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LitCovid-PubTator

Id Subject Object Predicate Lexical cue tao:has_database_id
71 26-29 Gene denotes 2.1 Gene:6700
74 705-711 Species denotes people Tax:9606
75 947-954 Species denotes persons Tax:9606
78 1135-1141 Species denotes people Tax:9606
79 1632-1638 Species denotes people Tax:9606
81 3081-3087 Species denotes people Tax:9606
84 3993-3999 Species denotes people Tax:9606
85 4827-4833 Species denotes people Tax:9606
88 6839-6844 Species denotes women Tax:9606
89 6858-6864 Species denotes people Tax:9606
91 7780-7783 Gene denotes 2.1 Gene:6700
94 7896-7920 Disease denotes authoritarian aggression MESH:D001523
95 16325-16339 Disease denotes Abalakina-Paap
97 9212-9215 Gene denotes Mai Gene:2954
99 9536-9542 Species denotes People Tax:9606
101 11954-11957 Gene denotes Mai Gene:2954
104 15914-15920 Species denotes people Tax:9606
105 16108-16114 Species denotes people Tax:9606
109 17568-17576 Disease denotes COVID-19 MESH:C000657245
112 18342-18348 Species denotes people Tax:9606
113 18711-18717 Species denotes people Tax:9606
117 19000-19006 Species denotes people Tax:9606
118 19183-19189 Species denotes people Tax:9606
119 19259-19266 Disease denotes anxiety MESH:D001007
121 19402-19409 Disease denotes Anxiety MESH:D001007
130 19655-19660 Species denotes human Tax:9606
131 20034-20040 Species denotes people Tax:9606
132 20116-20128 Species denotes participants Tax:9606
133 19444-19451 Disease denotes anxiety MESH:D001007
134 19541-19548 Disease denotes Anxiety MESH:D001007
135 19936-19948 Disease denotes High-anxiety MESH:D001007
136 20205-20212 Disease denotes anxiety MESH:D001007
137 20318-20325 Disease denotes anxiety MESH:D001007
139 20434-20441 Disease denotes Anxiety MESH:D001007
141 21680-21686 Species denotes people Tax:9606
149 22330-22336 Species denotes people Tax:9606
150 22500-22506 Species denotes people Tax:9606
160 23955-23960 Species denotes human Tax:9606
161 24160-24172 Species denotes participants Tax:9606
162 24354-24366 Species denotes participants Tax:9606
163 24548-24554 Species denotes people Tax:9606
165 27308-27314 Species denotes people Tax:9606
167 28174-28180 Species denotes people Tax:9606
171 28741-28747 Species denotes people Tax:9606
172 29157-29163 Species denotes people Tax:9606
173 29130-29138 Disease denotes COVID-19 MESH:C000657245
175 31260-31266 Species denotes people Tax:9606
179 31574-31581 Species denotes patient Tax:9606
180 32525-32539 Species denotes COVID-19 virus Tax:2697049
181 32346-32357 Disease denotes psychopathy
183 32870-32873 Gene denotes Age Gene:5973
188 33302-33305 Gene denotes age Gene:5973
189 32910-32913 Gene denotes age Gene:5973
190 33048-33054 Species denotes people Tax:9606
191 33116-33122 Species denotes people Tax:9606
197 33792-33795 Gene denotes age Gene:5973
198 33377-33380 Species denotes men Tax:9606
199 33431-33436 Species denotes women Tax:9606
200 33565-33568 Species denotes men Tax:9606
201 33607-33612 Species denotes women Tax:9606
204 33901-33907 Species denotes people Tax:9606
205 33967-33973 Species denotes people Tax:9606
208 34001-34006 Species denotes Women Tax:9606
209 34060-34063 Species denotes men Tax:9606

LitCovid-PD-HP

Id Subject Object Predicate Lexical cue hp_id
T4 7910-7920 Phenotype denotes aggression http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/HP_0000718
T5 15155-15164 Phenotype denotes hostility http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/HP_0031473
T6 16386-16395 Phenotype denotes hostility http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/HP_0031473
T7 19259-19266 Phenotype denotes anxiety http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/HP_0000739
T8 19402-19409 Phenotype denotes Anxiety http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/HP_0000739
T9 19444-19451 Phenotype denotes anxiety http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/HP_0000739
T10 19541-19548 Phenotype denotes Anxiety http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/HP_0000739
T11 19941-19948 Phenotype denotes anxiety http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/HP_0000739
T12 20205-20212 Phenotype denotes anxiety http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/HP_0000739
T13 20318-20325 Phenotype denotes anxiety http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/HP_0000739
T14 20434-20441 Phenotype denotes Anxiety http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/HP_0000739
T15 31312-31331 Phenotype denotes social interactions http://purl.obolibrary.org/obo/HP_0008763

LitCovid-sentences

Id Subject Object Predicate Lexical cue
T52 0-2 Sentence denotes 2.
T53 3-24 Sentence denotes Theory and Hypotheses
T54 26-30 Sentence denotes 2.1.
T55 31-70 Sentence denotes Three Approaches to Conspiracy Theories
T56 71-279 Sentence denotes Conspiracy theories abound in social and political discourse, but a coordinated research agenda to grapple with their causes and consequences has been developed only in the last decade ([1,2,4,5,10,12,14], p.
T57 280-283 Sentence denotes 3).
T58 284-353 Sentence denotes Thus, diverse definitions of conspiracy theories have been put forth.
T59 354-606 Sentence denotes For example, a conspiracy theory can be described as “a subset of false beliefs in which the ultimate cause of an event is believed to be due to a plot by multiple actors working together with a clear goal in mind, often unlawfully and in secret” [14].
T60 607-804 Sentence denotes Alternatively, a conspiracy theory can be defined as a belief that an event, situation, or set of people are controlled by unknown or secret forces, which usually have unsavory intentions ([15], p.
T61 805-810 Sentence denotes 103).
T62 811-1048 Sentence denotes Finally, a conspiracy theory can be thought of as a “proposed explanation of events that cites as a main causal factor a small group of persons (the conspirators) acting in secret for their own benefit, against the common good” ([16], p.
T63 1049-1052 Sentence denotes 2).
T64 1053-1307 Sentence denotes Some common features of conspiracy theories are that they supposedly let ordinary people in on secrets that the elite have tried to hide and that uncovering conspiracies can help to explain phenomena that were previously difficult to understand ([15], p.
T65 1308-1313 Sentence denotes 104).
T66 1314-1533 Sentence denotes Thus, Douglas et al. [10] regard conspiracy theories as attempts to explain the ultimate causes of significant social and political events and circumstances through claims of secret plots by two or more powerful actors.
T67 1534-1613 Sentence denotes Moreover, conspiracy theories revolve around events that cause great confusion.
T68 1614-1794 Sentence denotes For example, many people have believed the conspiracy theories that the U.S. government conspired in the 9/11 terrorist attacks [17] and that the assassination of President John F.
T69 1795-1854 Sentence denotes Kennedy was not carried out by Lee Harvey Oswald alone [4].
T70 1855-1999 Sentence denotes Moreover, conspiracy theories develop because they offer individuals a way to interpret information that is difficult to organize or understand.
T71 2000-2144 Sentence denotes Also, conspiracy theories are difficult to disprove because the counterarguments against them can be seen as parts of other conspiracy theories.
T72 2145-2268 Sentence denotes Analyses of the drivers of beliefs in conspiracy theories emphasize different factors depending on the academic discipline.
T73 2269-2384 Sentence denotes Stempel et al. [5] categorized research on conspiracy theories into psychological and social structural approaches.
T74 2385-2536 Sentence denotes Douglas et al. [7,8] list political, psychological, and social structural factors as the three main factors influencing beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T75 2537-2652 Sentence denotes First, from a political perspective, political power, ideology, and party politics can explain conspiracy theories.
T76 2653-2900 Sentence denotes According to Douglas et al. [10], political scientists focus on how conspiracy theories become part of political contests, what political factors lead to conspiracy beliefs, and when conspiracy theories are mobilized as persuasive political tools.
T77 2901-3126 Sentence denotes Moreover, political scientists focus on the roles of political factors, such as political partisanship and ideological self-identification, which are significantly associated with people’s beliefs in conspiracy theories [18].
T78 3127-3311 Sentence denotes For example, Enders and Steven [18] show that political orientation and conspiratorial thinking provide the most analytical leverage in predicting individuals’ beliefs in conspiracies.
T79 3312-3462 Sentence denotes They argue that political orientation is a better predictor of beliefs in conspiracy theories than other attitudes, predispositions, and orientations.
T80 3463-3688 Sentence denotes Moreover, Stempel et al. [5] demonstrate that beliefs in conspiracies are linked with mainstream political party divisions, and they argue that conspiracy thinking is a normal part of mainstream political conflict in the U.S.
T81 3689-3783 Sentence denotes However, not every aspect of conspiracy theories can be explained solely by political factors.
T82 3784-3923 Sentence denotes In addition to partisanship, individual differences in ways of interpreting information are related to beliefs in conspiracy theories [16].
T83 3924-4045 Sentence denotes Second, studies that focus on psychological factors pay attention to people’s psychological content and ways of thinking.
T84 4046-4083 Sentence denotes According to Stempel et al. ([15], p.
T85 4084-4301 Sentence denotes 354), a more psychological approach supports the existence of a conspiratorial personality or paranoid style of thought and views conspiracy theories as closely related to scapegoating and “us versus them” worldviews.
T86 4302-4495 Sentence denotes In addition, Goertzel [4] puts forth the concept of a monological belief system in which similar beliefs comprise a self-sealing and expanding network of ideas that mutually support each other.
T87 4496-4590 Sentence denotes Some conspiracy beliefs are correlated with each other as part of a monological belief system.
T88 4591-4743 Sentence denotes Psychologists stress the psychological antecedents of conspiracy beliefs and have studied motivation, cognition, and personality as influencing factors.
T89 4744-4848 Sentence denotes For example, from a psychological perspective, conspiracy theories help to satisfy people’s motivations.
T90 4849-5134 Sentence denotes Douglas et al. [12] explain that these social-psychological motives include (1) the epistemic desire for understanding, accuracy, and subjective certainty; (2) the existential motive for control and security; and (3) the social motive to maintain a positive image of the self or group.
T91 5135-5227 Sentence denotes In addition, the psychological approach emphasizes cognitive aspects of conspiracy theories.
T92 5228-5354 Sentence denotes Miller [19] argues that conspiracy theories essentially play two cognitive roles: the argumentative and social critique roles.
T93 5355-5512 Sentence denotes Moreover, Swami et al. [17] show that beliefs in conspiracies related to 9/11 are positively related to the Big Five personality factor, e.g., agreeableness.
T94 5513-5628 Sentence denotes The psychological approach maintains consistency between psychological elements, which is not observed in practice.
T95 5629-5774 Sentence denotes Thus, Douglas et al. [10] argue that conspiracy theories are not always mutually supportive; instead, they often directly contradict one another.
T96 5775-5992 Sentence denotes In addition, Uscinski and Parent [20] note that explanations of conspiracy theories that stress psychological needs are incomplete; although many stimuli cause stress, not all of them increase beliefs in conspiracies.
T97 5993-6089 Sentence denotes Third, structural explanations focus on social or contextual factors that constrain individuals.
T98 6090-6268 Sentence denotes Stempel et al. [5] view social structural approaches as emphasizing the social structuring of beliefs and the social relativistic bracketing of conspiracy theories’ truth claims.
T99 6269-6451 Sentence denotes The social structural approach focuses on race, social class, resources, and knowledge, which can limit individual behavior, as factors that influence beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T100 6452-6597 Sentence denotes Crocker et al. [21] show that race is a significant predictor of beliefs in conspiracies even when controlling for other socioeconomic variables.
T101 6598-6711 Sentence denotes Blaming the system is a much stronger predictor of conspiracy beliefs for Black students than for White students.
T102 6712-6909 Sentence denotes In addition, Stempel et al. [5] demonstrate that less powerful social groups, such as racial minorities, lower social classes, women, and younger people, are more likely to believe in conspiracies.
T103 6910-7044 Sentence denotes However, the structural approach overlooks the political reality and the influence of individuals’ independent psychological thinking.
T104 7045-7165 Sentence denotes In short, it is necessary to consider political, social, and structural factors together to explain conspiracy theories.
T105 7166-7226 Sentence denotes It is about matter of general model for conspiracy theories.
T106 7227-7304 Sentence denotes Some studies attempting to take an integrated approach have recently emerged.
T107 7305-7559 Sentence denotes Swami et al. [17] show that beliefs in 9/11 conspiracies are positively related to exposure to 9/11 conspiracist ideas, beliefs in other conspiracy theories, defiance of authority, political cynicism, and the Big Five personality factor of agreeableness.
T108 7560-7752 Sentence denotes This study focuses on 19 hypotheses related to beliefs in conspiracy theories, and the variables based on these hypotheses can be classified as political, psychological, or structural factors.
T109 7754-7758 Sentence denotes 2.2.
T110 7759-7776 Sentence denotes Political Factors
T111 7778-7784 Sentence denotes 2.2.1.
T112 7785-7801 Sentence denotes Authoritarianism
T113 7802-7969 Sentence denotes Authoritarianism as a political attitude is characterized by preferences for conventionalism, authoritarian aggression, and authoritarian submission to authority [22].
T114 7970-8089 Sentence denotes Several empirical studies find that authoritarianism has a consistent relationship with beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T115 8090-8252 Sentence denotes Authoritarian ideologies are characterized by unshakable beliefs in their righteousness, which provide instruments to comprehensively explain complex events [23].
T116 8253-8377 Sentence denotes Abalakina-Paap et al. [24] demonstrate that high levels of authoritarianism are related to beliefs in specific conspiracies.
T117 8378-8575 Sentence denotes Swami [25] shows that right-wing authoritarianism (a measure of support for traditional social norms and submission to authority) is associated with stronger beliefs in general conspiracy theories.
T118 8576-8688 Sentence denotes Swami et al. [17] show that beliefs in 9/11 conspiracy theories are positively related to defiance of authority.
T119 8689-8939 Sentence denotes Moreover, based on a nationally representative sample of the U.S. population from the 2016 American National Election Studies, Goldberg and Richey [26] show that three different beliefs in conspiracies are positively correlated with authoritarianism.
T120 8940-9089 Sentence denotes However, Oliver and Wood [8] do not find beliefs in conspiracies to be the product of greater authoritarianism, ignorance, or political conservatism.
T121 9090-9108 Sentence denotes Hypothesis 1 (H1).
T122 9111-9184 Sentence denotes Authoritarianism is positively related to beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T123 9186-9192 Sentence denotes 2.2.2.
T124 9193-9201 Sentence denotes Ideology
T125 9202-9451 Sentence denotes Gruzd and Mai [27] find that although much of the content of conspiracy theories starts from users with limited reach, the initial propellants of these conspiracies are prominent conservative politicians and far-right political activists on Twitter.
T126 9452-9535 Sentence denotes The relationship between conspiracy theories and ideology has several explanations.
T127 9536-9600 Sentence denotes People believe in conspiracy theories that fit their ideologies.
T128 9601-9760 Sentence denotes Miller et al. [3] argue that those who endorse conspiracy theories have particular ideological worldviews with which the conspiracy theories can be associated.
T129 9761-9958 Sentence denotes Miller et al. [3] show that left-right political orientation influences beliefs in conspiracy theories about climate change, Barack Obama’s birthplace, the 9/11 terror attacks, and electoral fraud.
T130 9959-10079 Sentence denotes Additionally, believing in a conspiracy theory is highly likely when one’s belief in a specific ideology is strong [10].
T131 10080-10134 Sentence denotes Van Prooijen et al. [28] focus on political extremism.
T132 10135-10265 Sentence denotes They show that extreme left and right political ideologies are positively associated with tendency to believe conspiracy theories.
T133 10266-10423 Sentence denotes In the other hand, members of ideological groups tend to think that those who hold one ideology regard the other side’s argument as a conspiracy theory [10].
T134 10424-10529 Sentence denotes Hart and Graether [29] find a negative association between liberalism and beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T135 10530-10668 Sentence denotes However, Oliver and Wood [6] demonstrate that beliefs in conspiracy theories are not limited to just one side of the ideological spectrum.
T136 10669-10687 Sentence denotes Hypothesis 2 (H2).
T137 10690-10769 Sentence denotes Conservatives exhibit more beliefs in conspiracy theories than progressives do.
T138 10771-10777 Sentence denotes 2.2.3.
T139 10778-10790 Sentence denotes Partisanship
T140 10791-10924 Sentence denotes Political interests and competitions result in partisanship, which can manifest as party identification, involvement, and membership.
T141 10925-10984 Sentence denotes These factors can influence beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T142 10985-11134 Sentence denotes For example, party identification is associated with the endorsement of conspiracy theories that make the rival party look bad (e.g., Berinsky [30]).
T143 11135-11309 Sentence denotes Enders and Smallpage [31] conduct an experimental study showing that conservative Republicans appear to be more susceptible to conspiratorial cues than progressive Democrats.
T144 11310-11465 Sentence denotes When informational cues recede, conspiracy beliefs significantly increase among Republicans, even when a Republican is implicated by the conspiracy theory.
T145 11466-11697 Sentence denotes However, Smallpage et al. [32] argue that it is false assumption that certain parties tend to believe in conspiracy theories more than other parties; instead, parties’ beliefs vary depending on the content of the conspiracy theory.
T146 11698-11784 Sentence denotes The degree of belief in a particular conspiracy theory depends on political interests.
T147 11785-11943 Sentence denotes For example, in the U.S., Democrats believe conspiracy theories about Republicans and conservatives, whereas Republicans believe conspiracies about Democrats.
T148 11944-12116 Sentence denotes Gruzd and Mai [27] demonstrate that in late March 2020, hashtags containing fake news in favor of President Trump were being circulated and highlighted by Trump supporters.
T149 12117-12184 Sentence denotes In the other and, the goal of party politics is to win an election.
T150 12185-12254 Sentence denotes Thus, losers rather than winners tend to believe conspiracy theories.
T151 12255-12407 Sentence denotes Uscinski and Parent [18] demonstrate that those that strongly endorse conspiracy theories are much more likely to be affiliated with the party in power.
T152 12408-12426 Sentence denotes Hypothesis 3 (H3).
T153 12429-12622 Sentence denotes Support for parties in power (i.e., President Moon Jae-In’s government (Moon’s government, hereafter) and the Democratic Party in Korea) is negatively related to beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T154 12624-12630 Sentence denotes 2.2.4.
T155 12631-12639 Sentence denotes Religion
T156 12640-12700 Sentence denotes Religion greatly influences individual values and attitudes.
T157 12701-12718 Sentence denotes Bezalel ([33], p.
T158 12719-12925 Sentence denotes 1) argues that the nature of religious belief is important in understanding the epistemological foundations of worldviews that support conspiracy theories amidst what may be called conspiratorial ambiguity.
T159 12926-13102 Sentence denotes Douglas et al. [10] and Frank et al. [34] explain that cognitive processes that are linked to conspiracy beliefs are connected to the acceptance of quasi-religious mentalities.
T160 13103-13176 Sentence denotes Both religion type and religiosity affect beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T161 13177-13223 Sentence denotes Religiosity is the depth of faith in religion.
T162 13224-13448 Sentence denotes Higher religiosity can be associated with greater beliefs in conspiracy theories because religions and conspiracy theories share certain elements, including paranormal activity, esotericism, millennialism, and prophecy [35].
T163 13449-13563 Sentence denotes Various interpretations are possible for the relationship between religious beliefs and conspiracy theory beliefs.
T164 13564-13721 Sentence denotes For example, according to Jasinskaja-Lahti and Jetten [36], there is not difference of the belief in conspiracy theories between believers and non-believers.
T165 13722-14003 Sentence denotes In other hand, they reported that the extent to which religious worldviews were endorsed predicted belief in conspiracy theories; not self-categorization as religious, but strong attachment to religion among believers was directly related with higher belief in conspiracy theories.
T166 14004-14070 Sentence denotes Why strong attachment brings out more belief in conspiracy theory.
T167 14071-14209 Sentence denotes Jasinskaja-Lahti and Jetten [36] explained this by the mediated role of higher anti-intellectualism which strong religious believers have.
T168 14210-14372 Sentence denotes Individuals who show more orientation in scientifically sceptical attitude are more sensitive on find out logical fallacies presented in conspiracy theories [37].
T169 14373-14533 Sentence denotes Other studies reported that there is closely link between religiosity and stronger conservatism and traditionalism [38], and higher political conservatism [39].
T170 14534-14596 Sentence denotes Those conservatism induces more belief in conspiracy theories.
T171 14597-14748 Sentence denotes Van der Linden et al. [40] showed that extreme conservatives were significantly more likely to engage in conspiratorial thinking than extreme liberals.
T172 14749-14834 Sentence denotes Hart and Graether [29] show that believers in conspiracies tend to be more religious.
T173 14835-14986 Sentence denotes In contrast, Jasinskaja-Lahti and Jetten [36] show that religious believers and non-believers do not differ in terms of beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T174 14987-15042 Sentence denotes Beliefs in conspiracies vary with the type of religion.
T175 15043-15200 Sentence denotes For example, Marchlewska et al. [41] demonstrate that Catholic collective narcissism predicts not only outgroup hostility but also gender conspiracy beliefs.
T176 15201-15281 Sentence denotes It is worth noting that the opinion on Catholics cannot apply to all Christians.
T177 15282-15418 Sentence denotes Relevant [42] explains that Christians should forgo the temptation to look toward conspiracy theories to feel more secure or in control.
T178 15419-15439 Sentence denotes Hypothesis 4 (H4-1).
T179 15442-15515 Sentence denotes Religiosity is positively associated with beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T180 15516-15536 Sentence denotes Hypothesis 4 (H4-2).
T181 15539-15625 Sentence denotes Different types of religions have different impacts on beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T182 15627-15633 Sentence denotes 2.2.5.
T183 15634-15639 Sentence denotes Trust
T184 15640-15722 Sentence denotes Distrust plays a fundamental role in the spread of beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T185 15723-15907 Sentence denotes Miller et al. [3] argue that those who strongly think conspiracy theories believe that the world is a place where secretive, malevolent actions are not only possible but also probable.
T186 15908-15988 Sentence denotes Thus, people with low trust levels have stronger beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T187 15989-16070 Sentence denotes Miller et al. [3] show that trust is negatively associated with believing rumors.
T188 16071-16237 Sentence denotes According to Hart and Graether [29], people who find it difficult to trust others may find solace in worldviews that blame hidden villains for disappointing outcomes.
T189 16238-16324 Sentence denotes Many empirical studies focus on the impact of trust on beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T190 16325-16472 Sentence denotes Abalakina-Paap et al. [24] show that low levels of trust and hostility are related to attitudes regarding the existence of conspiracies in general.
T191 16473-16591 Sentence denotes Distrust in a targeted object, such as politics, the government, or medicine, leads to beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T192 16592-16658 Sentence denotes Governments have always been at the center of conspiracy theories.
T193 16659-16788 Sentence denotes Georgiou et al. [30] show that beliefs in conspiracies are correlated with more negative attitudes toward government’s responses.
T194 16789-16873 Sentence denotes In politics, conspiracies have always been hidden under the veil of power conflicts.
T195 16874-16996 Sentence denotes Goldberg and Richey [26] find that three different beliefs in conspiracies are negatively correlated with political trust.
T196 16997-17105 Sentence denotes Swami et al. [17] show that beliefs in conspiracies about 9/11 are positively related to political cynicism.
T197 17106-17267 Sentence denotes Moreover, Einstein and Glick [43] find that political scandals decrease trust in the government, which, in turn, is linked with stronger beliefs in conspiracies.
T198 17268-17469 Sentence denotes In addition, according to Earnshaw et al. [10], medical conspiracy beliefs are partly rooted in medical mistrust or a general suspicion of and lack of confidence in medical organizations and providers.
T199 17470-17661 Sentence denotes According to Jin et al. [44], respondents who do not believe conspiracies trust information about COVID-19 from their doctors more than information from other sources, including social media.
T200 17662-17772 Sentence denotes However, conspiracies are spread not only by trust but also in the presence of ignorance, conflict, and power.
T201 17773-17935 Sentence denotes Miller et al. [3] show that a combination of high knowledge and low trust yields the greatest endorsement of conservative conspiracy theories among conservatives.
T202 17936-17954 Sentence denotes Hypothesis 5 (H5).
T203 17957-18024 Sentence denotes Trust is negatively associated with beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T204 18026-18030 Sentence denotes 2.3.
T205 18031-18052 Sentence denotes Psychological Factors
T206 18054-18060 Sentence denotes 2.3.1.
T207 18061-18075 Sentence denotes Perceived Risk
T208 18076-18237 Sentence denotes In conspiracy theory research, beliefs in conspiracy theories are occurred under uncertainty and randomness which are related to social crises and risks [45,46].
T209 18238-18546 Sentence denotes Societal crisis situations increase beliefs in conspiracy theories because the unpleasant feelings that people experience when in crisis—fear, uncertainty, and a lack of control—motivate them to make sense of the situation, increasing the likelihood that they perceive conspiracies in social situations [41].
T210 18547-18639 Sentence denotes Uncontrollable danger from a personal perspective reinforces beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T211 18640-18810 Sentence denotes Based on a dangerous worldview scale, Hart and Graether [29] show that people who report greater beliefs in conspiracy theories tend to hold more dangerous world beliefs.
T212 18811-18905 Sentence denotes Believing a conspiracy theory gives an individual a sense of security by lowering uncertainty.
T213 18906-19171 Sentence denotes Earnshaw et al. [2] explain that conspiracy theories satisfy an existential motive by helping people feel safe in their environments; individuals are more likely to believe conspiracy theories when they feel anxious, powerless, and unable to control their outcomes.
T214 19172-19300 Sentence denotes Similarly, people who view the world as dangerous and uncontrollable may assuage their anxiety through conspiracy theories [29].
T215 19301-19319 Sentence denotes Hypothesis 6 (H6).
T216 19322-19393 Sentence denotes Perceived risk is positively related to beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T217 19395-19401 Sentence denotes 2.3.2.
T218 19402-19409 Sentence denotes Anxiety
T219 19410-19481 Sentence denotes From a psychological perspective, anxiety and stress should be lowered.
T220 19482-19540 Sentence denotes Believing a conspiracy theory is one way of lowering them.
T221 19541-19704 Sentence denotes Anxiety may be particularly acute if it is caused by a major external event, which may be a natural disaster or a human-caused event, such as a terror attack [30].
T222 19705-19801 Sentence denotes Conspiracy theories functionally provide very simple causal explanations for distressful events.
T223 19802-19935 Sentence denotes In other words, they help to control the level of acute stress and, thus, instill order, a sense of control, and predictability [47].
T224 19936-20066 Sentence denotes High-anxiety situations are therefore positively correlated with conspiracy theories about Jewish people, Germans, and Arabs [48].
T225 20067-20260 Sentence denotes Moreover, based on experimental studies in which participants were exposed to mock news articles, Radnitz and Underwood [49] show that an anxiety prime increases beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T226 20261-20412 Sentence denotes However, according to Swami et al. [47], state and trait anxiety and episodic tension are not significant predictors of beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T227 20413-20431 Sentence denotes Hypothesis 7 (H7).
T228 20434-20498 Sentence denotes Anxiety is positively related to beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T229 20500-20506 Sentence denotes 2.3.3.
T230 20507-20524 Sentence denotes Negative Emotions
T231 20525-20562 Sentence denotes According to Whitson et al. ([50], p.
T232 20563-20885 Sentence denotes 89), emotions that reflect uncertainty about the world (e.g., worry, surprise, fear, or hope) activate the need to imbue the world with order and structure across a wide range of compensatory measures, such as believing conspiracy theories, more so than other emotions (e.g., anger, happiness, disgust, or contentment) do.
T233 20886-21037 Sentence denotes Van Prooijen et al. [51] propose that conspiracy theories are emotional; negative emotions rather than rational deliberations cause conspiracy beliefs.
T234 21038-21153 Sentence denotes This insight is based on the argument that unpleasant emotional experiences increase sense-making motivations [52].
T235 21154-21247 Sentence denotes Several empirical studies support the emotional attributes of beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T236 21248-21482 Sentence denotes Butler et al. [53] examine the emotional effects of viewing the film JFK on moviegoing audiences and find that it impacts viewers’ emotions, beliefs, and judgments, particularly regarding the themes and persuasive message of the film.
T237 21483-21603 Sentence denotes However, the film does not influence viewers’ general political judgments or perceptions of conspiracies in their lives.
T238 21604-21711 Sentence denotes Whitson et al. [54] demonstrate that experiencing uncertain emotions causes people to embrace conspiracies.
T239 21712-21730 Sentence denotes Hypothesis 8 (H8).
T240 21733-21808 Sentence denotes Negative emotions are positively related to beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T241 21810-21816 Sentence denotes 2.3.4.
T242 21817-21834 Sentence denotes Perceived Control
T243 21835-21970 Sentence denotes Perceived control refers to an individual’s perception of his or her ability to control events and the extent of external objects [54].
T244 21971-22039 Sentence denotes Believing conspiracy theories is a way to create a sense of control.
T245 22040-22145 Sentence denotes Beliefs in conspiracy theories are widely considered to be a product of a perceived lack of control [55].
T246 22146-22296 Sentence denotes Miller et al. [3] argue that those with strong beliefs in conspiracy theories are able to see how endorsing the conspiracy can serve their own stakes.
T247 22297-22553 Sentence denotes Douglas et al. [10] explain that people who lack control may seek a sense of control by believing conspiracy theories because such theories provide an opportunity to refuse official narratives and allow people to feel that they have a better understanding.
T248 22554-22801 Sentence denotes High levels of powerlessness, along with low levels of self-esteem, are related to beliefs in specific conspiracies, whereas high external locus of control levels, along with low trust levels, are associated with endorsements of conspiracies [24].
T249 22802-22880 Sentence denotes A sense of lacking control may cause people to adopt conspiracy-like thinking.
T250 22881-23046 Sentence denotes Sullivan et al. [56] use an experiment to demonstrate that participants with no control over given topics increase their endorsement of specific conspiracy theories.
T251 23047-23150 Sentence denotes The result shows that the feeling of control over COVID-19 is very low, leading to conspiracy theories.
T252 23151-23330 Sentence denotes Earnshaw et al. [2] argue that the COVID-19 pandemic provides a powerful context for people to utilize conspiracy theories in an attempt to restore feelings of safety and control.
T253 23331-23503 Sentence denotes However, based on six studies conducted online using MTurk samples, Stojanov et al. [55] show that changes in levels of control have no effect on conspiracy theory beliefs.
T254 23504-23582 Sentence denotes Thus, conspiracy beliefs are not suitable compensation for threats to control.
T255 23583-23723 Sentence denotes Similarly, Hart and Graether [29] find no effects of situational threats (i.e., a sense of powerlessness) on beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T256 23724-23742 Sentence denotes Hypothesis 9 (H9).
T257 23745-23824 Sentence denotes Perceived control is negatively associated with beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T258 23826-23832 Sentence denotes 2.3.5.
T259 23833-23850 Sentence denotes Analytic Thinking
T260 23851-23970 Sentence denotes Thinking style plays an important role in this context because beliefs in conspiracy theories depend on human judgment.
T261 23971-24087 Sentence denotes Many studies investigate the connections between analytic and heuristic thinking and beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T262 24088-24332 Sentence denotes For example, Leman and Cinnirella [57] conducted an experiment in which participants are asked to read stories about the president’s assassination and then rate the likelihood of different explanations to measure analytic or heuristic thinking.
T263 24333-24534 Sentence denotes They report that the participants are likely to endorse a conspiracy theory to account for events more when the consequences are major (i.e., the president dies) than when they are comparatively minor.
T264 24535-24689 Sentence denotes In addition, people who are less likely to engage in analytic thinking [37] or more likely to rely on heuristics [58] tend to rely on conspiracy theories.
T265 24690-24792 Sentence denotes Beliefs in conspiracy theories are positively related to intuitive rather than analytic thinking [37].
T266 24793-24813 Sentence denotes Hypothesis 10 (H10).
T267 24816-24895 Sentence denotes Analytic thinking is negatively associated with beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T268 24897-24903 Sentence denotes 2.3.6.
T269 24904-24921 Sentence denotes Blame Attribution
T270 24922-25020 Sentence denotes When socially negative events occur, the responsible targets to be blamed are often up for debate.
T271 25021-25097 Sentence denotes Blame attribution is closely related to conspiracy theory belief structures.
T272 25098-25192 Sentence denotes Clark [59] argues that conspiracy theories are a byproduct of a fundamental attribution error.
T273 25193-25220 Sentence denotes Hart and Graether ([29], p.
T274 25221-25363 Sentence denotes 230) explain that conspiracy worldviews provide consolation for individuals who have difficulty seeing reality through a more benevolent lens.
T275 25364-25515 Sentence denotes For such individuals, the belief that someone is responsible for negative events may be preferable to concluding that the universe is cruel and unjust.
T276 25516-25646 Sentence denotes Thus, conspiracy theories are associated with aspects of justice and responsibility, one of which is related to blame attribution.
T277 25647-25825 Sentence denotes In an empirical study, Crocker et al. [19] demonstrate that beliefs in conspiracy theories are related to blaming the problems of Black Americans on prejudice and discrimination.
T278 25826-25962 Sentence denotes Moreover, this race effect is partially mediated by a measure of system blame but not by the greater externality of attributional style.
T279 25963-26121 Sentence denotes Schulzke [60] shows that attributional uncertainty facilitates the assignment of blame to familiar enemies, which ultimately promotes conspiratorial thinking.
T280 26122-26142 Sentence denotes Hypothesis 11 (H11).
T281 26145-26228 Sentence denotes External blame attribution is positively related to beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T282 26230-26234 Sentence denotes 2.4.
T283 26235-26253 Sentence denotes Structural Factors
T284 26255-26261 Sentence denotes 2.4.1.
T285 26262-26274 Sentence denotes Social Class
T286 26275-26461 Sentence denotes Uscinski and Parent [20] argue that conspiracy theories exist for “losers.” Thus, socially underprivileged individuals and members of the lower class tend to believe conspiracy theories.
T287 26462-26656 Sentence denotes Mao et al. [61] show that social class can significantly negatively predict individuals’ beliefs in conspiracy theories and explain the likely link between social class and individuals’ beliefs.
T288 26657-26846 Sentence denotes Because individuals from lower social classes receive less education, live in harsher environments, and often face external threats, they feel less control over their external environments.
T289 26847-26956 Sentence denotes Generally, when perceived control is threatened by external factors, beliefs in conspiracy theories increase.
T290 26957-27078 Sentence denotes Van Prooijen [62] finds that social class is correlated with the extent to which individuals believe conspiracy theories.
T291 27079-27132 Sentence denotes A representative indicator of social class is income.
T292 27133-27252 Sentence denotes In empirical studies, Golec de Zavala and Federico [63] show that higher income reduces beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T293 27253-27437 Sentence denotes Furthermore, Uscinski and Parent [20] demonstrate that people who work in the financial industry or for the government or the military exhibit the lowest levels of conspiracy thinking.
T294 27438-27531 Sentence denotes However, the causal relationship between conspiracy beliefs and income is indeterminate [10].
T295 27532-27552 Sentence denotes Hypothesis 12 (H12).
T296 27555-27691 Sentence denotes Belonging to a higher social class (i.e., having a higher income in this study) is negatively related to beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T297 27693-27699 Sentence denotes 2.4.2.
T298 27700-27709 Sentence denotes Knowledge
T299 27710-27784 Sentence denotes Knowledge plays critical roles in reducing beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T300 27785-27918 Sentence denotes Miller et al. [3] show that those who are highly knowledgeable about politics tend to be the most susceptible to conspiracy theories.
T301 27919-28119 Sentence denotes Moreover, this knowledge mediates the effect of ideology on the endorsement of conspiracy theories; knowledge increases ideologically motivated endorsements of conspiracy theories among conservatives.
T302 28120-28276 Sentence denotes Moreover, Berinsky [31] shows that more knowledgeable people are less likely to believe in political conspiracies than their low-knowledge counterparts are.
T303 28277-28417 Sentence denotes Goldberg and Richey [26] demonstrate that three different beliefs in conspiracy theories are positively correlated with political knowledge.
T304 28418-28438 Sentence denotes Hypothesis 13 (H13).
T305 28441-28505 Sentence denotes Knowledge has negative impact on beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T306 28507-28513 Sentence denotes 2.4.3.
T307 28514-28523 Sentence denotes Education
T308 28524-28604 Sentence denotes Many studies examine the relationship between education and conspiracy theories.
T309 28605-28689 Sentence denotes Generally, lower education levels increase beliefs in conspiracy theories [7,61,64].
T310 28690-28839 Sentence denotes Van Prooijen [62] suggests that education may give people a set of cognitive and affective attributes that enable them to resist conspiracy theories.
T311 28840-29050 Sentence denotes She describes the causal chain from education to beliefs in conspiracy theories as follows: less education → less analytic thinking → strong beliefs in simple solutions → greater beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T312 29051-29195 Sentence denotes Also, Georgiou et al. [30] show that beliefs in conspiracy theories related to COVID-19 are greater among people with lower levels of education.
T313 29196-29216 Sentence denotes Hypothesis 14 (H14).
T314 29219-29290 Sentence denotes Education is negatively associated with beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T315 29292-29298 Sentence denotes 2.4.4.
T316 29299-29310 Sentence denotes Information
T317 29311-29372 Sentence denotes Information performs a function similar to that of knowledge.
T318 29373-29468 Sentence denotes But both the quantity and quality of information are related to beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T319 29469-29572 Sentence denotes In terms of the quantity, information related to a conspiracy theory reinforces beliefs in that theory.
T320 29573-29719 Sentence denotes For example, Swami et al. [17] show that beliefs in conspiracies about 9/11 are positively related to exposure to the ideas of 9/11 conspiracists.
T321 29720-29802 Sentence denotes In terms of quality, more elaborate information decreases beliefs in conspiracies.
T322 29803-29895 Sentence denotes For example, more news media literacy is shown to reduce conspiracy theory endorsement [65].
T323 29896-30043 Sentence denotes It is not only the quantity and quality of information but also the style of information processing that influences beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T324 30044-30142 Sentence denotes A conspiratorial mentality may partly reflect particular information-processing dispositions [29].
T325 30143-30293 Sentence denotes Thus, individuals’ engagement in seeking or finding meanings or patterns in ambiguous or random information may be related to conspiratorial thinking.
T326 30294-30314 Sentence denotes Hypothesis 15 (H15).
T327 30317-30424 Sentence denotes More qualitative and quantitative information is negatively associated with beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T328 30426-30432 Sentence denotes 2.4.5.
T329 30433-30447 Sentence denotes Social Support
T330 30448-30558 Sentence denotes Social structures that shape citizens’ feelings of vulnerability increase beliefs in conspiracy theories [66].
T331 30559-30662 Sentence denotes As a social structure, a social network or social support acts as a shield against conspiracy theories.
T332 30663-30757 Sentence denotes Conversely, a lack of social resources or support promotes the beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T333 30758-30861 Sentence denotes Freeman and Bentall [67] show that conspiracy believers are more likely to have weaker social networks.
T334 30862-30978 Sentence denotes According to Grohol [68], any societal alienation appears to be connected to greater beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T335 30979-31160 Sentence denotes Those who suffer on the edge of society, because of their unemployment status, minor ethnicity, or even weak relationship status, report stronger beliefs in the conspiracy theories.
T336 31161-31362 Sentence denotes Conversely, Sapountzis and Condor [69] find that conspiracy narratives are as likely to be used by people with large social networks as by those whose social interactions are generally more restricted.
T337 31363-31383 Sentence denotes Hypothesis 16 (H16).
T338 31386-31469 Sentence denotes Individuals with more social support exhibit weaker beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T339 31471-31477 Sentence denotes 2.4.6.
T340 31478-31491 Sentence denotes Health Status
T341 31492-31618 Sentence denotes In the movie Conspiracy Theory, the main character, portrayed by Mel Gibson, is a patient who believes in a conspiracy theory.
T342 31619-31709 Sentence denotes Even in the real world, health has a significant impact on beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T343 31710-31917 Sentence denotes Barron et al. [70] note that the trait of schizotypy, characterized by perceptual, cognitive, and affective abnormalities, has been found to be a strong, positive predictor of beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T344 31918-32199 Sentence denotes Coltheart [71] suggests that false beliefs occur because of neuropsychological impairments that (1) enforce the formation of such beliefs owing to faulty sensory information and (2) make it difficult to reject such beliefs owing to faulty prefrontal systems that evaluate thoughts.
T345 32200-32428 Sentence denotes In addition, March and Springer [72] use a regression model to show that apart from odd beliefs or magical thinking and Machiavellianism, primary psychopathy is a significant positive predictor of beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T346 32429-32607 Sentence denotes Conversely, Chen et al. [73] provide evidence that beliefs in conspiracy theories regarding the COVID-19 virus can predict the mental health and well-being of healthcare workers.
T347 32608-32704 Sentence denotes Good health creates positive emotions and, consequently, weakens beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T348 32705-32755 Sentence denotes Thus, the following hypothesis can be established.
T349 32756-32776 Sentence denotes Hypothesis 17 (H17).
T350 32779-32861 Sentence denotes Better health status is negatively associated with beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T351 32863-32869 Sentence denotes 2.4.7.
T352 32870-32880 Sentence denotes Age/Gender
T353 32881-32992 Sentence denotes Among demographic variables, age and gender have been examined as predictors of beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T354 32993-33123 Sentence denotes According to Radnitz et al. [49] and Swami [25], young people are more likely to believe in conspiracy theories than older people.
T355 33124-33242 Sentence denotes Moreover, in Goreis and Voracek’s [74] metastudies, youth is a positive predictor of a beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T356 33243-33328 Sentence denotes However, Earnshaw et al. [2] find no significant impact of age on conspiracy beliefs.
T357 33329-33442 Sentence denotes Regarding gender, Radnitz et al. [47] show that men have stronger beliefs in conspiracy theories than women have.
T358 33443-33527 Sentence denotes Hart and Graether [29] show that conspiracy believers tend to be younger and female.
T359 33528-33724 Sentence denotes Cassese et al. [75] demonstrate that men believe conspiracy theories more than women do because the former have higher levels of personal uncertainty and learned hopelessness than the latter have.
T360 33725-33869 Sentence denotes In contrast, however, March and Springer [72] find that gender and age do not statistically significantly affect beliefs in conspiracy theories.
T361 33870-33890 Sentence denotes Hypothesis 18 (H18).
T362 33893-33977 Sentence denotes Younger people exhibit stronger beliefs in conspiracy theories than older people do.
T363 33978-33998 Sentence denotes Hypothesis 19 (H19).
T364 34001-34067 Sentence denotes Women exhibit stronger beliefs in conspiracy theories than men do.