2.2. Political Factors

2.2.1. Authoritarianism
Authoritarianism as a political attitude is characterized by preferences for conventionalism, authoritarian aggression, and authoritarian submission to authority [22]. Several empirical studies find that authoritarianism has a consistent relationship with beliefs in conspiracy theories. Authoritarian ideologies are characterized by unshakable beliefs in their righteousness, which provide instruments to comprehensively explain complex events [23]. Abalakina-Paap et al. [24] demonstrate that high levels of authoritarianism are related to beliefs in specific conspiracies. Swami [25] shows that right-wing authoritarianism (a measure of support for traditional social norms and submission to authority) is associated with stronger beliefs in general conspiracy theories. Swami et al. [17] show that beliefs in 9/11 conspiracy theories are positively related to defiance of authority. Moreover, based on a nationally representative sample of the U.S. population from the 2016 American National Election Studies, Goldberg and Richey [26] show that three different beliefs in conspiracies are positively correlated with authoritarianism. However, Oliver and Wood [8] do not find beliefs in conspiracies to be the product of greater authoritarianism, ignorance, or political conservatism.
Hypothesis 1 (H1).   Authoritarianism is positively related to beliefs in conspiracy theories.

2.2.2. Ideology
Gruzd and Mai [27] find that although much of the content of conspiracy theories starts from users with limited reach, the initial propellants of these conspiracies are prominent conservative politicians and far-right political activists on Twitter.
The relationship between conspiracy theories and ideology has several explanations. People believe in conspiracy theories that fit their ideologies. Miller et al. [3] argue that those who endorse conspiracy theories have particular ideological worldviews with which the conspiracy theories can be associated. Miller et al. [3] show that left-right political orientation influences beliefs in conspiracy theories about climate change, Barack Obama’s birthplace, the 9/11 terror attacks, and electoral fraud. Additionally, believing in a conspiracy theory is highly likely when one’s belief in a specific ideology is strong [10]. Van Prooijen et al. [28] focus on political extremism. They show that extreme left and right political ideologies are positively associated with tendency to believe conspiracy theories. In the other hand, members of ideological groups tend to think that those who hold one ideology regard the other side’s argument as a conspiracy theory [10]. Hart and Graether [29] find a negative association between liberalism and beliefs in conspiracy theories. However, Oliver and Wood [6] demonstrate that beliefs in conspiracy theories are not limited to just one side of the ideological spectrum.
Hypothesis 2 (H2).   Conservatives exhibit more beliefs in conspiracy theories than progressives do.

2.2.3. Partisanship
Political interests and competitions result in partisanship, which can manifest as party identification, involvement, and membership. These factors can influence beliefs in conspiracy theories. For example, party identification is associated with the endorsement of conspiracy theories that make the rival party look bad (e.g., Berinsky [30]). Enders and Smallpage [31] conduct an experimental study showing that conservative Republicans appear to be more susceptible to conspiratorial cues than progressive Democrats. When informational cues recede, conspiracy beliefs significantly increase among Republicans, even when a Republican is implicated by the conspiracy theory. However, Smallpage et al. [32] argue that it is false assumption that certain parties tend to believe in conspiracy theories more than other parties; instead, parties’ beliefs vary depending on the content of the conspiracy theory. The degree of belief in a particular conspiracy theory depends on political interests. For example, in the U.S., Democrats believe conspiracy theories about Republicans and conservatives, whereas Republicans believe conspiracies about Democrats. Gruzd and Mai [27] demonstrate that in late March 2020, hashtags containing fake news in favor of President Trump were being circulated and highlighted by Trump supporters. In the other and, the goal of party politics is to win an election. Thus, losers rather than winners tend to believe conspiracy theories. Uscinski and Parent [18] demonstrate that those that strongly endorse conspiracy theories are much more likely to be affiliated with the party in power.
Hypothesis 3 (H3).   Support for parties in power (i.e., President Moon Jae-In’s government (Moon’s government, hereafter) and the Democratic Party in Korea) is negatively related to beliefs in conspiracy theories.

2.2.4. Religion
Religion greatly influences individual values and attitudes. Bezalel ([33], p. 1) argues that the nature of religious belief is important in understanding the epistemological foundations of worldviews that support conspiracy theories amidst what may be called conspiratorial ambiguity. Douglas et al. [10] and Frank et al. [34] explain that cognitive processes that are linked to conspiracy beliefs are connected to the acceptance of quasi-religious mentalities.
Both religion type and religiosity affect beliefs in conspiracy theories. Religiosity is the depth of faith in religion. Higher religiosity can be associated with greater beliefs in conspiracy theories because religions and conspiracy theories share certain elements, including paranormal activity, esotericism, millennialism, and prophecy [35]. Various interpretations are possible for the relationship between religious beliefs and conspiracy theory beliefs. For example, according to Jasinskaja-Lahti and Jetten [36], there is not difference of the belief in conspiracy theories between believers and non-believers. In other hand, they reported that the extent to which religious worldviews were endorsed predicted belief in conspiracy theories; not self-categorization as religious, but strong attachment to religion among believers was directly related with higher belief in conspiracy theories. Why strong attachment brings out more belief in conspiracy theory. Jasinskaja-Lahti and Jetten [36] explained this by the mediated role of higher anti-intellectualism which strong religious believers have. Individuals who show more orientation in scientifically sceptical attitude are more sensitive on find out logical fallacies presented in conspiracy theories [37]. Other studies reported that there is closely link between religiosity and stronger conservatism and traditionalism [38], and higher political conservatism [39]. Those conservatism induces more belief in conspiracy theories. Van der Linden et al. [40] showed that extreme conservatives were significantly more likely to engage in conspiratorial thinking than extreme liberals. Hart and Graether [29] show that believers in conspiracies tend to be more religious. In contrast, Jasinskaja-Lahti and Jetten [36] show that religious believers and non-believers do not differ in terms of beliefs in conspiracy theories.
Beliefs in conspiracies vary with the type of religion. For example, Marchlewska et al. [41] demonstrate that Catholic collective narcissism predicts not only outgroup hostility but also gender conspiracy beliefs. It is worth noting that the opinion on Catholics cannot apply to all Christians. Relevant [42] explains that Christians should forgo the temptation to look toward conspiracy theories to feel more secure or in control.
Hypothesis 4 (H4-1).   Religiosity is positively associated with beliefs in conspiracy theories.
Hypothesis 4 (H4-2).   Different types of religions have different impacts on beliefs in conspiracy theories.

2.2.5. Trust
Distrust plays a fundamental role in the spread of beliefs in conspiracy theories. Miller et al. [3] argue that those who strongly think conspiracy theories believe that the world is a place where secretive, malevolent actions are not only possible but also probable. Thus, people with low trust levels have stronger beliefs in conspiracy theories. Miller et al. [3] show that trust is negatively associated with believing rumors. According to Hart and Graether [29], people who find it difficult to trust others may find solace in worldviews that blame hidden villains for disappointing outcomes.
Many empirical studies focus on the impact of trust on beliefs in conspiracy theories. Abalakina-Paap et al. [24] show that low levels of trust and hostility are related to attitudes regarding the existence of conspiracies in general. Distrust in a targeted object, such as politics, the government, or medicine, leads to beliefs in conspiracy theories. Governments have always been at the center of conspiracy theories. Georgiou et al. [30] show that beliefs in conspiracies are correlated with more negative attitudes toward government’s responses. In politics, conspiracies have always been hidden under the veil of power conflicts. Goldberg and Richey [26] find that three different beliefs in conspiracies are negatively correlated with political trust. Swami et al. [17] show that beliefs in conspiracies about 9/11 are positively related to political cynicism. Moreover, Einstein and Glick [43] find that political scandals decrease trust in the government, which, in turn, is linked with stronger beliefs in conspiracies. In addition, according to Earnshaw et al. [10], medical conspiracy beliefs are partly rooted in medical mistrust or a general suspicion of and lack of confidence in medical organizations and providers. According to Jin et al. [44], respondents who do not believe conspiracies trust information about COVID-19 from their doctors more than information from other sources, including social media. However, conspiracies are spread not only by trust but also in the presence of ignorance, conflict, and power. Miller et al. [3] show that a combination of high knowledge and low trust yields the greatest endorsement of conservative conspiracy theories among conservatives.
Hypothesis 5 (H5).   Trust is negatively associated with beliefs in conspiracy theories.