PMC:5108084 / 11888-21652 JSONTXT

{"target":"http://pubannotation.org/docs/sourcedb/PMC/sourceid/5108084","sourcedb":"PMC","sourceid":"5108084","source_url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/5108084","text":"Measures\nParticipants completed self-report questionnaires. These were in online format for sample A and pen-and-paper format for sample B. Participants provided information on their age and country of birth.\n\nMedia processing and critical thinking variables\n\nMedia attitudes questionnaire\nThe MAQ was designed to assess media scepticism in relation to media images [6, 25]. Items were derived from the message interpretation process model, and thus, the MAQ is a media processing measure. Ten items, focused on the appearance of models in media, from the MAQ, a 22 item measure, were included. Four had been described in two studies [6, 25] as indicating desirability and six items had been described as indicating realism in one study of adolescents [6], although in a study of college age women those items were divided into realism (3 items) and similarity (3 items) subscales [25].\nThe 10 included items that corresponded to MAQ Realism, Similarity, and Desirability subscales [25] were used in the current study as these subscales reflected core aspects of the relevant media processing theory and they have been shown to significantly differ between control and intervention groups following participation in media literacy-based body image interventions [6, 25]. Three items were from the Realism subscale (for example “Normally women (in real life) are as thin as the models in ads”) which assesses the extent to which media images are perceived as realistic portrayals of social reality; three items were from the Similarity subscale (for example “I could be as thin as the models in ads”), which assesses the extent to which media images are perceived to be similar to oneself and others) and four items were from the Desirability subscale (for example “Models in ads have lots of fun”), which assesses the extent to which models shown in media are perceived to be desirable or attractive. Participants responded to items on a 5-point scale from 1 (completely disagree) to 5 (completely agree). Items were reverse scored prior to forming subscale scores so that higher scores reflected higher scepticism about media (subscales were thus relabelled Realism Scepticism, Similarity Scepticism, and Desirability Scepticism). Subscale scores were calculated from the mean of the responses to items from each subscale (range 1 to 5). Other than internal consistency, which has been shown to be in the low to adequate range (Cronbach’s alpha range: .56 to .92 [6, 25]), psychometric data for scores on this measure are not available. The MAQ was completed by participants from both samples.\n\nFake subscale\nThis media processing measure from the Critical Processing of Beauty Images scale [23], with items such as “That kind of perfection isn’t real” was designed to assess frequency of thoughts that media images depicting female models are artificially created and unrealistically perfect. Participants responded to five items on a 5-point scale from 1 (never) to 5 (always). A total score (range 5 to 25) was calculated from the sum of items. Higher scores reflect greater frequency of critical processing of images. Scores on the Fake subscale in college age females have been shown to have high internal consistency (α = .92) and adequate test-retest reliability over intervals of one, two, three, and four weeks (range: r = .67 to r = .86) [23]. Construct validity was demonstrated with significant positive associations between scores on the Fake subscale and the number of critical thoughts generated following viewing of thin-ideal appearance advertising images. However, the Fake subscale was not correlated with measures of body image, internalisation of the thin or athletic ideal, or perceived pressure from media [23]. This measure was completed by participants from sample B.\n\nCritical thinking about media messages\nThe six items of the CTMM scale [15] assess the frequency with which participants think critically about media messages. Participants respond to items such as “I think about what the people who made the media message want me to believe” on a 6-point scale from 1 (never) to 6 (always). A total score (range 6 to 36) was calculated from the sum of item responses with higher scores reflecting greater frequency of critical thinking about media messages. Items from this measure reflect critical thinking in relation to each of the domains of the media literacy framework [4]. Scores for this measure have demonstrated high internal consistency in pre- to mid-adolescent samples ranging in age from 10 to 15 years (α = .92) [15]. The CTMM was completed by participants in sample A.\n\nCritical thinking about media messages – appearance focus\nThe six items of the CTMM-AF scale assess the frequency with which participants think critically about appearance-related media messages. The items for this scale were modified from the CTMM scale [15, 24]. Consistent with the original scale, this adapted measure contains items that represent critical thinking in relation to each of the media literacy domains [4]. Responses to items such as “When I look at ads with thin female models I think about what the people who made the media message want me to believe” were indicated on a 6-point scale from 1 (never) to 6 (always). A total score (range 6 to 36) was calculated from the sum of item responses with higher scores reflecting greater frequency of critical thinking about appearance focused media. Psychometric data for this measure are not available. The CTMM-AF was completed by participants from sample A.\n\nMeasures for convergent validity\nMeasures of media use and eating disorder risk factor variables were completed by participants in both samples.\n\nMedia exposure\nThe average number of hours per day exposed to screen-based media for non-school or homework related activities was assessed with the Screen Habits scale [26, 27]. Participants from sample B responded to two items to indicate how many hours on weekdays and weekend days they spend using computers and watching television and DVDs. Participants from sample A responded to these two items and an additional item to indicate how many hours they spend using smart phones and tablets. A weighted score to account for weekday and weekend exposure was calculated from the average daily media use. Scores ranged from zero to 10 h for sample B and zero to 15 h for sample A, with higher scores reflecting higher levels of media exposure. In adolescent samples, scores on this measure have demonstrated adequate test-retest reliability and construct validity [26, 27].\n\nBody dissatisfaction\nThe nine items of the Body Dissatisfaction subscale of the Eating Disorders Inventory (EDI-2; [28]) were completed by participants from both samples. Participants responded to items such as “I think that my thighs are too large” on a 6-point scale from 0 (never) to 5 (always). Item responses were summed to form a total score (range 0 to 45) with higher scores reflecting higher body dissatisfaction. Scores on this measure have demonstrated high internal consistency [29] and validity in adolescent samples [28]. Internal consistency for the current study was α = .91 and α = .91 for samples A and B respectively.\n\nInternalisation of the thin-ideal\nThe internalisation-general subscale of the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire -3 [30] assessed the extent to which participants internalised sociocultural standards for appearance as personal standards. All nine items were used in sample B. Three items were removed for sample A to reduce participant burden. Responses to items such as “I would like my body to look like the people who are on TV” were indicated on a 5-point scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The score range was 5 to 30 for sample A and 5 to 45 for sample B. Higher scores reflect higher internalisation of the thin-ideal. Scores have shown high internal consistency in young adolescent girls [31] and college age females, and convergent validity in college age samples [30]. Internal consistency for the current study was α = .92 and α = .95 for samples A and B, respectively.\n\nAppearance comparison\nThe five item Physical Appearance Comparison Scale [32] assessed frequency of appearance comparison. Participants responded to items such as “I compare my looks to the looks of others to determine if I am attractive or unattractive” on a 5-point scale from 1 (never) to 5 (always). A total score (range 5 to 25) was calculated from the sum of item responses. Higher scores reflect higher frequency of appearance comparison. In early adolescent female samples, scores for this scale have previously shown high internal consistency [29]. In older adolescent female samples (grade 10), test-retest reliability has been shown to be adequate [33]. In college age women, scores on the Physical Appearance Comparison Scale have correlated highly with other appearance comparison measures [34], supporting construct validity. Internal consistency for the current study was α = .92 and α = .88 for samples A and B, respectively.\n\nDietary restraint\nThe 10-item Restrained Eating subscale of the Dutch Eating Behavior Questionnaire [35] assessed dietary restraint. Participants responded to items such as “Do you deliberately eat less in order not to become heavier?” on a 5-point scale from 1 (never) to 5 (very often). A total score (range 1 to 5) was calculated from the mean of item responses with higher scores reflecting higher dietary restraint. Internal consistency and test-retest reliability of scores on this measure have been shown to be high in female adolescent samples with mean age 14.5 years (SD = 0.53) [36]. 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