turn, GM-CSF might further recruit and activate proinflammatory monocytes–macrophages. CCR=C-C motif chemokine receptor. CCL=C-C motif chemokine ligand. CXCL=C-X-C motif chemokine ligand. CXCR=C-X-C chemokine receptor. Foxp=forkhead box protein. GATA=GATA-binding factor. GM-CSF=granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor. IL=interleukin. ILC2=type 2 innate lymphoid cell. MyD88=myeloid differentiation primary response protein. NF-κB=nuclear factor-kappa B. NLRP=NACHT, LRR, and PYD domains-containing protein. PU.1=transcription factor PU.1. RORC=nuclear receptor ROR-gamma. ST2=ST2 receptor. STAT=signal transducer and transcription activator. TGF=transforming growth factor. Th=T-helper. TLR=toll-like receptors. Treg=regulatory T cell."}
LitCovid-PD-HP
{"project":"LitCovid-PD-HP","denotations":[{"id":"T8","span":{"begin":138,"end":147},"obj":"Phenotype"},{"id":"T9","span":{"begin":661,"end":673},"obj":"Phenotype"},{"id":"T10","span":{"begin":1553,"end":1562},"obj":"Phenotype"}],"attributes":[{"id":"A8","pred":"hp_id","subj":"T8","obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/HP_0002090"},{"id":"A9","pred":"hp_id","subj":"T9","obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/HP_0002088"},{"id":"A10","pred":"hp_id","subj":"T10","obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/HP_0002090"}],"text":"IL-33 and cellular drivers of mild–moderate COVID-19\nIn susceptible individuals who develop symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 pneumonia (eg, in the presence of individual cytokine or receptor polymorphisms), IL-33 might abnormally upregulate expression of its own receptor ST2 (also known as IL-1RL1) on Treg cells, resulting in increased expression of the canonical Th2 transcription factor GATA-binding factor 3 (GATA3), which impairs the suppressive function of Treg cells. The dysregulation of GATA3+ Foxp3+ Treg cells might result in impaired immunological tolerance and increased secretion of type 2 cytokines, thus promoting autoinflammatory lung disease.16 TGFβ2, which is also increased in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of patients with COVID-19,11 might further enhance ST2 expression in innate lymphoid cells, and IL-33 is the key cytokine that drives these cells to differentiate into type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2).17 ILC2 subsequently elicit lung inflammation by releasing large amounts of IL-9, which promotes their own survival and expands γδ T cells.18, 19 IL-9 is known to stimulate proliferation and expansion of Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells that have a predominantly effector memory phenotype and a combined Th1–Th17 cytokine response profile.19 When exposed to TGFβ, γδ T cells can also become an important source of IL-9.20 By acting in both autocrine and paracrine manners, IL-33-induced IL-9 might sustain a proinflammatory ILC2–γδT cell axis in the lungs of patients with COVID-19, thus initiating mild–moderate forms of pneumonia.\nBoth ILC2 and γδ T cells are centrally involved in lung homoeostasis and are rapidly activated in response to pathogens including viruses;19, 21 in COVID-19, IL-4 is upregulated at early stages and in milder forms of the disease,10 whereas IL-9 and activated γδ T cells are observed more frequently in mild-to-moderate disease,9, 22 and IFNγ and IL-17 progressively increase with disease severity.6 Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells from patients with COVID-19 have been found to express an effector memory phenotype three times more frequently than do conventional αβ T cells,23 thus suggesting that this T cell subset is selectively stimulated in COVID-19. Because of significantly higher expression of the chemokine receptor CXCR3 compared with their αβ counterparts,24 γδ T cells might be rapidly recruited into inflamed lungs of patients with COVID-19 in response to the observed strong upregulation of the CXCR3 ligands CXCL9 and CXCL10 (figure 1 ).6, 9, 11, 15, 25, 26, 27, 28\nFigure 1 T-cell polarisation in COVID-19\nIL-33 released from virus-damaged cells might induce dysregulated GATA3+Foxp3+ Tregs and promote IL-2 production by dendritic cells, resulting in further expansion of Tregs. IL-33 might also elicit differentiation of ILC2, with TGFβ enhancing ST2 expression on these cells and facilitating production of IL-9. IL-9 in turn stimulates expansion of effector memory Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells with mixed Th1 and Th17 profiles that express CXCR3 and are recruited to the lungs by CXCL9 and CXCL10. IL-9 possibly induces its own transcription factor PU.1 and thus act in an autocrine and paracrine manner (along with TGFβ) to drive proliferation and survival of ILC2 and γδ T cells. Additional positive loops might be fed by IFNγ, which triggers production of CXCL9 and CXCL10 by macrophages. In severe forms of COVID-19, IL-33, along with IL-2 and IL-7 released by dendritic cells, might further stimulate T-cell expansion through STAT5 and induce production of large amounts of GM-CSF by γδ and T helper cells. At advanced stages of disease, aberrant activation of the MyD88-related NF-κB pathway and activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome might induce virus-exposed cells and infiltrating monocytes–macrophages to overproduce IL-1β, IL-23, and IL-6. IL-1β, IL-23, IL-6, and IL-7 act on STAT3 and RORC, thus promoting differentiation of CCR2+ T cells that are recruited to the lungs by CCL2 and CCL8 into γδT17 and Th17 cells producing IL-17 and GM-CSF. In turn, GM-CSF might further recruit and activate proinflammatory monocytes–macrophages. CCR=C-C motif chemokine receptor. CCL=C-C motif chemokine ligand. CXCL=C-X-C motif chemokine ligand. CXCR=C-X-C chemokine receptor. Foxp=forkhead box protein. GATA=GATA-binding factor. GM-CSF=granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor. IL=interleukin. ILC2=type 2 innate lymphoid cell. MyD88=myeloid differentiation primary response protein. NF-κB=nuclear factor-kappa B. NLRP=NACHT, LRR, and PYD domains-containing protein. PU.1=transcription factor PU.1. RORC=nuclear receptor ROR-gamma. ST2=ST2 receptor. STAT=signal transducer and transcription activator. TGF=transforming growth factor. Th=T-helper. TLR=toll-like receptors. Treg=regulatory T cell."}
LitCovid-PD-GO-BP
{"project":"LitCovid-PD-GO-BP","denotations":[{"id":"T10","span":{"begin":383,"end":403},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/GO_0000981"},{"id":"T11","span":{"begin":383,"end":396},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/GO_0006351"},{"id":"T12","span":{"begin":598,"end":607},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/GO_0046903"},{"id":"T13","span":{"begin":981,"end":993},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/GO_0006954"},{"id":"T14","span":{"begin":1203,"end":1209},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/GO_0007613"},{"id":"T15","span":{"begin":2046,"end":2052},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/GO_0007613"},{"id":"T16","span":{"begin":2668,"end":2683},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/GO_0032623"},{"id":"T17","span":{"begin":2927,"end":2933},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/GO_0007613"},{"id":"T18","span":{"begin":3084,"end":3104},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/GO_0000981"},{"id":"T19","span":{"begin":3084,"end":3097},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/GO_0006351"},{"id":"T20","span":{"begin":3464,"end":3478},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/GO_0016049"},{"id":"T21","span":{"begin":4535,"end":4555},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/GO_0000981"},{"id":"T22","span":{"begin":4535,"end":4548},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/GO_0006351"},{"id":"T23","span":{"begin":4640,"end":4653},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/GO_0006351"},{"id":"T24","span":{"begin":4682,"end":4688},"obj":"http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/GO_0040007"}],"text":"IL-33 and cellular drivers of mild–moderate COVID-19\nIn susceptible individuals who develop symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 pneumonia (eg, in the presence of individual cytokine or receptor polymorphisms), IL-33 might abnormally upregulate expression of its own receptor ST2 (also known as IL-1RL1) on Treg cells, resulting in increased expression of the canonical Th2 transcription factor GATA-binding factor 3 (GATA3), which impairs the suppressive function of Treg cells. The dysregulation of GATA3+ Foxp3+ Treg cells might result in impaired immunological tolerance and increased secretion of type 2 cytokines, thus promoting autoinflammatory lung disease.16 TGFβ2, which is also increased in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of patients with COVID-19,11 might further enhance ST2 expression in innate lymphoid cells, and IL-33 is the key cytokine that drives these cells to differentiate into type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2).17 ILC2 subsequently elicit lung inflammation by releasing large amounts of IL-9, which promotes their own survival and expands γδ T cells.18, 19 IL-9 is known to stimulate proliferation and expansion of Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells that have a predominantly effector memory phenotype and a combined Th1–Th17 cytokine response profile.19 When exposed to TGFβ, γδ T cells can also become an important source of IL-9.20 By acting in both autocrine and paracrine manners, IL-33-induced IL-9 might sustain a proinflammatory ILC2–γδT cell axis in the lungs of patients with COVID-19, thus initiating mild–moderate forms of pneumonia.\nBoth ILC2 and γδ T cells are centrally involved in lung homoeostasis and are rapidly activated in response to pathogens including viruses;19, 21 in COVID-19, IL-4 is upregulated at early stages and in milder forms of the disease,10 whereas IL-9 and activated γδ T cells are observed more frequently in mild-to-moderate disease,9, 22 and IFNγ and IL-17 progressively increase with disease severity.6 Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells from patients with COVID-19 have been found to express an effector memory phenotype three times more frequently than do conventional αβ T cells,23 thus suggesting that this T cell subset is selectively stimulated in COVID-19. Because of significantly higher expression of the chemokine receptor CXCR3 compared with their αβ counterparts,24 γδ T cells might be rapidly recruited into inflamed lungs of patients with COVID-19 in response to the observed strong upregulation of the CXCR3 ligands CXCL9 and CXCL10 (figure 1 ).6, 9, 11, 15, 25, 26, 27, 28\nFigure 1 T-cell polarisation in COVID-19\nIL-33 released from virus-damaged cells might induce dysregulated GATA3+Foxp3+ Tregs and promote IL-2 production by dendritic cells, resulting in further expansion of Tregs. IL-33 might also elicit differentiation of ILC2, with TGFβ enhancing ST2 expression on these cells and facilitating production of IL-9. IL-9 in turn stimulates expansion of effector memory Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells with mixed Th1 and Th17 profiles that express CXCR3 and are recruited to the lungs by CXCL9 and CXCL10. IL-9 possibly induces its own transcription factor PU.1 and thus act in an autocrine and paracrine manner (along with TGFβ) to drive proliferation and survival of ILC2 and γδ T cells. Additional positive loops might be fed by IFNγ, which triggers production of CXCL9 and CXCL10 by macrophages. In severe forms of COVID-19, IL-33, along with IL-2 and IL-7 released by dendritic cells, might further stimulate T-cell expansion through STAT5 and induce production of large amounts of GM-CSF by γδ and T helper cells. At advanced stages of disease, aberrant activation of the MyD88-related NF-κB pathway and activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome might induce virus-exposed cells and infiltrating monocytes–macrophages to overproduce IL-1β, IL-23, and IL-6. IL-1β, IL-23, IL-6, and IL-7 act on STAT3 and RORC, thus promoting differentiation of CCR2+ T cells that are recruited to the lungs by CCL2 and CCL8 into γδT17 and Th17 cells producing IL-17 and GM-CSF. In turn, GM-CSF might further recruit and activate proinflammatory monocytes–macrophages. CCR=C-C motif chemokine receptor. CCL=C-C motif chemokine ligand. CXCL=C-X-C motif chemokine ligand. CXCR=C-X-C chemokine receptor. Foxp=forkhead box protein. GATA=GATA-binding factor. GM-CSF=granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor. IL=interleukin. ILC2=type 2 innate lymphoid cell. MyD88=myeloid differentiation primary response protein. NF-κB=nuclear factor-kappa B. NLRP=NACHT, LRR, and PYD domains-containing protein. PU.1=transcription factor PU.1. RORC=nuclear receptor ROR-gamma. ST2=ST2 receptor. STAT=signal transducer and transcription activator. TGF=transforming growth factor. Th=T-helper. TLR=toll-like receptors. Treg=regulatory T cell."}
LitCovid-sentences
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The dysregulation of GATA3+ Foxp3+ Treg cells might result in impaired immunological tolerance and increased secretion of type 2 cytokines, thus promoting autoinflammatory lung disease.16 TGFβ2, which is also increased in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of patients with COVID-19,11 might further enhance ST2 expression in innate lymphoid cells, and IL-33 is the key cytokine that drives these cells to differentiate into type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2).17 ILC2 subsequently elicit lung inflammation by releasing large amounts of IL-9, which promotes their own survival and expands γδ T cells.18, 19 IL-9 is known to stimulate proliferation and expansion of Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells that have a predominantly effector memory phenotype and a combined Th1–Th17 cytokine response profile.19 When exposed to TGFβ, γδ T cells can also become an important source of IL-9.20 By acting in both autocrine and paracrine manners, IL-33-induced IL-9 might sustain a proinflammatory ILC2–γδT cell axis in the lungs of patients with COVID-19, thus initiating mild–moderate forms of pneumonia.\nBoth ILC2 and γδ T cells are centrally involved in lung homoeostasis and are rapidly activated in response to pathogens including viruses;19, 21 in COVID-19, IL-4 is upregulated at early stages and in milder forms of the disease,10 whereas IL-9 and activated γδ T cells are observed more frequently in mild-to-moderate disease,9, 22 and IFNγ and IL-17 progressively increase with disease severity.6 Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells from patients with COVID-19 have been found to express an effector memory phenotype three times more frequently than do conventional αβ T cells,23 thus suggesting that this T cell subset is selectively stimulated in COVID-19. Because of significantly higher expression of the chemokine receptor CXCR3 compared with their αβ counterparts,24 γδ T cells might be rapidly recruited into inflamed lungs of patients with COVID-19 in response to the observed strong upregulation of the CXCR3 ligands CXCL9 and CXCL10 (figure 1 ).6, 9, 11, 15, 25, 26, 27, 28\nFigure 1 T-cell polarisation in COVID-19\nIL-33 released from virus-damaged cells might induce dysregulated GATA3+Foxp3+ Tregs and promote IL-2 production by dendritic cells, resulting in further expansion of Tregs. IL-33 might also elicit differentiation of ILC2, with TGFβ enhancing ST2 expression on these cells and facilitating production of IL-9. IL-9 in turn stimulates expansion of effector memory Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells with mixed Th1 and Th17 profiles that express CXCR3 and are recruited to the lungs by CXCL9 and CXCL10. IL-9 possibly induces its own transcription factor PU.1 and thus act in an autocrine and paracrine manner (along with TGFβ) to drive proliferation and survival of ILC2 and γδ T cells. Additional positive loops might be fed by IFNγ, which triggers production of CXCL9 and CXCL10 by macrophages. In severe forms of COVID-19, IL-33, along with IL-2 and IL-7 released by dendritic cells, might further stimulate T-cell expansion through STAT5 and induce production of large amounts of GM-CSF by γδ and T helper cells. At advanced stages of disease, aberrant activation of the MyD88-related NF-κB pathway and activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome might induce virus-exposed cells and infiltrating monocytes–macrophages to overproduce IL-1β, IL-23, and IL-6. IL-1β, IL-23, IL-6, and IL-7 act on STAT3 and RORC, thus promoting differentiation of CCR2+ T cells that are recruited to the lungs by CCL2 and CCL8 into γδT17 and Th17 cells producing IL-17 and GM-CSF. In turn, GM-CSF might further recruit and activate proinflammatory monocytes–macrophages. CCR=C-C motif chemokine receptor. CCL=C-C motif chemokine ligand. CXCL=C-X-C motif chemokine ligand. CXCR=C-X-C chemokine receptor. Foxp=forkhead box protein. GATA=GATA-binding factor. GM-CSF=granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor. IL=interleukin. ILC2=type 2 innate lymphoid cell. MyD88=myeloid differentiation primary response protein. NF-κB=nuclear factor-kappa B. NLRP=NACHT, LRR, and PYD domains-containing protein. PU.1=transcription factor PU.1. RORC=nuclear receptor ROR-gamma. ST2=ST2 receptor. STAT=signal transducer and transcription activator. TGF=transforming growth factor. Th=T-helper. TLR=toll-like receptors. Treg=regulatory T cell."}
LitCovid-PubTator
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and cellular drivers of mild–moderate COVID-19\nIn susceptible individuals who develop symptomatic SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 pneumonia (eg, in the presence of individual cytokine or receptor polymorphisms), IL-33 might abnormally upregulate expression of its own receptor ST2 (also known as IL-1RL1) on Treg cells, resulting in increased expression of the canonical Th2 transcription factor GATA-binding factor 3 (GATA3), which impairs the suppressive function of Treg cells. The dysregulation of GATA3+ Foxp3+ Treg cells might result in impaired immunological tolerance and increased secretion of type 2 cytokines, thus promoting autoinflammatory lung disease.16 TGFβ2, which is also increased in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of patients with COVID-19,11 might further enhance ST2 expression in innate lymphoid cells, and IL-33 is the key cytokine that drives these cells to differentiate into type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2).17 ILC2 subsequently elicit lung inflammation by releasing large amounts of IL-9, which promotes their own survival and expands γδ T cells.18, 19 IL-9 is known to stimulate proliferation and expansion of Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells that have a predominantly effector memory phenotype and a combined Th1–Th17 cytokine response profile.19 When exposed to TGFβ, γδ T cells can also become an important source of IL-9.20 By acting in both autocrine and paracrine manners, IL-33-induced IL-9 might sustain a proinflammatory ILC2–γδT cell axis in the lungs of patients with COVID-19, thus initiating mild–moderate forms of pneumonia.\nBoth ILC2 and γδ T cells are centrally involved in lung homoeostasis and are rapidly activated in response to pathogens including viruses;19, 21 in COVID-19, IL-4 is upregulated at early stages and in milder forms of the disease,10 whereas IL-9 and activated γδ T cells are observed more frequently in mild-to-moderate disease,9, 22 and IFNγ and IL-17 progressively increase with disease severity.6 Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells from patients with COVID-19 have been found to express an effector memory phenotype three times more frequently than do conventional αβ T cells,23 thus suggesting that this T cell subset is selectively stimulated in COVID-19. Because of significantly higher expression of the chemokine receptor CXCR3 compared with their αβ counterparts,24 γδ T cells might be rapidly recruited into inflamed lungs of patients with COVID-19 in response to the observed strong upregulation of the CXCR3 ligands CXCL9 and CXCL10 (figure 1 ).6, 9, 11, 15, 25, 26, 27, 28\nFigure 1 T-cell polarisation in COVID-19\nIL-33 released from virus-damaged cells might induce dysregulated GATA3+Foxp3+ Tregs and promote IL-2 production by dendritic cells, resulting in further expansion of Tregs. IL-33 might also elicit differentiation of ILC2, with TGFβ enhancing ST2 expression on these cells and facilitating production of IL-9. IL-9 in turn stimulates expansion of effector memory Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells with mixed Th1 and Th17 profiles that express CXCR3 and are recruited to the lungs by CXCL9 and CXCL10. IL-9 possibly induces its own transcription factor PU.1 and thus act in an autocrine and paracrine manner (along with TGFβ) to drive proliferation and survival of ILC2 and γδ T cells. Additional positive loops might be fed by IFNγ, which triggers production of CXCL9 and CXCL10 by macrophages. In severe forms of COVID-19, IL-33, along with IL-2 and IL-7 released by dendritic cells, might further stimulate T-cell expansion through STAT5 and induce production of large amounts of GM-CSF by γδ and T helper cells. At advanced stages of disease, aberrant activation of the MyD88-related NF-κB pathway and activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome might induce virus-exposed cells and infiltrating monocytes–macrophages to overproduce IL-1β, IL-23, and IL-6. IL-1β, IL-23, IL-6, and IL-7 act on STAT3 and RORC, thus promoting differentiation of CCR2+ T cells that are recruited to the lungs by CCL2 and CCL8 into γδT17 and Th17 cells producing IL-17 and GM-CSF. In turn, GM-CSF might further recruit and activate proinflammatory monocytes–macrophages. CCR=C-C motif chemokine receptor. CCL=C-C motif chemokine ligand. CXCL=C-X-C motif chemokine ligand. CXCR=C-X-C chemokine receptor. Foxp=forkhead box protein. GATA=GATA-binding factor. GM-CSF=granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor. IL=interleukin. ILC2=type 2 innate lymphoid cell. MyD88=myeloid differentiation primary response protein. NF-κB=nuclear factor-kappa B. NLRP=NACHT, LRR, and PYD domains-containing protein. PU.1=transcription factor PU.1. RORC=nuclear receptor ROR-gamma. ST2=ST2 receptor. STAT=signal transducer and transcription activator. TGF=transforming growth factor. Th=T-helper. TLR=toll-like receptors. Treg=regulatory T cell."}
2_test
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The dysregulation of GATA3+ Foxp3+ Treg cells might result in impaired immunological tolerance and increased secretion of type 2 cytokines, thus promoting autoinflammatory lung disease.16 TGFβ2, which is also increased in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of patients with COVID-19,11 might further enhance ST2 expression in innate lymphoid cells, and IL-33 is the key cytokine that drives these cells to differentiate into type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2).17 ILC2 subsequently elicit lung inflammation by releasing large amounts of IL-9, which promotes their own survival and expands γδ T cells.18, 19 IL-9 is known to stimulate proliferation and expansion of Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells that have a predominantly effector memory phenotype and a combined Th1–Th17 cytokine response profile.19 When exposed to TGFβ, γδ T cells can also become an important source of IL-9.20 By acting in both autocrine and paracrine manners, IL-33-induced IL-9 might sustain a proinflammatory ILC2–γδT cell axis in the lungs of patients with COVID-19, thus initiating mild–moderate forms of pneumonia.\nBoth ILC2 and γδ T cells are centrally involved in lung homoeostasis and are rapidly activated in response to pathogens including viruses;19, 21 in COVID-19, IL-4 is upregulated at early stages and in milder forms of the disease,10 whereas IL-9 and activated γδ T cells are observed more frequently in mild-to-moderate disease,9, 22 and IFNγ and IL-17 progressively increase with disease severity.6 Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells from patients with COVID-19 have been found to express an effector memory phenotype three times more frequently than do conventional αβ T cells,23 thus suggesting that this T cell subset is selectively stimulated in COVID-19. Because of significantly higher expression of the chemokine receptor CXCR3 compared with their αβ counterparts,24 γδ T cells might be rapidly recruited into inflamed lungs of patients with COVID-19 in response to the observed strong upregulation of the CXCR3 ligands CXCL9 and CXCL10 (figure 1 ).6, 9, 11, 15, 25, 26, 27, 28\nFigure 1 T-cell polarisation in COVID-19\nIL-33 released from virus-damaged cells might induce dysregulated GATA3+Foxp3+ Tregs and promote IL-2 production by dendritic cells, resulting in further expansion of Tregs. IL-33 might also elicit differentiation of ILC2, with TGFβ enhancing ST2 expression on these cells and facilitating production of IL-9. IL-9 in turn stimulates expansion of effector memory Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells with mixed Th1 and Th17 profiles that express CXCR3 and are recruited to the lungs by CXCL9 and CXCL10. IL-9 possibly induces its own transcription factor PU.1 and thus act in an autocrine and paracrine manner (along with TGFβ) to drive proliferation and survival of ILC2 and γδ T cells. Additional positive loops might be fed by IFNγ, which triggers production of CXCL9 and CXCL10 by macrophages. In severe forms of COVID-19, IL-33, along with IL-2 and IL-7 released by dendritic cells, might further stimulate T-cell expansion through STAT5 and induce production of large amounts of GM-CSF by γδ and T helper cells. At advanced stages of disease, aberrant activation of the MyD88-related NF-κB pathway and activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome might induce virus-exposed cells and infiltrating monocytes–macrophages to overproduce IL-1β, IL-23, and IL-6. IL-1β, IL-23, IL-6, and IL-7 act on STAT3 and RORC, thus promoting differentiation of CCR2+ T cells that are recruited to the lungs by CCL2 and CCL8 into γδT17 and Th17 cells producing IL-17 and GM-CSF. In turn, GM-CSF might further recruit and activate proinflammatory monocytes–macrophages. CCR=C-C motif chemokine receptor. CCL=C-C motif chemokine ligand. CXCL=C-X-C motif chemokine ligand. CXCR=C-X-C chemokine receptor. Foxp=forkhead box protein. GATA=GATA-binding factor. GM-CSF=granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor. IL=interleukin. ILC2=type 2 innate lymphoid cell. MyD88=myeloid differentiation primary response protein. NF-κB=nuclear factor-kappa B. NLRP=NACHT, LRR, and PYD domains-containing protein. PU.1=transcription factor PU.1. RORC=nuclear receptor ROR-gamma. ST2=ST2 receptor. STAT=signal transducer and transcription activator. TGF=transforming growth factor. Th=T-helper. TLR=toll-like receptors. Treg=regulatory T cell."}