| Id |
Subject |
Object |
Predicate |
Lexical cue |
| T1001 |
0-51 |
Sentence |
denotes |
4.4 Biological defense and bio-threat applications |
| T1002 |
52-188 |
Sentence |
denotes |
The potential for the weaponization of pathogens drives the need for rapid and sensitive biosensors for biological defense applications. |
| T1003 |
189-406 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Biosensor applications to biological defense and bio-threat are related to the aforementioned applications in food and water safety, environmental monitoring, and medical diagnostics but consider weaponized pathogens. |
| T1004 |
407-672 |
Sentence |
denotes |
However, while pathogens found in environmental monitoring applications are often native and endogenous agents, pathogens found in biological defense and bio-threat applications are often exogenous agents, which may have been weaponized and intentionally dispersed. |
| T1005 |
673-901 |
Sentence |
denotes |
For example, pathogen-based bio-threat situations typically involve the overt or covert introduction of an exogenous pathogen into either the food or water supply or environments which with humans closely interact (Cirino et al. |
| T1006 |
902-921 |
Sentence |
denotes |
2004; Mirski et al. |
| T1007 |
922-952 |
Sentence |
denotes |
2014; Shah and Wilkins, 2003). |
| T1008 |
953-1093 |
Sentence |
denotes |
The reader is directed to various comprehensive reviews on biosensor-based assays for the detection of biowarfare agents (Christopher et al. |
| T1009 |
1094-1124 |
Sentence |
denotes |
1997; Shah and Wilkins, 2003). |
| T1010 |
1125-1186 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Common targets include the aforementioned airborne pathogens. |
| T1011 |
1187-1394 |
Sentence |
denotes |
In addition to the aforementioned naturally-occurring pathogens, pathogens for bio-threat may include engineered pathogens, such as genetically-modified viruses that can be transmitted via airborne pathways. |
| T1012 |
1395-1569 |
Sentence |
denotes |
B. anthracis (Anthrax), yersinia pestis (plague), and vaccinia virus are among several pathogens that have been utilized or suggested as biowarfare agents (Christopher et al. |
| T1013 |
1570-1600 |
Sentence |
denotes |
1997; Shah and Wilkins, 2003). |
| T1014 |
1601-1852 |
Sentence |
denotes |
While pathogen-based bio-threats may be introduced to the water and food supply, the detection of pathogen-based bio-threats in air is particularly critical to biowarfare defense, as they may be introduced into the battlefield in the form of aerosols. |
| T1015 |
1853-2015 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Further, the dispersal of pathogen-based bio-threats by air in facilities (e.g., via air-handling systems) represents a significant domestic bioterrorism concern. |
| T1016 |
2016-2239 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Thus, biosensor-based assays for bio-threat applications should be low-cost and portable to enable integration with existing physical systems (e.g., facilities) and movement with the warfighter or drones on the battlefield. |
| T1017 |
2240-2516 |
Sentence |
denotes |
Having discussed transduction elements, biorecognition elements, electrochemical methods, measurement formats, and pathogen detection applications, we next discuss the present challenges and future directions in the field of electrochemical biosensor-based pathogen detection. |
