PMC:2871132 / 259323-263616 JSONTXT

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Technology-Integrated Implant Systems\nAny new type of implant (not only dental but also orthopedic applications) should possess a gradual function of mechanical and biological behaviors, so that mechanical compatibility and biological compatibility can be realized with s single implant system [462]. Since microtextured Ti surfaces [67,463,464] and/or porous Ti surfaces [465–467] promote fibroblast apposition and bone ingrowth, the extreme left side representing the solid Ti implant body should have gradually increased internal porosities toward to the case side which is in contact with vital hard/soft tissue. Accordingly, mechanical strength of this implant system decreases gradually from core to case, whereas biological activity increases from core to case side. Therefore, the mechanical compatibility can be completely achieved. Porosity-controlled surface zones can be fabricated by an electrochemical technique [468], polymeric sponge replication method [65], powder metallurgy technique, superplastic diffusion bonding method [469], or foamed metal structure technique [470].\nOnce the Ti implant is placed in hard tissue, TiO2 grows and increases its thickness [30,41,471–478], due to more oxygen availability inside the body fluid, as well as co-existence of superoxidant. It is very important to mention here that Ti is not in contact with the biological environment, but rather there is a gradual transition from the bulk Ti material, stoichiometric oxide (i.e., TiO2), hydrated polarized oxide, adsorbed lipoproteins and glycolipids, portroglycnas, collagen filaments and bundles to cells [40]. Such gradient functional structure can be also fabricated in CpTi and microtextured polyethylene terephthalate (PET) system [479]. In addition, a gradient structural system of Ti and TiN was developed [480]. During HA coating, a gradient functional layer was successfully fabricated [214]. To promote these gradient functional (GF) and gradient structural (GS) transitions, there are many in vivo, as well as in vitro, evidences indicting that surface titanium oxide is incorporated with mineral ions, water and other constituents of biofluids [30,38,39,481]. Since a surface layer of TiO2 is negatively charged, the calcium ion attachment can be easily achieved [33,482]. Retrieved Ti implants showed that surface TiO2 was incorporated with Ca and P ions [483], while in vitro treatment of TiO2 in extracellular fluids or simulated body fluid (SBF) for prolonged periods of incubation time resulted in the incorporation of Ca, P, and S ions into TiO2 [30,38–41,218,471,481,484]. Without prolonged treatment, there are several methods proposed to relatively short-time incubation for incorporation of Ca and P ions. For example, TiO2 can be electrochemically treated in an electrolyte of a mixture of calcium acetate monohydrate and calcium glycerophosphate [145]. As a result of incorporation of Ca and P ions, bone-like hydroxyapatite can be formed in macro-scale [485] or nano-dimension [448]. Again for reducing the incubation time, bone-like hydroxyapatite crystals can be formed by treating the TiO2 surface with water and hydrogen plasma immersion ion implantation, followed by immersion in SBF [146], or by treating in hydrogen peroxide followed by SBF immersion [147], or immersion in SBF while treating the TiO2 surface with micro-arc oxidation and irradiation with UV light [171]. It is also known that P ions can be incorporated into TiO2 while it is immersed in the human serum [40].\nBony growth extreme surface zones should have a same roughness as the roughness of receiving hard tissue through micro-porous texturing techniques. This area can be structured using nanotube concepts [434–436]. Because this zone responds strongly to osseointegration, the structure, as well as the chemistry, should accommodate favorable osteoinductive reactions. Bone morphogenetic protein [385,486,487], and nano-apatite can be coated [488]. The zone may be treated by femtosecond laser machining [404] to build a micro-scale 3D scaffold which is structured inside the macro-porosities. Such scaffold can be made of biodegradable material (e.g., chitosan), which is incorporated with protein, Ca, P, apatite particles or other species possessing bone growth factors [483]."}