Id |
Subject |
Object |
Predicate |
Lexical cue |
T52 |
0-2 |
Sentence |
denotes |
2. |
T53 |
3-24 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Theory and Hypotheses |
T54 |
26-30 |
Sentence |
denotes |
2.1. |
T55 |
31-70 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Three Approaches to Conspiracy Theories |
T56 |
71-279 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Conspiracy theories abound in social and political discourse, but a coordinated research agenda to grapple with their causes and consequences has been developed only in the last decade ([1,2,4,5,10,12,14], p. |
T57 |
280-283 |
Sentence |
denotes |
3). |
T58 |
284-353 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Thus, diverse definitions of conspiracy theories have been put forth. |
T59 |
354-606 |
Sentence |
denotes |
For example, a conspiracy theory can be described as “a subset of false beliefs in which the ultimate cause of an event is believed to be due to a plot by multiple actors working together with a clear goal in mind, often unlawfully and in secret” [14]. |
T60 |
607-804 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Alternatively, a conspiracy theory can be defined as a belief that an event, situation, or set of people are controlled by unknown or secret forces, which usually have unsavory intentions ([15], p. |
T61 |
805-810 |
Sentence |
denotes |
103). |
T62 |
811-1048 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Finally, a conspiracy theory can be thought of as a “proposed explanation of events that cites as a main causal factor a small group of persons (the conspirators) acting in secret for their own benefit, against the common good” ([16], p. |
T63 |
1049-1052 |
Sentence |
denotes |
2). |
T64 |
1053-1307 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Some common features of conspiracy theories are that they supposedly let ordinary people in on secrets that the elite have tried to hide and that uncovering conspiracies can help to explain phenomena that were previously difficult to understand ([15], p. |
T65 |
1308-1313 |
Sentence |
denotes |
104). |
T66 |
1314-1533 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Thus, Douglas et al. [10] regard conspiracy theories as attempts to explain the ultimate causes of significant social and political events and circumstances through claims of secret plots by two or more powerful actors. |
T67 |
1534-1613 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Moreover, conspiracy theories revolve around events that cause great confusion. |
T68 |
1614-1794 |
Sentence |
denotes |
For example, many people have believed the conspiracy theories that the U.S. government conspired in the 9/11 terrorist attacks [17] and that the assassination of President John F. |
T69 |
1795-1854 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Kennedy was not carried out by Lee Harvey Oswald alone [4]. |
T70 |
1855-1999 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Moreover, conspiracy theories develop because they offer individuals a way to interpret information that is difficult to organize or understand. |
T71 |
2000-2144 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Also, conspiracy theories are difficult to disprove because the counterarguments against them can be seen as parts of other conspiracy theories. |
T72 |
2145-2268 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Analyses of the drivers of beliefs in conspiracy theories emphasize different factors depending on the academic discipline. |
T73 |
2269-2384 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Stempel et al. [5] categorized research on conspiracy theories into psychological and social structural approaches. |
T74 |
2385-2536 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Douglas et al. [7,8] list political, psychological, and social structural factors as the three main factors influencing beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T75 |
2537-2652 |
Sentence |
denotes |
First, from a political perspective, political power, ideology, and party politics can explain conspiracy theories. |
T76 |
2653-2900 |
Sentence |
denotes |
According to Douglas et al. [10], political scientists focus on how conspiracy theories become part of political contests, what political factors lead to conspiracy beliefs, and when conspiracy theories are mobilized as persuasive political tools. |
T77 |
2901-3126 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Moreover, political scientists focus on the roles of political factors, such as political partisanship and ideological self-identification, which are significantly associated with people’s beliefs in conspiracy theories [18]. |
T78 |
3127-3311 |
Sentence |
denotes |
For example, Enders and Steven [18] show that political orientation and conspiratorial thinking provide the most analytical leverage in predicting individuals’ beliefs in conspiracies. |
T79 |
3312-3462 |
Sentence |
denotes |
They argue that political orientation is a better predictor of beliefs in conspiracy theories than other attitudes, predispositions, and orientations. |
T80 |
3463-3688 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Moreover, Stempel et al. [5] demonstrate that beliefs in conspiracies are linked with mainstream political party divisions, and they argue that conspiracy thinking is a normal part of mainstream political conflict in the U.S. |
T81 |
3689-3783 |
Sentence |
denotes |
However, not every aspect of conspiracy theories can be explained solely by political factors. |
T82 |
3784-3923 |
Sentence |
denotes |
In addition to partisanship, individual differences in ways of interpreting information are related to beliefs in conspiracy theories [16]. |
T83 |
3924-4045 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Second, studies that focus on psychological factors pay attention to people’s psychological content and ways of thinking. |
T84 |
4046-4083 |
Sentence |
denotes |
According to Stempel et al. ([15], p. |
T85 |
4084-4301 |
Sentence |
denotes |
354), a more psychological approach supports the existence of a conspiratorial personality or paranoid style of thought and views conspiracy theories as closely related to scapegoating and “us versus them” worldviews. |
T86 |
4302-4495 |
Sentence |
denotes |
In addition, Goertzel [4] puts forth the concept of a monological belief system in which similar beliefs comprise a self-sealing and expanding network of ideas that mutually support each other. |
T87 |
4496-4590 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Some conspiracy beliefs are correlated with each other as part of a monological belief system. |
T88 |
4591-4743 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Psychologists stress the psychological antecedents of conspiracy beliefs and have studied motivation, cognition, and personality as influencing factors. |
T89 |
4744-4848 |
Sentence |
denotes |
For example, from a psychological perspective, conspiracy theories help to satisfy people’s motivations. |
T90 |
4849-5134 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Douglas et al. [12] explain that these social-psychological motives include (1) the epistemic desire for understanding, accuracy, and subjective certainty; (2) the existential motive for control and security; and (3) the social motive to maintain a positive image of the self or group. |
T91 |
5135-5227 |
Sentence |
denotes |
In addition, the psychological approach emphasizes cognitive aspects of conspiracy theories. |
T92 |
5228-5354 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Miller [19] argues that conspiracy theories essentially play two cognitive roles: the argumentative and social critique roles. |
T93 |
5355-5512 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Moreover, Swami et al. [17] show that beliefs in conspiracies related to 9/11 are positively related to the Big Five personality factor, e.g., agreeableness. |
T94 |
5513-5628 |
Sentence |
denotes |
The psychological approach maintains consistency between psychological elements, which is not observed in practice. |
T95 |
5629-5774 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Thus, Douglas et al. [10] argue that conspiracy theories are not always mutually supportive; instead, they often directly contradict one another. |
T96 |
5775-5992 |
Sentence |
denotes |
In addition, Uscinski and Parent [20] note that explanations of conspiracy theories that stress psychological needs are incomplete; although many stimuli cause stress, not all of them increase beliefs in conspiracies. |
T97 |
5993-6089 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Third, structural explanations focus on social or contextual factors that constrain individuals. |
T98 |
6090-6268 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Stempel et al. [5] view social structural approaches as emphasizing the social structuring of beliefs and the social relativistic bracketing of conspiracy theories’ truth claims. |
T99 |
6269-6451 |
Sentence |
denotes |
The social structural approach focuses on race, social class, resources, and knowledge, which can limit individual behavior, as factors that influence beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T100 |
6452-6597 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Crocker et al. [21] show that race is a significant predictor of beliefs in conspiracies even when controlling for other socioeconomic variables. |
T101 |
6598-6711 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Blaming the system is a much stronger predictor of conspiracy beliefs for Black students than for White students. |
T102 |
6712-6909 |
Sentence |
denotes |
In addition, Stempel et al. [5] demonstrate that less powerful social groups, such as racial minorities, lower social classes, women, and younger people, are more likely to believe in conspiracies. |
T103 |
6910-7044 |
Sentence |
denotes |
However, the structural approach overlooks the political reality and the influence of individuals’ independent psychological thinking. |
T104 |
7045-7165 |
Sentence |
denotes |
In short, it is necessary to consider political, social, and structural factors together to explain conspiracy theories. |
T105 |
7166-7226 |
Sentence |
denotes |
It is about matter of general model for conspiracy theories. |
T106 |
7227-7304 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Some studies attempting to take an integrated approach have recently emerged. |
T107 |
7305-7559 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Swami et al. [17] show that beliefs in 9/11 conspiracies are positively related to exposure to 9/11 conspiracist ideas, beliefs in other conspiracy theories, defiance of authority, political cynicism, and the Big Five personality factor of agreeableness. |
T108 |
7560-7752 |
Sentence |
denotes |
This study focuses on 19 hypotheses related to beliefs in conspiracy theories, and the variables based on these hypotheses can be classified as political, psychological, or structural factors. |
T109 |
7754-7758 |
Sentence |
denotes |
2.2. |
T110 |
7759-7776 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Political Factors |
T111 |
7778-7784 |
Sentence |
denotes |
2.2.1. |
T112 |
7785-7801 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Authoritarianism |
T113 |
7802-7969 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Authoritarianism as a political attitude is characterized by preferences for conventionalism, authoritarian aggression, and authoritarian submission to authority [22]. |
T114 |
7970-8089 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Several empirical studies find that authoritarianism has a consistent relationship with beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T115 |
8090-8252 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Authoritarian ideologies are characterized by unshakable beliefs in their righteousness, which provide instruments to comprehensively explain complex events [23]. |
T116 |
8253-8377 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Abalakina-Paap et al. [24] demonstrate that high levels of authoritarianism are related to beliefs in specific conspiracies. |
T117 |
8378-8575 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Swami [25] shows that right-wing authoritarianism (a measure of support for traditional social norms and submission to authority) is associated with stronger beliefs in general conspiracy theories. |
T118 |
8576-8688 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Swami et al. [17] show that beliefs in 9/11 conspiracy theories are positively related to defiance of authority. |
T119 |
8689-8939 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Moreover, based on a nationally representative sample of the U.S. population from the 2016 American National Election Studies, Goldberg and Richey [26] show that three different beliefs in conspiracies are positively correlated with authoritarianism. |
T120 |
8940-9089 |
Sentence |
denotes |
However, Oliver and Wood [8] do not find beliefs in conspiracies to be the product of greater authoritarianism, ignorance, or political conservatism. |
T121 |
9090-9108 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Hypothesis 1 (H1). |
T122 |
9111-9184 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Authoritarianism is positively related to beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T123 |
9186-9192 |
Sentence |
denotes |
2.2.2. |
T124 |
9193-9201 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Ideology |
T125 |
9202-9451 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Gruzd and Mai [27] find that although much of the content of conspiracy theories starts from users with limited reach, the initial propellants of these conspiracies are prominent conservative politicians and far-right political activists on Twitter. |
T126 |
9452-9535 |
Sentence |
denotes |
The relationship between conspiracy theories and ideology has several explanations. |
T127 |
9536-9600 |
Sentence |
denotes |
People believe in conspiracy theories that fit their ideologies. |
T128 |
9601-9760 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Miller et al. [3] argue that those who endorse conspiracy theories have particular ideological worldviews with which the conspiracy theories can be associated. |
T129 |
9761-9958 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Miller et al. [3] show that left-right political orientation influences beliefs in conspiracy theories about climate change, Barack Obama’s birthplace, the 9/11 terror attacks, and electoral fraud. |
T130 |
9959-10079 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Additionally, believing in a conspiracy theory is highly likely when one’s belief in a specific ideology is strong [10]. |
T131 |
10080-10134 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Van Prooijen et al. [28] focus on political extremism. |
T132 |
10135-10265 |
Sentence |
denotes |
They show that extreme left and right political ideologies are positively associated with tendency to believe conspiracy theories. |
T133 |
10266-10423 |
Sentence |
denotes |
In the other hand, members of ideological groups tend to think that those who hold one ideology regard the other side’s argument as a conspiracy theory [10]. |
T134 |
10424-10529 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Hart and Graether [29] find a negative association between liberalism and beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T135 |
10530-10668 |
Sentence |
denotes |
However, Oliver and Wood [6] demonstrate that beliefs in conspiracy theories are not limited to just one side of the ideological spectrum. |
T136 |
10669-10687 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Hypothesis 2 (H2). |
T137 |
10690-10769 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Conservatives exhibit more beliefs in conspiracy theories than progressives do. |
T138 |
10771-10777 |
Sentence |
denotes |
2.2.3. |
T139 |
10778-10790 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Partisanship |
T140 |
10791-10924 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Political interests and competitions result in partisanship, which can manifest as party identification, involvement, and membership. |
T141 |
10925-10984 |
Sentence |
denotes |
These factors can influence beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T142 |
10985-11134 |
Sentence |
denotes |
For example, party identification is associated with the endorsement of conspiracy theories that make the rival party look bad (e.g., Berinsky [30]). |
T143 |
11135-11309 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Enders and Smallpage [31] conduct an experimental study showing that conservative Republicans appear to be more susceptible to conspiratorial cues than progressive Democrats. |
T144 |
11310-11465 |
Sentence |
denotes |
When informational cues recede, conspiracy beliefs significantly increase among Republicans, even when a Republican is implicated by the conspiracy theory. |
T145 |
11466-11697 |
Sentence |
denotes |
However, Smallpage et al. [32] argue that it is false assumption that certain parties tend to believe in conspiracy theories more than other parties; instead, parties’ beliefs vary depending on the content of the conspiracy theory. |
T146 |
11698-11784 |
Sentence |
denotes |
The degree of belief in a particular conspiracy theory depends on political interests. |
T147 |
11785-11943 |
Sentence |
denotes |
For example, in the U.S., Democrats believe conspiracy theories about Republicans and conservatives, whereas Republicans believe conspiracies about Democrats. |
T148 |
11944-12116 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Gruzd and Mai [27] demonstrate that in late March 2020, hashtags containing fake news in favor of President Trump were being circulated and highlighted by Trump supporters. |
T149 |
12117-12184 |
Sentence |
denotes |
In the other and, the goal of party politics is to win an election. |
T150 |
12185-12254 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Thus, losers rather than winners tend to believe conspiracy theories. |
T151 |
12255-12407 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Uscinski and Parent [18] demonstrate that those that strongly endorse conspiracy theories are much more likely to be affiliated with the party in power. |
T152 |
12408-12426 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Hypothesis 3 (H3). |
T153 |
12429-12622 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Support for parties in power (i.e., President Moon Jae-In’s government (Moon’s government, hereafter) and the Democratic Party in Korea) is negatively related to beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T154 |
12624-12630 |
Sentence |
denotes |
2.2.4. |
T155 |
12631-12639 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Religion |
T156 |
12640-12700 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Religion greatly influences individual values and attitudes. |
T157 |
12701-12718 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Bezalel ([33], p. |
T158 |
12719-12925 |
Sentence |
denotes |
1) argues that the nature of religious belief is important in understanding the epistemological foundations of worldviews that support conspiracy theories amidst what may be called conspiratorial ambiguity. |
T159 |
12926-13102 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Douglas et al. [10] and Frank et al. [34] explain that cognitive processes that are linked to conspiracy beliefs are connected to the acceptance of quasi-religious mentalities. |
T160 |
13103-13176 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Both religion type and religiosity affect beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T161 |
13177-13223 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Religiosity is the depth of faith in religion. |
T162 |
13224-13448 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Higher religiosity can be associated with greater beliefs in conspiracy theories because religions and conspiracy theories share certain elements, including paranormal activity, esotericism, millennialism, and prophecy [35]. |
T163 |
13449-13563 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Various interpretations are possible for the relationship between religious beliefs and conspiracy theory beliefs. |
T164 |
13564-13721 |
Sentence |
denotes |
For example, according to Jasinskaja-Lahti and Jetten [36], there is not difference of the belief in conspiracy theories between believers and non-believers. |
T165 |
13722-14003 |
Sentence |
denotes |
In other hand, they reported that the extent to which religious worldviews were endorsed predicted belief in conspiracy theories; not self-categorization as religious, but strong attachment to religion among believers was directly related with higher belief in conspiracy theories. |
T166 |
14004-14070 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Why strong attachment brings out more belief in conspiracy theory. |
T167 |
14071-14209 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Jasinskaja-Lahti and Jetten [36] explained this by the mediated role of higher anti-intellectualism which strong religious believers have. |
T168 |
14210-14372 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Individuals who show more orientation in scientifically sceptical attitude are more sensitive on find out logical fallacies presented in conspiracy theories [37]. |
T169 |
14373-14533 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Other studies reported that there is closely link between religiosity and stronger conservatism and traditionalism [38], and higher political conservatism [39]. |
T170 |
14534-14596 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Those conservatism induces more belief in conspiracy theories. |
T171 |
14597-14748 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Van der Linden et al. [40] showed that extreme conservatives were significantly more likely to engage in conspiratorial thinking than extreme liberals. |
T172 |
14749-14834 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Hart and Graether [29] show that believers in conspiracies tend to be more religious. |
T173 |
14835-14986 |
Sentence |
denotes |
In contrast, Jasinskaja-Lahti and Jetten [36] show that religious believers and non-believers do not differ in terms of beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T174 |
14987-15042 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Beliefs in conspiracies vary with the type of religion. |
T175 |
15043-15200 |
Sentence |
denotes |
For example, Marchlewska et al. [41] demonstrate that Catholic collective narcissism predicts not only outgroup hostility but also gender conspiracy beliefs. |
T176 |
15201-15281 |
Sentence |
denotes |
It is worth noting that the opinion on Catholics cannot apply to all Christians. |
T177 |
15282-15418 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Relevant [42] explains that Christians should forgo the temptation to look toward conspiracy theories to feel more secure or in control. |
T178 |
15419-15439 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Hypothesis 4 (H4-1). |
T179 |
15442-15515 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Religiosity is positively associated with beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T180 |
15516-15536 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Hypothesis 4 (H4-2). |
T181 |
15539-15625 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Different types of religions have different impacts on beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T182 |
15627-15633 |
Sentence |
denotes |
2.2.5. |
T183 |
15634-15639 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Trust |
T184 |
15640-15722 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Distrust plays a fundamental role in the spread of beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T185 |
15723-15907 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Miller et al. [3] argue that those who strongly think conspiracy theories believe that the world is a place where secretive, malevolent actions are not only possible but also probable. |
T186 |
15908-15988 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Thus, people with low trust levels have stronger beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T187 |
15989-16070 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Miller et al. [3] show that trust is negatively associated with believing rumors. |
T188 |
16071-16237 |
Sentence |
denotes |
According to Hart and Graether [29], people who find it difficult to trust others may find solace in worldviews that blame hidden villains for disappointing outcomes. |
T189 |
16238-16324 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Many empirical studies focus on the impact of trust on beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T190 |
16325-16472 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Abalakina-Paap et al. [24] show that low levels of trust and hostility are related to attitudes regarding the existence of conspiracies in general. |
T191 |
16473-16591 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Distrust in a targeted object, such as politics, the government, or medicine, leads to beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T192 |
16592-16658 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Governments have always been at the center of conspiracy theories. |
T193 |
16659-16788 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Georgiou et al. [30] show that beliefs in conspiracies are correlated with more negative attitudes toward government’s responses. |
T194 |
16789-16873 |
Sentence |
denotes |
In politics, conspiracies have always been hidden under the veil of power conflicts. |
T195 |
16874-16996 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Goldberg and Richey [26] find that three different beliefs in conspiracies are negatively correlated with political trust. |
T196 |
16997-17105 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Swami et al. [17] show that beliefs in conspiracies about 9/11 are positively related to political cynicism. |
T197 |
17106-17267 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Moreover, Einstein and Glick [43] find that political scandals decrease trust in the government, which, in turn, is linked with stronger beliefs in conspiracies. |
T198 |
17268-17469 |
Sentence |
denotes |
In addition, according to Earnshaw et al. [10], medical conspiracy beliefs are partly rooted in medical mistrust or a general suspicion of and lack of confidence in medical organizations and providers. |
T199 |
17470-17661 |
Sentence |
denotes |
According to Jin et al. [44], respondents who do not believe conspiracies trust information about COVID-19 from their doctors more than information from other sources, including social media. |
T200 |
17662-17772 |
Sentence |
denotes |
However, conspiracies are spread not only by trust but also in the presence of ignorance, conflict, and power. |
T201 |
17773-17935 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Miller et al. [3] show that a combination of high knowledge and low trust yields the greatest endorsement of conservative conspiracy theories among conservatives. |
T202 |
17936-17954 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Hypothesis 5 (H5). |
T203 |
17957-18024 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Trust is negatively associated with beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T204 |
18026-18030 |
Sentence |
denotes |
2.3. |
T205 |
18031-18052 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Psychological Factors |
T206 |
18054-18060 |
Sentence |
denotes |
2.3.1. |
T207 |
18061-18075 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Perceived Risk |
T208 |
18076-18237 |
Sentence |
denotes |
In conspiracy theory research, beliefs in conspiracy theories are occurred under uncertainty and randomness which are related to social crises and risks [45,46]. |
T209 |
18238-18546 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Societal crisis situations increase beliefs in conspiracy theories because the unpleasant feelings that people experience when in crisis—fear, uncertainty, and a lack of control—motivate them to make sense of the situation, increasing the likelihood that they perceive conspiracies in social situations [41]. |
T210 |
18547-18639 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Uncontrollable danger from a personal perspective reinforces beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T211 |
18640-18810 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Based on a dangerous worldview scale, Hart and Graether [29] show that people who report greater beliefs in conspiracy theories tend to hold more dangerous world beliefs. |
T212 |
18811-18905 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Believing a conspiracy theory gives an individual a sense of security by lowering uncertainty. |
T213 |
18906-19171 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Earnshaw et al. [2] explain that conspiracy theories satisfy an existential motive by helping people feel safe in their environments; individuals are more likely to believe conspiracy theories when they feel anxious, powerless, and unable to control their outcomes. |
T214 |
19172-19300 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Similarly, people who view the world as dangerous and uncontrollable may assuage their anxiety through conspiracy theories [29]. |
T215 |
19301-19319 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Hypothesis 6 (H6). |
T216 |
19322-19393 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Perceived risk is positively related to beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T217 |
19395-19401 |
Sentence |
denotes |
2.3.2. |
T218 |
19402-19409 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Anxiety |
T219 |
19410-19481 |
Sentence |
denotes |
From a psychological perspective, anxiety and stress should be lowered. |
T220 |
19482-19540 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Believing a conspiracy theory is one way of lowering them. |
T221 |
19541-19704 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Anxiety may be particularly acute if it is caused by a major external event, which may be a natural disaster or a human-caused event, such as a terror attack [30]. |
T222 |
19705-19801 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Conspiracy theories functionally provide very simple causal explanations for distressful events. |
T223 |
19802-19935 |
Sentence |
denotes |
In other words, they help to control the level of acute stress and, thus, instill order, a sense of control, and predictability [47]. |
T224 |
19936-20066 |
Sentence |
denotes |
High-anxiety situations are therefore positively correlated with conspiracy theories about Jewish people, Germans, and Arabs [48]. |
T225 |
20067-20260 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Moreover, based on experimental studies in which participants were exposed to mock news articles, Radnitz and Underwood [49] show that an anxiety prime increases beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T226 |
20261-20412 |
Sentence |
denotes |
However, according to Swami et al. [47], state and trait anxiety and episodic tension are not significant predictors of beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T227 |
20413-20431 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Hypothesis 7 (H7). |
T228 |
20434-20498 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Anxiety is positively related to beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T229 |
20500-20506 |
Sentence |
denotes |
2.3.3. |
T230 |
20507-20524 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Negative Emotions |
T231 |
20525-20562 |
Sentence |
denotes |
According to Whitson et al. ([50], p. |
T232 |
20563-20885 |
Sentence |
denotes |
89), emotions that reflect uncertainty about the world (e.g., worry, surprise, fear, or hope) activate the need to imbue the world with order and structure across a wide range of compensatory measures, such as believing conspiracy theories, more so than other emotions (e.g., anger, happiness, disgust, or contentment) do. |
T233 |
20886-21037 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Van Prooijen et al. [51] propose that conspiracy theories are emotional; negative emotions rather than rational deliberations cause conspiracy beliefs. |
T234 |
21038-21153 |
Sentence |
denotes |
This insight is based on the argument that unpleasant emotional experiences increase sense-making motivations [52]. |
T235 |
21154-21247 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Several empirical studies support the emotional attributes of beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T236 |
21248-21482 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Butler et al. [53] examine the emotional effects of viewing the film JFK on moviegoing audiences and find that it impacts viewers’ emotions, beliefs, and judgments, particularly regarding the themes and persuasive message of the film. |
T237 |
21483-21603 |
Sentence |
denotes |
However, the film does not influence viewers’ general political judgments or perceptions of conspiracies in their lives. |
T238 |
21604-21711 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Whitson et al. [54] demonstrate that experiencing uncertain emotions causes people to embrace conspiracies. |
T239 |
21712-21730 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Hypothesis 8 (H8). |
T240 |
21733-21808 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Negative emotions are positively related to beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T241 |
21810-21816 |
Sentence |
denotes |
2.3.4. |
T242 |
21817-21834 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Perceived Control |
T243 |
21835-21970 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Perceived control refers to an individual’s perception of his or her ability to control events and the extent of external objects [54]. |
T244 |
21971-22039 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Believing conspiracy theories is a way to create a sense of control. |
T245 |
22040-22145 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Beliefs in conspiracy theories are widely considered to be a product of a perceived lack of control [55]. |
T246 |
22146-22296 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Miller et al. [3] argue that those with strong beliefs in conspiracy theories are able to see how endorsing the conspiracy can serve their own stakes. |
T247 |
22297-22553 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Douglas et al. [10] explain that people who lack control may seek a sense of control by believing conspiracy theories because such theories provide an opportunity to refuse official narratives and allow people to feel that they have a better understanding. |
T248 |
22554-22801 |
Sentence |
denotes |
High levels of powerlessness, along with low levels of self-esteem, are related to beliefs in specific conspiracies, whereas high external locus of control levels, along with low trust levels, are associated with endorsements of conspiracies [24]. |
T249 |
22802-22880 |
Sentence |
denotes |
A sense of lacking control may cause people to adopt conspiracy-like thinking. |
T250 |
22881-23046 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Sullivan et al. [56] use an experiment to demonstrate that participants with no control over given topics increase their endorsement of specific conspiracy theories. |
T251 |
23047-23150 |
Sentence |
denotes |
The result shows that the feeling of control over COVID-19 is very low, leading to conspiracy theories. |
T252 |
23151-23330 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Earnshaw et al. [2] argue that the COVID-19 pandemic provides a powerful context for people to utilize conspiracy theories in an attempt to restore feelings of safety and control. |
T253 |
23331-23503 |
Sentence |
denotes |
However, based on six studies conducted online using MTurk samples, Stojanov et al. [55] show that changes in levels of control have no effect on conspiracy theory beliefs. |
T254 |
23504-23582 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Thus, conspiracy beliefs are not suitable compensation for threats to control. |
T255 |
23583-23723 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Similarly, Hart and Graether [29] find no effects of situational threats (i.e., a sense of powerlessness) on beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T256 |
23724-23742 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Hypothesis 9 (H9). |
T257 |
23745-23824 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Perceived control is negatively associated with beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T258 |
23826-23832 |
Sentence |
denotes |
2.3.5. |
T259 |
23833-23850 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Analytic Thinking |
T260 |
23851-23970 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Thinking style plays an important role in this context because beliefs in conspiracy theories depend on human judgment. |
T261 |
23971-24087 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Many studies investigate the connections between analytic and heuristic thinking and beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T262 |
24088-24332 |
Sentence |
denotes |
For example, Leman and Cinnirella [57] conducted an experiment in which participants are asked to read stories about the president’s assassination and then rate the likelihood of different explanations to measure analytic or heuristic thinking. |
T263 |
24333-24534 |
Sentence |
denotes |
They report that the participants are likely to endorse a conspiracy theory to account for events more when the consequences are major (i.e., the president dies) than when they are comparatively minor. |
T264 |
24535-24689 |
Sentence |
denotes |
In addition, people who are less likely to engage in analytic thinking [37] or more likely to rely on heuristics [58] tend to rely on conspiracy theories. |
T265 |
24690-24792 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Beliefs in conspiracy theories are positively related to intuitive rather than analytic thinking [37]. |
T266 |
24793-24813 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Hypothesis 10 (H10). |
T267 |
24816-24895 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Analytic thinking is negatively associated with beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T268 |
24897-24903 |
Sentence |
denotes |
2.3.6. |
T269 |
24904-24921 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Blame Attribution |
T270 |
24922-25020 |
Sentence |
denotes |
When socially negative events occur, the responsible targets to be blamed are often up for debate. |
T271 |
25021-25097 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Blame attribution is closely related to conspiracy theory belief structures. |
T272 |
25098-25192 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Clark [59] argues that conspiracy theories are a byproduct of a fundamental attribution error. |
T273 |
25193-25220 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Hart and Graether ([29], p. |
T274 |
25221-25363 |
Sentence |
denotes |
230) explain that conspiracy worldviews provide consolation for individuals who have difficulty seeing reality through a more benevolent lens. |
T275 |
25364-25515 |
Sentence |
denotes |
For such individuals, the belief that someone is responsible for negative events may be preferable to concluding that the universe is cruel and unjust. |
T276 |
25516-25646 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Thus, conspiracy theories are associated with aspects of justice and responsibility, one of which is related to blame attribution. |
T277 |
25647-25825 |
Sentence |
denotes |
In an empirical study, Crocker et al. [19] demonstrate that beliefs in conspiracy theories are related to blaming the problems of Black Americans on prejudice and discrimination. |
T278 |
25826-25962 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Moreover, this race effect is partially mediated by a measure of system blame but not by the greater externality of attributional style. |
T279 |
25963-26121 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Schulzke [60] shows that attributional uncertainty facilitates the assignment of blame to familiar enemies, which ultimately promotes conspiratorial thinking. |
T280 |
26122-26142 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Hypothesis 11 (H11). |
T281 |
26145-26228 |
Sentence |
denotes |
External blame attribution is positively related to beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T282 |
26230-26234 |
Sentence |
denotes |
2.4. |
T283 |
26235-26253 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Structural Factors |
T284 |
26255-26261 |
Sentence |
denotes |
2.4.1. |
T285 |
26262-26274 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Social Class |
T286 |
26275-26461 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Uscinski and Parent [20] argue that conspiracy theories exist for “losers.” Thus, socially underprivileged individuals and members of the lower class tend to believe conspiracy theories. |
T287 |
26462-26656 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Mao et al. [61] show that social class can significantly negatively predict individuals’ beliefs in conspiracy theories and explain the likely link between social class and individuals’ beliefs. |
T288 |
26657-26846 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Because individuals from lower social classes receive less education, live in harsher environments, and often face external threats, they feel less control over their external environments. |
T289 |
26847-26956 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Generally, when perceived control is threatened by external factors, beliefs in conspiracy theories increase. |
T290 |
26957-27078 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Van Prooijen [62] finds that social class is correlated with the extent to which individuals believe conspiracy theories. |
T291 |
27079-27132 |
Sentence |
denotes |
A representative indicator of social class is income. |
T292 |
27133-27252 |
Sentence |
denotes |
In empirical studies, Golec de Zavala and Federico [63] show that higher income reduces beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T293 |
27253-27437 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Furthermore, Uscinski and Parent [20] demonstrate that people who work in the financial industry or for the government or the military exhibit the lowest levels of conspiracy thinking. |
T294 |
27438-27531 |
Sentence |
denotes |
However, the causal relationship between conspiracy beliefs and income is indeterminate [10]. |
T295 |
27532-27552 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Hypothesis 12 (H12). |
T296 |
27555-27691 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Belonging to a higher social class (i.e., having a higher income in this study) is negatively related to beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T297 |
27693-27699 |
Sentence |
denotes |
2.4.2. |
T298 |
27700-27709 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Knowledge |
T299 |
27710-27784 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Knowledge plays critical roles in reducing beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T300 |
27785-27918 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Miller et al. [3] show that those who are highly knowledgeable about politics tend to be the most susceptible to conspiracy theories. |
T301 |
27919-28119 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Moreover, this knowledge mediates the effect of ideology on the endorsement of conspiracy theories; knowledge increases ideologically motivated endorsements of conspiracy theories among conservatives. |
T302 |
28120-28276 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Moreover, Berinsky [31] shows that more knowledgeable people are less likely to believe in political conspiracies than their low-knowledge counterparts are. |
T303 |
28277-28417 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Goldberg and Richey [26] demonstrate that three different beliefs in conspiracy theories are positively correlated with political knowledge. |
T304 |
28418-28438 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Hypothesis 13 (H13). |
T305 |
28441-28505 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Knowledge has negative impact on beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T306 |
28507-28513 |
Sentence |
denotes |
2.4.3. |
T307 |
28514-28523 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Education |
T308 |
28524-28604 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Many studies examine the relationship between education and conspiracy theories. |
T309 |
28605-28689 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Generally, lower education levels increase beliefs in conspiracy theories [7,61,64]. |
T310 |
28690-28839 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Van Prooijen [62] suggests that education may give people a set of cognitive and affective attributes that enable them to resist conspiracy theories. |
T311 |
28840-29050 |
Sentence |
denotes |
She describes the causal chain from education to beliefs in conspiracy theories as follows: less education → less analytic thinking → strong beliefs in simple solutions → greater beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T312 |
29051-29195 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Also, Georgiou et al. [30] show that beliefs in conspiracy theories related to COVID-19 are greater among people with lower levels of education. |
T313 |
29196-29216 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Hypothesis 14 (H14). |
T314 |
29219-29290 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Education is negatively associated with beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T315 |
29292-29298 |
Sentence |
denotes |
2.4.4. |
T316 |
29299-29310 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Information |
T317 |
29311-29372 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Information performs a function similar to that of knowledge. |
T318 |
29373-29468 |
Sentence |
denotes |
But both the quantity and quality of information are related to beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T319 |
29469-29572 |
Sentence |
denotes |
In terms of the quantity, information related to a conspiracy theory reinforces beliefs in that theory. |
T320 |
29573-29719 |
Sentence |
denotes |
For example, Swami et al. [17] show that beliefs in conspiracies about 9/11 are positively related to exposure to the ideas of 9/11 conspiracists. |
T321 |
29720-29802 |
Sentence |
denotes |
In terms of quality, more elaborate information decreases beliefs in conspiracies. |
T322 |
29803-29895 |
Sentence |
denotes |
For example, more news media literacy is shown to reduce conspiracy theory endorsement [65]. |
T323 |
29896-30043 |
Sentence |
denotes |
It is not only the quantity and quality of information but also the style of information processing that influences beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T324 |
30044-30142 |
Sentence |
denotes |
A conspiratorial mentality may partly reflect particular information-processing dispositions [29]. |
T325 |
30143-30293 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Thus, individuals’ engagement in seeking or finding meanings or patterns in ambiguous or random information may be related to conspiratorial thinking. |
T326 |
30294-30314 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Hypothesis 15 (H15). |
T327 |
30317-30424 |
Sentence |
denotes |
More qualitative and quantitative information is negatively associated with beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T328 |
30426-30432 |
Sentence |
denotes |
2.4.5. |
T329 |
30433-30447 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Social Support |
T330 |
30448-30558 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Social structures that shape citizens’ feelings of vulnerability increase beliefs in conspiracy theories [66]. |
T331 |
30559-30662 |
Sentence |
denotes |
As a social structure, a social network or social support acts as a shield against conspiracy theories. |
T332 |
30663-30757 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Conversely, a lack of social resources or support promotes the beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T333 |
30758-30861 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Freeman and Bentall [67] show that conspiracy believers are more likely to have weaker social networks. |
T334 |
30862-30978 |
Sentence |
denotes |
According to Grohol [68], any societal alienation appears to be connected to greater beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T335 |
30979-31160 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Those who suffer on the edge of society, because of their unemployment status, minor ethnicity, or even weak relationship status, report stronger beliefs in the conspiracy theories. |
T336 |
31161-31362 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Conversely, Sapountzis and Condor [69] find that conspiracy narratives are as likely to be used by people with large social networks as by those whose social interactions are generally more restricted. |
T337 |
31363-31383 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Hypothesis 16 (H16). |
T338 |
31386-31469 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Individuals with more social support exhibit weaker beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T339 |
31471-31477 |
Sentence |
denotes |
2.4.6. |
T340 |
31478-31491 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Health Status |
T341 |
31492-31618 |
Sentence |
denotes |
In the movie Conspiracy Theory, the main character, portrayed by Mel Gibson, is a patient who believes in a conspiracy theory. |
T342 |
31619-31709 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Even in the real world, health has a significant impact on beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T343 |
31710-31917 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Barron et al. [70] note that the trait of schizotypy, characterized by perceptual, cognitive, and affective abnormalities, has been found to be a strong, positive predictor of beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T344 |
31918-32199 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Coltheart [71] suggests that false beliefs occur because of neuropsychological impairments that (1) enforce the formation of such beliefs owing to faulty sensory information and (2) make it difficult to reject such beliefs owing to faulty prefrontal systems that evaluate thoughts. |
T345 |
32200-32428 |
Sentence |
denotes |
In addition, March and Springer [72] use a regression model to show that apart from odd beliefs or magical thinking and Machiavellianism, primary psychopathy is a significant positive predictor of beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T346 |
32429-32607 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Conversely, Chen et al. [73] provide evidence that beliefs in conspiracy theories regarding the COVID-19 virus can predict the mental health and well-being of healthcare workers. |
T347 |
32608-32704 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Good health creates positive emotions and, consequently, weakens beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T348 |
32705-32755 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Thus, the following hypothesis can be established. |
T349 |
32756-32776 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Hypothesis 17 (H17). |
T350 |
32779-32861 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Better health status is negatively associated with beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T351 |
32863-32869 |
Sentence |
denotes |
2.4.7. |
T352 |
32870-32880 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Age/Gender |
T353 |
32881-32992 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Among demographic variables, age and gender have been examined as predictors of beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T354 |
32993-33123 |
Sentence |
denotes |
According to Radnitz et al. [49] and Swami [25], young people are more likely to believe in conspiracy theories than older people. |
T355 |
33124-33242 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Moreover, in Goreis and Voracek’s [74] metastudies, youth is a positive predictor of a beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T356 |
33243-33328 |
Sentence |
denotes |
However, Earnshaw et al. [2] find no significant impact of age on conspiracy beliefs. |
T357 |
33329-33442 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Regarding gender, Radnitz et al. [47] show that men have stronger beliefs in conspiracy theories than women have. |
T358 |
33443-33527 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Hart and Graether [29] show that conspiracy believers tend to be younger and female. |
T359 |
33528-33724 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Cassese et al. [75] demonstrate that men believe conspiracy theories more than women do because the former have higher levels of personal uncertainty and learned hopelessness than the latter have. |
T360 |
33725-33869 |
Sentence |
denotes |
In contrast, however, March and Springer [72] find that gender and age do not statistically significantly affect beliefs in conspiracy theories. |
T361 |
33870-33890 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Hypothesis 18 (H18). |
T362 |
33893-33977 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Younger people exhibit stronger beliefs in conspiracy theories than older people do. |
T363 |
33978-33998 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Hypothesis 19 (H19). |
T364 |
34001-34067 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Women exhibit stronger beliefs in conspiracy theories than men do. |