PMC:7152911 / 112396-115791 JSONTXT

{"target":"https://pubannotation.org/docs/sourcedb/PMC/sourceid/7152911","sourcedb":"PMC","sourceid":"7152911","source_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/7152911","text":"4.1 Food and water safety applications\nDetection of foodborne and waterborne pathogens is an essential aspect of public healthcare. Foodborne and waterborne pathogens originate from a variety of sources and matrices and typically infect humans through the consumption of contaminated food and water. Waterborne pathogens are responsible for about 2.2 million deaths annually worldwide (Pandey et al. 2014), and contaminated food-related deaths amount to around 420,000 annually (WHO, 2015). In 2019, the United States suffered an outbreak of multidrug-resistant S. typhimurium in turkey products caused 358 infections across 42 states, demonstrating the importance of detecting pathogens in food sources (CDC, 2019).\nWhile biosensors for pathogen detection are critical to water and food safety in developed regions, biosensors are particularly important aspects of public healthcare in remote and under-developed regions due to relatively reduced infrastructure and resources for food and water quality analysis. For example, in 2014, a cholera outbreak linked to V. cholerae in Ghana, which has been associated with poor environmental water management and sanitation issues, infected over 20,000 individuals (Ohene-Adjei et al. 2017). The selective detection of pathogens in food and water remains a global healthcare challenge. Several comprehensive reviews have been written on biosensors for food and water safety (Baeumner, 2003; Bozal-Palabiyik et al. 2018; Leonard et al. 2003; Ye et al., 2019). Here, we describe the most common foodborne and waterborne pathogens. Common foodborne and waterborne pathogens include protozoa, such as C. parvum and G. lamblia, bacteria, such as E. coli, L. monocytogenes, S. typhimurium, S. aureus, and Campylobacter, and viruses, such as norovirus and rotavirus (Beuchat et al. 2013; Cabral, 2010).\nThe infectious dose of foodborne and waterborne pathogens can vary by 4–6 orders of magnitude, from a single cell or oocyst to greater than one million cells. For example, the infectious dose of S. dysenteriae is 200 CFU (Greig and Todd, 2010), while that of S. aureus is 100,000 CFU (Schmid-Hempel and Frank, 2007). Given the extensive use of immunoassays in food and water safety, such as ELISA, it is possible to obtain commercially-available monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies for a large number of foodborne and waterborne pathogens.\nBiosensor applications associated with process monitoring applications may require biosensor designs and measurement formats that facilitate high-throughput analysis, continuous monitoring capability, and biosensor reusability. Alternatively, those for water safety applications in under-developed regions may require biosensor designs and measurement formats that facilitate field use, such as sample preparation-free protocols. Pathogens can also enter food and water through processing, packaging, distribution, and storage processes (e.g., via workers and pests) (Beuchat et al. 2013; Mehrotra, 2016; Ye et al., 2019). As a result, biosensors for food and water safety applications should facilitate pathogen detection at various stages of the processing operation. Recent advances in electrochemical biosensors for food and water safety applications have established new low-cost biosensor designs, portable measurement formats, and flexible form-factors and are discussed further in the following 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