PMC:1559680 / 16006-44685 JSONTXT

{"target":"https://pubannotation.org/docs/sourcedb/PMC/sourceid/1559680","sourcedb":"PMC","sourceid":"1559680","source_url":"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/1559680","text":"Results\nIn all, 20 plants were found to be used in treating racehorses in Trinidad and 97 were used in BC. Of these seven of the most evidently effective plants used in Trinidad and 33 of those used in BC are described and evaluated in this paper. In BC eighteen plants were used for wounds and abscesses and ten plants were used for anxiety and nervousness. The next largest group of plants (7) were used for hormone imbalances. This last category of treatment was not described in Trinidad. Aloe vera, Pulmonaria officinalis and Medicago sativa were reported to be used for exercise induced pulmonary haemorrhage. Aloe vera, Curcuma longa and Ricinus communis were used in both research areas but for different ailments.\n\nEthnoveterinary remedies used in Trinidad\nThe ethnoveterinary usages of locally available plants for horses in Trinidad are summarised in Table 1. Twenty plants are used.\nTable 1 Ethnoveterinary medicines used for horses in Trinidad and Tobago *Respondent identification was not confirmed.\n\nPlants used for diarrhoea\nGuava (Psidium guajava) leaves, young fruits and/or buds were boiled and mixed with mash or bran or a combination of both and given to the horse to eat by three respondents after orthodox treatments had been tried. One respondent used young green fruit of the banana (Musa sp.) including skins once for one horse. The banana fruit was boiled, crushed and mixed with the mash and this was given to the horse to eat. Another respondent used carrots (Daucus carota) (eight kg). One respondent reported a one-time use of stale cow dung, which was pushed down the horse's throat in order to obtain beneficial bacteria. This practice of using cow dung was confirmed by another respondent.\n\nPlants used for tendonitis\nMedicinal plants for tendonitis were preferred by those who believe that horses don't have much circulation from the knee down; therefore ice is seen to be of no value for swelling. One respondent claimed that treatment was based on the stage of injury. He believed that the herbal remedies were more effective in the first stages of injury and stressed that rest was the most important factor for the recovery process.\nTendon and ligament problems were described as the second biggest affliction after respiratory problems. Horses with sprained tendons or ligaments have joints of rachette (Nopalea cochenillifera) applied directly to the injured area. The mucilage obtained from inside the rachette joints may be mixed with flour and or Epsom salts. Two respondents practiced tendon splitting, or splitting of the affected suspensory ligament and the flexor tendon into the normal tissue above and below the lesion. Respondents do this to increase circulation to the affected area and thus enhance the healing process. Castor bean leaves (Ricinus communis) were quickly passed over a flame, and wrapped around the clay already placed on the injured tendon, which was then left to heal. Joints of rachette (Nopalea cochenillifera) were split open, mixed with aloes (Aloe vera) or clay, and packed on to the tendon. This poultice was said to help with the healing process and to keep \"heat\" from the damaged tissue or injured joint out of the tendon. Alternatively, leaves of wonder of world (Kalanchoe pinnata) were used to remove the \"heat\" from the injured leg. Wonder of world is claimed to have antiinflammatory properties. The rest of the treatment consists of rest and those trainers who believe that using ice has value use an ice pack to completely cover the leg.\nThree interviewees blister flexor tendons or suspensory ligaments to help the healing process. The method consists of rubbing the tendon with iodine or mercuric iodine on a toothbrush for three days. This practice is stopped for three days and then another cycle is started. After the raw scab comes off, aloes (Aloe vera) is applied to help the tissues and skin heal. Blistering agents' remove the hairs from the injured part, there is localised swelling, the skin sloughs off and subcutaneous necrosis can also occur. Blistering necessitates rest since a long healing period is required. Horses were not blistered above the knee. The iodine is said to act as a counter irritant, which brings blood to damaged part, and the increased circulation enhances the healing process.\nBucked shins were described as an injury in the forelimb of young horses after exercise and were also blistered. There is periostitis of the plantar surface of the third metacarpal (or metatarsal) bone. Horses with tendon injuries were also taken to the sea for exercise to take the weight off the legs. Alternatively the injured leg is placed in brine from salted pigtails; both practices were said to harden the tendon. This remedy is thought to be over 30 years old. Aloes (Aloe vera) was also used for soreness in horses' joints, the gel is made into a paste, applied and then the joint is bandaged.\nPoultices were made with river clay or white clay. Some buy the clay already prepared while others do their own preparation. Other poultices were made with a combination of clay, washing soap (hard bar) and glycerine and Epsom salts. The clay keeps the horses legs cool. Poultices were sometimes made with a combination of aloes, rachette, glycerine and Epsom salts, and were said to have a \"drawing\" effect.\nYoung castor bean leaves (Ricinus communis) or two to three young almond leaves were warmed and the veins were crushed (n.b. Trinidad almond is Terminalia catappa, this plant was identified from the literature). These leaves were put on minor injuries and bandaged. It is said that oil runs out of Ricinus communis leaves and cools the \"heat\" or swelling in the leg. Horses with bad tendon injuries were treated with rachette and aloes. This particular treatment is called \"sweating it down.\" The plants were grated and packed on the leg. In terms of dosages all respondents used sufficient plant material to cover the area being treated. The leg is then wrapped with a football sock that has had the toe cut off. The sock is then tied at the bottom. The plants were thus packed inside the sock. The sock is then wrapped with a bandage to keep it in place. An alternative treatment is to put aloes on first, then wrap a heated bois canôt (Cecropia peltata) leaf on the leg, which is then bandaged with cotton. This practice is repeated for a few months. Trainers also rub a decoction of bay leaves (Pimenta racemosa), indigo blue and a scent like lavender (owner preference for scent) on their horses' sore muscles and quarters.\n\nPlants used for grooming\nWiz is the horse racing term for a ball of dried plant material used for grooming. A wiz may be made up of wild carailli leaves (Momordica charantia) elephant or guinea grass (Panicum maximum) or wild senna leaves (Senna alata). A bundle of this dry grass (the plant tops) was beaten on a wall and stripped thin. It was then rolled into a ball and placed in the sun to dry. A wiz was best if left to age. This matted bundle was then rubbed on the horses' skin and was said to make the skin shiny. A wiz was used only on a clean horse. A bundle of branch tips of black sage (Cordia curassavica) (also called shining bush in the horse racing industry) was used before horses race to make the horse's coat shiny, as a coat cleaner and to remove the superficial dust. The dust from the horse's skin turns the bunch of leaves brown. A wet horse may be rubbed with wild carailli or wild senna leaves to cool them. Coconut oil (Cocos nucifera) was also used to make the coat shine. One respondent used carailli to treat rashes. The carailli vine was boiled and the water was then used to sponge the horse.\n\nPlants used for hoof problems and other injuries\nWonder of the world (Kalanchoe pinnata), young banana leaves (Musa species), or castor bean leaves (Ricinus communis) were rolled with a bottle to burst the plant veins. The leaves were then passed quickly over a flame to warm them. Soft candle (whale fat) and Epsom salts were pasted on and the leaves were then placed on top. The whole thing was then wrapped with vet wrap or Elastoplast®. Alternatively turmeric root (Curcuma longa) was pounded and used. The entire foot was then placed in a bag or bandaged for three or four days and \"sweated\" for as long as it took to draw the inflammation out. This practice was used to draw infections out of injuries such as bruises from stones below the hoof. For cuts, aloes (Aloe vera) was bandaged on for two to three days.\n\nPlants used as anthelmintics\nWorm grass (Chenopodium ambrosioides) was used as an anthelmintic, but less so than in the past. The very infrequently used leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala) was said to make hairs from the horses' tail drop off.\n\nPlants used for enhanced performance\nHorse's hind quarters were occasionally rubbed with cow itch (Mucuna pruriens), this was said to help them come out of the boxes faster, since the plant acts as an irritant. Bay leaf (Pimenta racemosa) was used to bathe horses on race day, this was said to carry heat into body, which makes them run faster to get away from the sun's heat. Two plants called speedweed (Oxalis corniculata and Desmodium sp.) were used to enhance performance. The plants were fed to horses with the rest of their feed, not given specifically before a race.\n\nPlants used for anhydrosis\nIf the horse did not seem to be sweating, or was dry coated, Aloe vera or two bois canôt leaves (Cecropia peltata) or grated rachette (Nopalea cochenillifera) was mixed with water and administered as a drench. Pepper leaves (Capsicum annuum, Capsicum frutescens) may also be used. It was thought that this \"heats\" the horse which makes it drink more water. These practices were said to \"cool down\" the horse's system and bring out the \"heat\", the animal sweats a few hours later. In previous times horses were taken to the river to stand up in the water for an hour after the race. Rachette (Nopalea cochenillifera) joints were pounded up, put in water, and given to horses to drink, they \"sweat it out\" and this helps them reduce their temperature. Horses were also bathed with bay leaves (Pimenta racemosa) to make them feel cool. A decoction of one or two cups of bay leaves was added to a half bucket of water, this liquid was then used to sponge the horse. Alternatively they were sponged with bay rum. Bay rum is a mixture of bay oil extracted from leaves of Pimenta racemosa, alcohol and water.\n\nPlants used for retained placenta\nHorses with retained placenta were seen to have a black discharge three days post partum. These horses were given a 7.5 cm piece of aloes (Aloe vera) each day for three days, and then purged with castor oil (Ricinus communis). One respondent used linseed oil mixed with aloe vera gel twice weekly. About half of a large leaf of Aloe vera was used. Another respondent used pounded turmeric rhizome (Curcuma longa). Turmeric was said to flush out the uterus. Horses were also given molasses water to drink, this was said to \"clean them out.\" Horses were also given a combination of glycerine, Epsom salts and rachette (Nopalea cochenillifera) to treat inflammation.\n\nPlants used for digestive problems\nAloes (Aloe vera) was boiled for five minutes and mixed with linseed oil. This was syringed down the horse's throat; some spit it out. Aloes was used for most internal problems and it was said to ease digestive problems. Subsequent to the administration of the Aloe vera the horse was given a purge with castor oil (Ricinus communis). Aloe leaves were also peeled and blended with water; this mixture was then combined with honey, and given orally with a syringe. A decoction of caraaili (Momordica charantia) vine was given orally as a digestive aid.\n\nPlants used for bleeders – exercise induced pulmonary haemorrhage (EIPH)\nHorses that collect blood in their lungs during or after a race were called \"bleeders\" (exercise induced pulmonary haemorrhage). To treat bleeders, honey and aloes were given orally. Sometimes the white of an egg was included. Additionally, pureed lemon juice was syringed into the horse's nostrils, this was said to curb bleeding by acting as an astringent. Watercress (Nasturtium officinale) was put in horses' food to \"increase their blood count.\" Vervine (Stachytarpheta jamaicensis) and kudzu (Pueraria phaseoloides) plant tops were fed as high protein feeds.\n\nPlants used for urinary problems\nA decoction of bois canôt (Cecropia peltata) leaves was given as the drinking water. One respondent remembered seeing a veterinarian use the long stem of a pawpaw leaf (Carica papaya) as a catheter to clear a urinary blockage. To stimulate diuresis a decoction of the dry leaves of bois canôt (Cecropia peltata) was prepared in a bucket; a cup of this liquid in then put in the horses' drinking water. This was thought to assist in \"cleaning out the bladder\" of the horse.\n\nPlants used for respiratory conditions\nFor bad head colds, horses were sweated or syringed with a cough medicine made of honey, garlic, and onion and boiled bois canôt leaves (Cecropia peltata). To \"sweat\" the horse, heated bricks from a dirt oven were put into a bucket with Vicks, peppermint oil or Foyles Balsam™. The horse's head was put in the bag, and the horse forced to inhale the steam.\n\nEthnoveterinary remedies used in BC\nThe ethnoveterinary usages of locally available plants for horses in British Columbia are summarised in Table 2.\nTable 2 Ethnoveterinary medicines used for horses in British Columbia\n\nPlants used for abscesses and wounds\nSlippery elm (Ulmus rubra, U. fulva) inner bark powder was placed on a plantain leaf (Plantago major), with the addition of kelp or powdered myrrh (Commiphora molmol) (without the resin). Hot castor oil (Ricinus communis) packs were also used for abscesses. An external treatment for abscesses consisted of a wash of comfrey tea (Symphytum officinalis). This tea could include an infusion of Oregon grape (Mahonia aquifolium).\nA complementary internal treatment included equal parts of powdered Echinacea (Echinacea angustifolia or Echinacea purpurea or Echinacea pallida), (leaves and flowers) and elecampane (Inula helenium) (leaves and flowers), either mixed once a day with the food, or administered as a tea was added to the water for several weeks after completion of the external abscess treatment.\nTea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) oil was used as a disinfectant (undiluted). Compresses were made of powdered aerial parts of: betony (Stachys officinalis), figwort (Scrophularia nodosa) and motherwort (Leonorus cardiaca). Comfrey (Symphytum officinalis) root was added. Equal amounts of the herbs were made into a paste with water, applied onto a gauze pad and placed onto the wound. Myrrh gum (Commiphora myrrha) was used for wounds. Woundwort (Prunella vulgaris) aerial parts were ground into a paste with calendula (Calendula officinalis) flowers. Three parts slippery elm (Ulmus fulva) bark powder was mixed with hot water and one part myrrh powder (Commiphora myrrha) and was given for pain. To stop the bleeding from a large cut or tear kitchen flour was applied, the wound was bandaged tightly then the horse was taken to the veterinarian. One or two leaves of comfrey were crushed and applied to cracks on the hoof and then bandaged. Undiluted tea tree oil was put directly on abscesses of the hoof and wrapped, or a pure commercial Aloe vera product was used.\n\nPlants used for anxiety\nPlants fed to alleviate anxiety in horses included leaves of magnolia (Magnolia acuminata) and (fresh or dried) flowers of passion flower (Passiflora incarnata). Alternatively, lavender tea (Lavandula sp.) or tincture was given in one bucket of water or placed on the feed. For nervousness and restlessness a handful of flowers of chamomile (Matricaria recutita, Matricaria chamomilla) or the content of a chamomile tea bag was added to the main meal. One or 2 tbsp valerian (Valeriana officinalis) ground root was given to a horse that froze in stressful situations. One tsp of combined equal amounts of powdered valerian, hops (Humulus lupulus) and skullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora) was put into the feed, twice a day. Valerian use was stopped 48 hours before a race so that it would not be present in the blood at race time.\n\nPlants used for arthritis and sore joints\nPowders of the following plants were added to the feed: turmeric (Curcuma longa); aerial parts of horsetail (Equisetum arvense) (silica content); aerial parts of baical skullcap (Scutellaria baicalensis) (inflammation, sedative) and lavender (Lavandula sp.) flowers. A tea made of licorice root (Glycyrrhiza glabra) (synergistic effect). Prickly ash bark/toothache tree (Zanthoxylum americanum) was reported to flush lactic acid and toxins from muscles. Milk thistle (Silybum marianum) seed and burdock root (Arctium lappa) were also used. Animals either self-medicated with white willow (Salix alba) or they were given white willow (Salix sp.) bark or meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria), aerial parts or root, for inflammation and pain. A combination of devil's claw (Harpagophytum procumbens) decoction and a demulcent such as marshmallow (Althea officinalis) (aerial parts), was put on the food.\n\nPlants used for exercise induced pulmonary haemorrhage (EIPH)\nOne breeder used a commercial herbal product containing lungwort (Pulmonaria officinalis) compounds, bioflavonoids and vitamin K for EIPH. That breeder also used alfalfa hay [or soaked alfalfa pellets] in a 1 : 4 ratio with the regular hay. Furosemide, a diuretic often used in the treatment of EIPH, was thought to dehydrate the horse. To reduce this effect, a tea was given with 1 part each of the following: licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra) root, aerial parts of mullein (Verbascum thapsus) or mallow (Althea sp.), and comfrey (Symphytum officinalis) root.\n\nPlants used for endoparasites\nHorses were dewormed four times a year with aerial parts of the following powdered herbs added to the feed daily for one week: Elecampane (Inula helenium), or wormwood (Artemisia sp.), cut finely or ground. Alternatively wormwood was given in equal combination with elecampane (Inula helenium) and thyme (Thymus sp.).\nOccasional-use dewormers were french thyme (Thymus sp.), given 2 tbsp a day for week (1/2 the dose for a pony). Or one bucket of grated red carrot (Daucus carota) added to feed on a daily basis to reduce pinworms. To expel tapeworms 2–3 cups of chopped pumpkin flesh and seed (Cucurbita pepo) was added to the feed.\n\nPlants used for eye problems, eye infections\nAn infusion with saline solution was made with equal parts of the following: eyebright (Euphrasia officinalis) fresh or dry leaves, calendula (Calendula officinalis) flowers, and comfrey (Symphytum officinalis) leaves. The infusion was strained carefully and used as an eyewash. The infusion was weakened as the condition improved. Eyebright (Euphrasia officinalis) (1 tbsp/day) was added to the food, with water, for under a week. Two tea bags of chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) or 2 heaping tsps of fresh or dried chamomile herbs was steeped with 1 cup of hot water and strained before the liquid was used as an eyewash.\n\nPlants used as a heart tonic\n2 tbsp a day of hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis) paste was given in feed or 20 – 30 ml tincture was given in the drinking water to increase blood pressure. Berries, leaves or flowers of hawthorn (Crataegus oxyacantha) were said to be cardiotonic. Meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria) reportedly thinned the blood and removed pain. A paste was made of 2 tbsp dandelions (Taraxacum officinale) or milk thistle (Silybum marianum) and given in the feed to decrease blood pressure.\n\nPlants used for hormone imbalances\nFor hormone imbalances a tea was made with one of the herbs given below or 1 tsp of the ground herb was put directly on the food. Leaves of strawberry (Fragaria virginiana), flowers of linden (Tilia europea) (safe for pregnant animals), flowers of evening primrose (Oenothera biennis) or flowers of chamomile (Matricaria recutita syn. Matricaria chamomilla) were used. Berries of agnus castus or chaste tree (Vitex agnus-castus) were utilised for severe cases. Chaste tree was said to stop production of testosterone (used as an herbal gelding). Leaves of lady's mantle (Alchemilla vulgaris) and aerial parts of passion flower (Passiflora incarnata) were also used. A tea of crampbark (Viburnum opulus) was given if the animal had cramps (cramps that the respondent thought were hormonally-linked).\n\nPlants used during pregnancy\nDried leaves of red raspberry (Rubus idaeus) (1/4 cup) were mixed with one cup of water and put on top of the grain. This mixture was syringed into the horses' mouths if they did not eat it. It was used for the last month and a half of pregnancy.\n\nPlants used for respiratory problems (snots)\nElecampane (Inula helenium) was mixed with crampbark, powdered or chopped root of liquorice and thyme (Thymus sp.) and was used for stable cough. Alternatively blended cloves of garlic (Allium sativum) were added to the feed. Crampbark powder (Viburnum opulus) was added to the feed of wind-broken horses.\nOne cup each of the following plants were blended and used as a hot mash in feed or as a tea for snots: elecampane (Inula helium), licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra), thyme (Thymus sp.) (1/4 cup) and mullein. Cloves of garlic and fenugreek seeds (Trigonella foenum-graecum) were also added. In addition, pure garlic powder and mullein (Verbascum thapsus) were fed with grain (once or twice a day) until the horse's nose stopped running. Equal parts of white willow (Salix alba) bark and/or leaf; and dried aerial parts of each of the following were mixed together into a paste and given to feverish horses: feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium), meadowsweet (Filipendula ulmaria) and yarrow (Achillea millefolium).\n\nPlants used for sore muscles, sprains, joint pain or reaction of horses to selenium shot in the chest\nOne heaping tsp of cayenne pepper (Capsicum sp.) was mixed with enough olive oil to make a paste which was then rubbed on the affected part. A purchased 1:5 cayenne tincture was substituted for the paste (if available).\n\nPlants used for skin problems\nAn infusion of 1.5 tsp aerial parts of shepherd's purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris) steeped in 1.5 cups of water, was strained and used as a wash. Chickweed (Stellaria media) rinse or salve was applied to the affected area twice daily. Powdered sulphur was added to calendula (Calendula officinalis) infused oil and used for front fetlock irritation. External applications used for hypersensitivity reactions due to fly bites and other causes of skin irritation consisted of dried, crushed plantain (Plantago major) leaves and witchhazel (Hamamelis virginiana) added to rubbing alcohol and applied topically. A sting from a nettle plant (Urtica dioica) was soothed with fresh crushed shepherd's purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris) and/or yellow dock (Rumex crispus) leaves applied topically. An internal treatment consisted of a tea of dried baical skullcap (Scutellaria baicalensis) given in the feed.\nOne application of old car oil, or fish or cod liver oil was used topically to treat ringworm. The crushed root of calendula (Calendula officinalis) was then applied as a poultice to stimulate hair follicle growth three days later. Alternatively fluoride toothpaste was put on the affected areas and brushed off the following morning; this treatment was repeated until the problem resolved. Plants used for summer itch and sunburn included dried nettles (Urtica dioica) added to the feed. Calendula lotion or Aloe vera was used for grass rash and sunburn. Lastly, an infusion of aerial parts of shepherd's purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris) was used to wash the affected area.\n\nPlants used to treat various intestinal conditions\nFor digestive problems one bottle of Guinness® (beer) was administered orally or mixed in with the feed. Ginger (Zingiber officinalis) (powdered, liquid or crystallized) or chopped leaves of peppermint (Mentha piperita) was also administered orally or mixed in with food or water. Horses were allowed to self-medicate with organic dandelions (Taraxacum officinale).\n\nPlants used for colic\nChamomile (Matricaria recutita) and peppermint (Mentha piperita) were used for stomach acid. White willow bark (Salix sp.) was used to repair the stomach lining. Slippery elm bark powder (Ulmus fulva) was used for over-acidity, diarrhoea and gastroenteritis. Bedstraw (Galium sp.) was used for grass colic – 1 handful of crumpled aerial parts in the feed. Skullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora) was given for pain. Licorice root (Glycyrrhiza glabra) was used for its synergistic action. For acute colic a crampbark (Viburnum opulus) paste was administered orally as a first aid measure before calling the veterinarian. Or a 1:1 mixture of skullcap and slippery elm bark powder and (1:4) licorice was given. Aerial parts of skullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora) were put in the feed for two to three days after the colic occurred to revive gut flora. One tbsp (15 ml) nutritional yeast was added to the feed everyday for prevention of colic.\n\nPlants used to treat stress\nThe following herbs were used preventively before stressful situations: aerial parts of dry or fresh betony (Stachys officinalis); powdered hops strobiles (Humulus lupulus), was added to the feed daily or made into a tea; or powdered aerial parts of marshmallow (Althea officinalis). Powdered licorice root (Glycyrrhiza glabra), was given daily in advance of stressful situations. Slippery elm (Ulmus fulva) bark powder was given to soothe the gut. Chamomile (Matricaria recutita) flowers were recommended for high-strung horses. Fresh or dry leaves of wild blackberry (trailing wild blackberry, Rubus ursinus), were fed ad lib. The following were used as teas or as powders in the feed with chicory (Cichorium intybus), slippery elm bark powder and crampbark as the main ingredients. They were used separately or in combination. If used separately, 1 tbsp of each ingredient was used with yoghurt as a paste base. In combination, 1 tbsp of each herb was steeped in boiling water and 1 cup of the tea given to the horse in the drinking water or put in the feed: crampbark (Viburnum opulus) for stomach ache;\nslippery elm bark powder (Ulmus fulva) for over-acidity, diarrhoea and gastroenteritis;\nhops buds (Humulus lupulus) act as a sedative; chamomile (Matricaria recutita) and peppermint to soothe stomach acid; less peppermint (Mentha piperita) is used in a blend than if given alone; chicory (Cichorium intybus); white willow bark (Salix sp.) rebuilds stomach lining; skullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora) for pain and a nerve tonic; licorice root (Glycyrrhiza glabra) synergistic action.\n\nPlants used as a tonic after races\nRed sage (Salvia officinalis) tea (1 tbsp of leaves per cup of boiling water) was cooled and put into their mash. Bran mash with 1 cup brewed coffee was used after the race and at least two days before the next one. Astragalus membranaceous was used to help recovery from a long illness; 1 tsp to 1 tbsp was added to the feed. Lavender (Lavandula augustifolia) was hung upside down in the stable where the horse could not reach it; the smell was soothing.\n\nPlants used for urinary problems including edema (\"stocked-up\")\nTen buchu leaves (Barosma betulina or Barosma crenulata), or uva-ursi leaves (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi), were fed to horses after races as a kidney tonic. For minor bladder infections powdered uva-ursi aerial parts and chopped or powdered leaves of dandelions (Taraxacum officinale), were mixed and fed every day until the horse's legs were no longer swollen, or the horse was no longer straining to urinate (usually one to three days). Either fresh or dried parsley (Petroselinum crispum) was added to the feed once a day or more often until the urine cleared up. Dandelion aerial parts were fed ad lib.\n\nReview of the ethnomedicinal literature\nThe review below (Table 3) describes a selection of the clinical trials and experimental studies using ethnopharmacologically accepted models that have verified the traditional and therefore ethnoveterinary use of the plants described in the results section. In the few cases in which clinical trials have not yet been carried out, the range of therapeutically important and relevant biological properties of the plant is provided. Recent research has indicated that Betonica and Stachys may be separate genera or subgenera and this should be taken into consideration when reviewing the pharmacological literature on betony [19].\nTable 3 Non-experimental validation of ethnoveterinary remedies used for horses in BC and Trinidad\n\nDi","divisions":[{"label":"Title","span":{"begin":0,"end":7}},{"label":"Section","span":{"begin":724,"end":13269}},{"label":"Title","span":{"begin":724,"end":765}},{"label":"Table 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