Limitations of the Study
There are a number of biases that are present in this study, including the self-reporting and recall biases of participants. There may also be recruitment bias from the researchers at the airport in whom they approach and participation bias in those who decided to take part in this study and the responses (the number of refusals to participate was not recorded).
Although the sample size is reasonable, when compared with the cited literature, and considering the millions of Umrah pilgrims arriving at the holy cities in Saudi Arabia yearly, the findings may not be generalizable. Time constraints and language barriers were also limiting factors, since the recruitment was conducted at the airport.
The definition of health education was left open to the participant’s interpretation. This is an area that would benefit from closer attention in future studies to establish the content and type of information to include targeting the perhaps varying needs of different groups of pilgrims (language, literacy, economic aspects).
Despite these limitations, this study has currency and has provided several insights that were consistent with other studies, and some further insights on the behaviors and practices of pilgrims attending Hajj and Umrah in Saudi Arabia.