PMC:7118659 / 13464-15065 JSONTXT

{"target":"https://pubannotation.org/docs/sourcedb/PMC/sourceid/7118659","sourcedb":"PMC","sourceid":"7118659","source_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/7118659","text":"Chloroquine can also act on the immune system through cell signalling and regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Chloroquine is known to inhibit phosphorylation (activation) of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) in THP-1 cells as well as caspase-1 [72]. Activation of cells via MAPK signalling is frequently required by viruses to achieve their replication cycle [73]. In the model of HCoV-229 coronavirus, chloroquine-induced virus inhibition occurs through inhibition of p38 MAPK [44]. Chloroquine is a well-known immunomodulatory agent capable of mediating an anti-inflammatory response [11]. Therefore, there are clinical applications of this drug in inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis [74], [75], [76], lupus erythematosus [6,77] and sarcoidosis [78]. Chloroquine inhibits interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) mRNA expression in THP-1 cells and reduces IL-1β release [72]. Chloroquine-induced reduction of IL-1 and IL-6 cytokines was also found in monocytes/macrophages [79]. Chloroquine-induced inhibition of tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα) production by immune cells was reported to occur either through disruption of cellular iron metabolism [80], blockade of the conversion of pro-TNF into soluble mature TNFα molecules [81] and/or inhibition of TNFα mRNA expression [72,82,83]. Inhibition of the TNFα receptor was also reported in U937 monocytic cells treated with chloroquine [84]. In the Dengue virus model, chloroquine was found to inhibit interferon-alpha (IFNα), IFNβ, IFNγ, TNFα, IL-6 and IL-12 gene expression in U937 cells infected with Dengue-2 virus 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