PMC:548520 / 19477-24923 JSONTXT

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Homozygous null mutations in the peripherin/RDS gene [36] or in rhodopsin [29] lead to a failure of outer segment formation. The deficits in peripherin-/- and Crx-/- photoreceptor morphogenesis were found to be very similar. Vesicular structures in Crx-/- photoreceptors were observed that were similar to those previously noted in the rds/peripherin-/- mouse. It was initially proposed that these vesicles were due to the breakdown of outer segment membranes that were not properly recruited to the outer segments in the absence of peripherin, or were from the result of the breakdown of the microvilli of Müller cells [30]. Strong support in favor of the former explanation was provided by Nir and colleagues who demonstrated the presence of rhodopsin protein in these vesicles using immunoelectron microscopy against a rhodopsin epitope [37]. Further, as shown here, the vesicles appear to bud from the inner segments themselves.\nIn developing photoreceptors, an extraordinary growth process occurs whereby the outer segment is generated from the nascent connecting cilium (see [38] and references therein). Peripherin/RDS and ROM-1 proteins (localized in disc rims) and the opsin proteins (localized throughout the discs) have important roles in the structural integrity of mature outer segments (see [39,29]). ROM-1-/- mice produce disorganized outer segments with large disks [40]. Crx, by virtue of being a transcription factor, presumably controls genes that are responsible for the building and perhaps maintenance of the outer segment structure, including rhodopsin and peripherin. Using northern blots [34], microarrays [10], and serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) [35], we have defined a large number of genes that are altered in their expression level in Crx-/- mice. We found that rhodopsin expression was severely diminished in Crx-/- animals, and peripherin mRNA was reduced by approximately 30%. Transgenic mice with variable levels of expression of wild type rhodopsin exhibit rod degeneration [41], indicating the importance of the level of rhodopsin expression. In addition, the timing of rhodopsin expression may be very important, as indicated by studies in Drosophila.\nIn Drosophila, rhodopsin (ninaE) is expressed in photoreceptors R1–R6. In ninaE null mutants, the rhabdomere, a structure analogous to vertebrate outer segments, fails to develop in R1–R6 photoreceptors [42], reminiscent of the situation in rhodopsin-/- mice [29]. An intriguing experiment by Kumar et al. [43] demonstrated a temporal requirement for rhodopsin expression during rhabdomere development. In ninaE null flies, a ninaE transgene under the control of a heat shock promoter was subjected to various temperature shifts during development. Heat shock during the normal time of rhodopsin onset resulted in substantial and long-lasting rescue of photoreceptor structure and transient rescue of photoreceptor physiology. However, expression shortly before or after this critical period failed to rescue, suggesting that rhodopsin expression during a discrete window of time in development is essential for proper rhabdomere morphogenesis. This result is consistent with observations in the rat wherein rhodopsin onset occurs with strict timing in the developmental history of most rods in vivo [44]. Thus, through its regulation of rhodopsin levels, or perhaps through control of the kinetics of the up-regulation of rhodopsin beginning at about P6, Crx may be regulating outer segment morphogenesis. The similarty of the two cases may extend further. At present, the closest Crx relative in Drosophila is Otd, the founding member of the class of homeobox genes to which Crx belongs. Interestingly, in one hypomorphic allele of Drosophila otd, otduvi, photoreceptor morphogenesis is also disrupted [45].\nWe found that there are many other genes that are dependent upon Crx. Those that are expressed at a lower level in the Crx-/- retina, such as rhodopsin and peripherin, comprise many that are either enriched or specific to photoreceptors in their expression [35]. They include enzymes that are important in lipid metabolism, protein folding and transport, as well as in other processes that one might envision would be important in building a structure such as the outer segment. In situ hybridization using probes from this collection of genes has revealed that some of them have their RNA localized to the inner segment, a finding typical for proteins targeted to the outer segment. Future analyses of the function of these genes might reveal their role in outer segment biogenesis.\nFinally, polarization of photoreceptors was found to be largely intact, as was ciliogenesis. Another LCA gene, CRB1, and a related gene CRB3, have been implicated in ciliogenesis in in vitro models [46]. The Drosophila homologue of CRB1, Crumbs, has been implicated in photoreceptor morphogenesis [47]. However, the spontaneously occurring mouse mutant in CRB1, the Rd8 mouse, develops shortened outer segments that subsequently degenerate [48], suggesting that photoreceptor polarization and synaptogenesis are intact in this mutant. While CRB1 and Crx have been both linked to LCA, further work is necessary to determine if their function is linked in retinal development."}

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photoreceptors cannot complete outer segment morphogenesis\nMutations in Crx represent one of a collection of gene mutations that lead to an outer segment formation defect. Homozygous null mutations in the peripherin/RDS gene [36] or in rhodopsin [29] lead to a failure of outer segment formation. The deficits in peripherin-/- and Crx-/- photoreceptor morphogenesis were found to be very similar. Vesicular structures in Crx-/- photoreceptors were observed that were similar to those previously noted in the rds/peripherin-/- mouse. It was initially proposed that these vesicles were due to the breakdown of outer segment membranes that were not properly recruited to the outer segments in the absence of peripherin, or were from the result of the breakdown of the microvilli of Müller cells [30]. Strong support in favor of the former explanation was provided by Nir and colleagues who demonstrated the presence of rhodopsin protein in these vesicles using immunoelectron microscopy against a rhodopsin epitope [37]. Further, as shown here, the vesicles appear to bud from the inner segments themselves.\nIn developing photoreceptors, an extraordinary growth process occurs whereby the outer segment is generated from the nascent connecting cilium (see [38] and references therein). Peripherin/RDS and ROM-1 proteins (localized in disc rims) and the opsin proteins (localized throughout the discs) have important roles in the structural integrity of mature outer segments (see [39,29]). ROM-1-/- mice produce disorganized outer segments with large disks [40]. Crx, by virtue of being a transcription factor, presumably controls genes that are responsible for the building and perhaps maintenance of the outer segment structure, including rhodopsin and peripherin. Using northern blots [34], microarrays [10], and serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) [35], we have defined a large number of genes that are altered in their expression level in Crx-/- mice. We found that rhodopsin expression was severely diminished in Crx-/- animals, and peripherin mRNA was reduced by approximately 30%. Transgenic mice with variable levels of expression of wild type rhodopsin exhibit rod degeneration [41], indicating the importance of the level of rhodopsin expression. In addition, the timing of rhodopsin expression may be very important, as indicated by studies in Drosophila.\nIn Drosophila, rhodopsin (ninaE) is expressed in photoreceptors R1–R6. In ninaE null mutants, the rhabdomere, a structure analogous to vertebrate outer segments, fails to develop in R1–R6 photoreceptors [42], reminiscent of the situation in rhodopsin-/- mice [29]. An intriguing experiment by Kumar et al. [43] demonstrated a temporal requirement for rhodopsin expression during rhabdomere development. In ninaE null flies, a ninaE transgene under the control of a heat shock promoter was subjected to various temperature shifts during development. Heat shock during the normal time of rhodopsin onset resulted in substantial and long-lasting rescue of photoreceptor structure and transient rescue of photoreceptor physiology. However, expression shortly before or after this critical period failed to rescue, suggesting that rhodopsin expression during a discrete window of time in development is essential for proper rhabdomere morphogenesis. This result is consistent with observations in the rat wherein rhodopsin onset occurs with strict timing in the developmental history of most rods in vivo [44]. Thus, through its regulation of rhodopsin levels, or perhaps through control of the kinetics of the up-regulation of rhodopsin beginning at about P6, Crx may be regulating outer segment morphogenesis. The similarty of the two cases may extend further. At present, the closest Crx relative in Drosophila is Otd, the founding member of the class of homeobox genes to which Crx belongs. Interestingly, in one hypomorphic allele of Drosophila otd, otduvi, photoreceptor morphogenesis is also disrupted [45].\nWe found that there are many other genes that are dependent upon Crx. Those that are expressed at a lower level in the Crx-/- retina, such as rhodopsin and peripherin, comprise many that are either enriched or specific to photoreceptors in their expression [35]. They include enzymes that are important in lipid metabolism, protein folding and transport, as well as in other processes that one might envision would be important in building a structure such as the outer segment. In situ hybridization using probes from this collection of genes has revealed that some of them have their RNA localized to the inner segment, a finding typical for proteins targeted to the outer segment. Future analyses of the function of these genes might reveal their role in outer segment biogenesis.\nFinally, polarization of photoreceptors was found to be largely intact, as was ciliogenesis. Another LCA gene, CRB1, and a related gene CRB3, have been implicated in ciliogenesis in in vitro models [46]. The Drosophila homologue of CRB1, Crumbs, has been implicated in photoreceptor morphogenesis [47]. However, the spontaneously occurring mouse mutant in CRB1, the Rd8 mouse, develops shortened outer segments that subsequently degenerate [48], suggesting that photoreceptor polarization and synaptogenesis are intact in this mutant. While CRB1 and Crx have been both linked to LCA, further work is necessary to determine if their function is linked in retinal development."}

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photoreceptors cannot complete outer segment morphogenesis\nMutations in Crx represent one of a collection of gene mutations that lead to an outer segment formation defect. Homozygous null mutations in the peripherin/RDS gene [36] or in rhodopsin [29] lead to a failure of outer segment formation. The deficits in peripherin-/- and Crx-/- photoreceptor morphogenesis were found to be very similar. Vesicular structures in Crx-/- photoreceptors were observed that were similar to those previously noted in the rds/peripherin-/- mouse. It was initially proposed that these vesicles were due to the breakdown of outer segment membranes that were not properly recruited to the outer segments in the absence of peripherin, or were from the result of the breakdown of the microvilli of Müller cells [30]. Strong support in favor of the former explanation was provided by Nir and colleagues who demonstrated the presence of rhodopsin protein in these vesicles using immunoelectron microscopy against a rhodopsin epitope [37]. Further, as shown here, the vesicles appear to bud from the inner segments themselves.\nIn developing photoreceptors, an extraordinary growth process occurs whereby the outer segment is generated from the nascent connecting cilium (see [38] and references therein). Peripherin/RDS and ROM-1 proteins (localized in disc rims) and the opsin proteins (localized throughout the discs) have important roles in the structural integrity of mature outer segments (see [39,29]). ROM-1-/- mice produce disorganized outer segments with large disks [40]. Crx, by virtue of being a transcription factor, presumably controls genes that are responsible for the building and perhaps maintenance of the outer segment structure, including rhodopsin and peripherin. Using northern blots [34], microarrays [10], and serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) [35], we have defined a large number of genes that are altered in their expression level in Crx-/- mice. We found that rhodopsin expression was severely diminished in Crx-/- animals, and peripherin mRNA was reduced by approximately 30%. Transgenic mice with variable levels of expression of wild type rhodopsin exhibit rod degeneration [41], indicating the importance of the level of rhodopsin expression. In addition, the timing of rhodopsin expression may be very important, as indicated by studies in Drosophila.\nIn Drosophila, rhodopsin (ninaE) is expressed in photoreceptors R1–R6. In ninaE null mutants, the rhabdomere, a structure analogous to vertebrate outer segments, fails to develop in R1–R6 photoreceptors [42], reminiscent of the situation in rhodopsin-/- mice [29]. An intriguing experiment by Kumar et al. [43] demonstrated a temporal requirement for rhodopsin expression during rhabdomere development. In ninaE null flies, a ninaE transgene under the control of a heat shock promoter was subjected to various temperature shifts during development. Heat shock during the normal time of rhodopsin onset resulted in substantial and long-lasting rescue of photoreceptor structure and transient rescue of photoreceptor physiology. However, expression shortly before or after this critical period failed to rescue, suggesting that rhodopsin expression during a discrete window of time in development is essential for proper rhabdomere morphogenesis. This result is consistent with observations in the rat wherein rhodopsin onset occurs with strict timing in the developmental history of most rods in vivo [44]. Thus, through its regulation of rhodopsin levels, or perhaps through control of the kinetics of the up-regulation of rhodopsin beginning at about P6, Crx may be regulating outer segment morphogenesis. The similarty of the two cases may extend further. At present, the closest Crx relative in Drosophila is Otd, the founding member of the class of homeobox genes to which Crx belongs. Interestingly, in one hypomorphic allele of Drosophila otd, otduvi, photoreceptor morphogenesis is also disrupted [45].\nWe found that there are many other genes that are dependent upon Crx. Those that are expressed at a lower level in the Crx-/- retina, such as rhodopsin and peripherin, comprise many that are either enriched or specific to photoreceptors in their expression [35]. They include enzymes that are important in lipid metabolism, protein folding and transport, as well as in other processes that one might envision would be important in building a structure such as the outer segment. In situ hybridization using probes from this collection of genes has revealed that some of them have their RNA localized to the inner segment, a finding typical for proteins targeted to the outer segment. Future analyses of the function of these genes might reveal their role in outer segment biogenesis.\nFinally, polarization of photoreceptors was found to be largely intact, as was ciliogenesis. 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photoreceptors cannot complete outer segment morphogenesis\nMutations in Crx represent one of a collection of gene mutations that lead to an outer segment formation defect. Homozygous null mutations in the peripherin/RDS gene [36] or in rhodopsin [29] lead to a failure of outer segment formation. The deficits in peripherin-/- and Crx-/- photoreceptor morphogenesis were found to be very similar. Vesicular structures in Crx-/- photoreceptors were observed that were similar to those previously noted in the rds/peripherin-/- mouse. It was initially proposed that these vesicles were due to the breakdown of outer segment membranes that were not properly recruited to the outer segments in the absence of peripherin, or were from the result of the breakdown of the microvilli of Müller cells [30]. Strong support in favor of the former explanation was provided by Nir and colleagues who demonstrated the presence of rhodopsin protein in these vesicles using immunoelectron microscopy against a rhodopsin epitope [37]. Further, as shown here, the vesicles appear to bud from the inner segments themselves.\nIn developing photoreceptors, an extraordinary growth process occurs whereby the outer segment is generated from the nascent connecting cilium (see [38] and references therein). Peripherin/RDS and ROM-1 proteins (localized in disc rims) and the opsin proteins (localized throughout the discs) have important roles in the structural integrity of mature outer segments (see [39,29]). ROM-1-/- mice produce disorganized outer segments with large disks [40]. Crx, by virtue of being a transcription factor, presumably controls genes that are responsible for the building and perhaps maintenance of the outer segment structure, including rhodopsin and peripherin. Using northern blots [34], microarrays [10], and serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE) [35], we have defined a large number of genes that are altered in their expression level in Crx-/- mice. We found that rhodopsin expression was severely diminished in Crx-/- animals, and peripherin mRNA was reduced by approximately 30%. Transgenic mice with variable levels of expression of wild type rhodopsin exhibit rod degeneration [41], indicating the importance of the level of rhodopsin expression. In addition, the timing of rhodopsin expression may be very important, as indicated by studies in Drosophila.\nIn Drosophila, rhodopsin (ninaE) is expressed in photoreceptors R1–R6. In ninaE null mutants, the rhabdomere, a structure analogous to vertebrate outer segments, fails to develop in R1–R6 photoreceptors [42], reminiscent of the situation in rhodopsin-/- mice [29]. An intriguing experiment by Kumar et al. [43] demonstrated a temporal requirement for rhodopsin expression during rhabdomere development. In ninaE null flies, a ninaE transgene under the control of a heat shock promoter was subjected to various temperature shifts during development. Heat shock during the normal time of rhodopsin onset resulted in substantial and long-lasting rescue of photoreceptor structure and transient rescue of photoreceptor physiology. However, expression shortly before or after this critical period failed to rescue, suggesting that rhodopsin expression during a discrete window of time in development is essential for proper rhabdomere morphogenesis. This result is consistent with observations in the rat wherein rhodopsin onset occurs with strict timing in the developmental history of most rods in vivo [44]. Thus, through its regulation of rhodopsin levels, or perhaps through control of the kinetics of the up-regulation of rhodopsin beginning at about P6, Crx may be regulating outer segment morphogenesis. The similarty of the two cases may extend further. At present, the closest Crx relative in Drosophila is Otd, the founding member of the class of homeobox genes to which Crx belongs. Interestingly, in one hypomorphic allele of Drosophila otd, otduvi, photoreceptor morphogenesis is also disrupted [45].\nWe found that there are many other genes that are dependent upon Crx. Those that are expressed at a lower level in the Crx-/- retina, such as rhodopsin and peripherin, comprise many that are either enriched or specific to photoreceptors in their expression [35]. They include enzymes that are important in lipid metabolism, protein folding and transport, as well as in other processes that one might envision would be important in building a structure such as the outer segment. In situ hybridization using probes from this collection of genes has revealed that some of them have their RNA localized to the inner segment, a finding typical for proteins targeted to the outer segment. Future analyses of the function of these genes might reveal their role in outer segment biogenesis.\nFinally, polarization of photoreceptors was found to be largely intact, as was ciliogenesis. Another LCA gene, CRB1, and a related gene CRB3, have been implicated in ciliogenesis in in vitro models [46]. The Drosophila homologue of CRB1, Crumbs, has been implicated in photoreceptor morphogenesis [47]. However, the spontaneously occurring mouse mutant in CRB1, the Rd8 mouse, develops shortened outer segments that subsequently degenerate [48], suggesting that photoreceptor polarization and synaptogenesis are intact in this mutant. While CRB1 and Crx have been both linked to LCA, further work is necessary to determine if their function is linked in retinal development."}