There were 317 LTLAs in England in 2019 (Supplemental Material Fig. S1). Such a coarse geographical unit is not expected to capture the strong localised spatial patterns of air-pollution. We thus downscaled the LTLA geographical information to the LSOA level. LSOAs are high resolution geographical units in England (32,844 units in 2011, see Supplemental Material Fig. S2). The median population per LSOA in 2018 was 1617, varying from 591 to 14,696 (min to max) (Supplemental Material Fig. S3), and the median area per LSOA was 0.4km2, varying from 0.0002km2 to 68.4km2(min to max). The LTLA boundaries are revised every year, whereas the LSOA ones at census. Let l~m denote that the l-th LSOA belongs to the m-th LTLA, nijkm the number of deaths in the m-th LTLA and Pijkl the population in the i-th age group (1<, 1–4, 5–9, …, 85–90, >90), j-the sex (male or female), k-th ethnic group (White, Mixed, Asian, Black, Other) and l-th LSOA. We sampled nijkm individual deaths at the l-th LSOA level from a Multinomial distribution with probabilities:πijkl=Pijkl/∑l~mPijkl,and repeated the procedure 100 times.