PMC:7796329 / 25460-33662 JSONTXT

{"target":"https://pubannotation.org/docs/sourcedb/PMC/sourceid/7796329","sourcedb":"PMC","sourceid":"7796329","source_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/7796329","text":"2.3. Psychological Factors\n\n2.3.1. Perceived Risk\nIn conspiracy theory research, beliefs in conspiracy theories are occurred under uncertainty and randomness which are related to social crises and risks [45,46]. Societal crisis situations increase beliefs in conspiracy theories because the unpleasant feelings that people experience when in crisis—fear, uncertainty, and a lack of control—motivate them to make sense of the situation, increasing the likelihood that they perceive conspiracies in social situations [41]. Uncontrollable danger from a personal perspective reinforces beliefs in conspiracy theories. Based on a dangerous worldview scale, Hart and Graether [29] show that people who report greater beliefs in conspiracy theories tend to hold more dangerous world beliefs.\nBelieving a conspiracy theory gives an individual a sense of security by lowering uncertainty. Earnshaw et al. [2] explain that conspiracy theories satisfy an existential motive by helping people feel safe in their environments; individuals are more likely to believe conspiracy theories when they feel anxious, powerless, and unable to control their outcomes. Similarly, people who view the world as dangerous and uncontrollable may assuage their anxiety through conspiracy theories [29].\nHypothesis 6 (H6). Perceived risk is positively related to beliefs in conspiracy theories.\n\n2.3.2. Anxiety\nFrom a psychological perspective, anxiety and stress should be lowered. Believing a conspiracy theory is one way of lowering them. Anxiety may be particularly acute if it is caused by a major external event, which may be a natural disaster or a human-caused event, such as a terror attack [30]. Conspiracy theories functionally provide very simple causal explanations for distressful events. In other words, they help to control the level of acute stress and, thus, instill order, a sense of control, and predictability [47]. High-anxiety situations are therefore positively correlated with conspiracy theories about Jewish people, Germans, and Arabs [48]. Moreover, based on experimental studies in which participants were exposed to mock news articles, Radnitz and Underwood [49] show that an anxiety prime increases beliefs in conspiracy theories. However, according to Swami et al. [47], state and trait anxiety and episodic tension are not significant predictors of beliefs in conspiracy theories.\nHypothesis 7 (H7). Anxiety is positively related to beliefs in conspiracy theories.\n\n2.3.3. Negative Emotions\nAccording to Whitson et al. ([50], p. 89), emotions that reflect uncertainty about the world (e.g., worry, surprise, fear, or hope) activate the need to imbue the world with order and structure across a wide range of compensatory measures, such as believing conspiracy theories, more so than other emotions (e.g., anger, happiness, disgust, or contentment) do. Van Prooijen et al. [51] propose that conspiracy theories are emotional; negative emotions rather than rational deliberations cause conspiracy beliefs. This insight is based on the argument that unpleasant emotional experiences increase sense-making motivations [52].\nSeveral empirical studies support the emotional attributes of beliefs in conspiracy theories. Butler et al. [53] examine the emotional effects of viewing the film JFK on moviegoing audiences and find that it impacts viewers’ emotions, beliefs, and judgments, particularly regarding the themes and persuasive message of the film. However, the film does not influence viewers’ general political judgments or perceptions of conspiracies in their lives. Whitson et al. [54] demonstrate that experiencing uncertain emotions causes people to embrace conspiracies.\nHypothesis 8 (H8). Negative emotions are positively related to beliefs in conspiracy theories.\n\n2.3.4. Perceived Control\nPerceived control refers to an individual’s perception of his or her ability to control events and the extent of external objects [54]. Believing conspiracy theories is a way to create a sense of control. Beliefs in conspiracy theories are widely considered to be a product of a perceived lack of control [55]. Miller et al. [3] argue that those with strong beliefs in conspiracy theories are able to see how endorsing the conspiracy can serve their own stakes. Douglas et al. [10] explain that people who lack control may seek a sense of control by believing conspiracy theories because such theories provide an opportunity to refuse official narratives and allow people to feel that they have a better understanding. High levels of powerlessness, along with low levels of self-esteem, are related to beliefs in specific conspiracies, whereas high external locus of control levels, along with low trust levels, are associated with endorsements of conspiracies [24]. A sense of lacking control may cause people to adopt conspiracy-like thinking. Sullivan et al. [56] use an experiment to demonstrate that participants with no control over given topics increase their endorsement of specific conspiracy theories. The result shows that the feeling of control over COVID-19 is very low, leading to conspiracy theories. Earnshaw et al. [2] argue that the COVID-19 pandemic provides a powerful context for people to utilize conspiracy theories in an attempt to restore feelings of safety and control.\nHowever, based on six studies conducted online using MTurk samples, Stojanov et al. [55] show that changes in levels of control have no effect on conspiracy theory beliefs. Thus, conspiracy beliefs are not suitable compensation for threats to control. Similarly, Hart and Graether [29] find no effects of situational threats (i.e., a sense of powerlessness) on beliefs in conspiracy theories.\nHypothesis 9 (H9). Perceived control is negatively associated with beliefs in conspiracy theories.\n\n2.3.5. Analytic Thinking\nThinking style plays an important role in this context because beliefs in conspiracy theories depend on human judgment. Many studies investigate the connections between analytic and heuristic thinking and beliefs in conspiracy theories. For example, Leman and Cinnirella [57] conducted an experiment in which participants are asked to read stories about the president’s assassination and then rate the likelihood of different explanations to measure analytic or heuristic thinking. They report that the participants are likely to endorse a conspiracy theory to account for events more when the consequences are major (i.e., the president dies) than when they are comparatively minor. In addition, people who are less likely to engage in analytic thinking [37] or more likely to rely on heuristics [58] tend to rely on conspiracy theories. Beliefs in conspiracy theories are positively related to intuitive rather than analytic thinking [37].\nHypothesis 10 (H10). Analytic thinking is negatively associated with beliefs in conspiracy theories.\n\n2.3.6. Blame Attribution\nWhen socially negative events occur, the responsible targets to be blamed are often up for debate. Blame attribution is closely related to conspiracy theory belief structures. Clark [59] argues that conspiracy theories are a byproduct of a fundamental attribution error. Hart and Graether ([29], p. 230) explain that conspiracy worldviews provide consolation for individuals who have difficulty seeing reality through a more benevolent lens. For such individuals, the belief that someone is responsible for negative events may be preferable to concluding that the universe is cruel and unjust. Thus, conspiracy theories are associated with aspects of justice and responsibility, one of which is related to blame attribution.\nIn an empirical study, Crocker et al. [19] demonstrate that beliefs in conspiracy theories are related to blaming the problems of Black Americans on prejudice and discrimination. Moreover, this race effect is partially mediated by a measure of system blame but not by the greater externality of attributional style. Schulzke [60] shows that attributional uncertainty facilitates the assignment of blame to familiar enemies, which ultimately promotes conspiratorial thinking.\nHypothesis 11 (H11). External blame attribution is positively related to beliefs in conspiracy 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