Table 1  Host range, viral receptor-binding glycoproteins and host receptors of influenza viruses.
Family  Genus  Genome  Type   Host  IAV Subtype or IBV1/ICV/IDV Lineage  Disease  Receptor-binding Protein  Host Receptor  Ref.
Birds  Wild birds (frequently found in waterfowls and shorebirds)  H1–H16 and N1–N9HP: H5NX, X = NA subtypes  No or mild diseaseHP: isolated from dead wild birds  HA  TerminalNeu5Acα2,3GalSome gull/tern H16: α2,6Neu5Ac ≥ α2,3Neu5AcInternalDuck type: non-fucosylate, SiaLec, 3′SLNGull type: fucosylated, SiaLex and 6-sulfo-SiaLex Gull/tern H16: 6′SLDN ≥ LSTb, but some 6-sulfo-SiaLex > 6′SLDN, LSTb  [23,24]
Domestic birds (poultry)  H1–H13, N1–N9  LP: mild disease HP: multi-organ systemic disease  HA  TerminalNeu5Acα2,3GalInternalHP higher affinity than LP: 3′SLN, SiaLecAll LP and HP: 3′SLN > SiaLex, SiaLec > SiaLea, 3′SLN ~ SiaLecH5 poultry: 6-sulfo-3′SLNH7H7 from all species: 6-sulfo-3′SLN, 6-sulfo-SiaLex > nonsulfated SGPs  [25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37]
Domestic ducks  HP: H5N1, H5N2, H5N3, H5N5, H5N6, H5N8, H7N2, H7N9
Other poultry  HP: H5N1, H5N2, H5N3, H5N6, H5N8, H5N9, H7N1, H7N2, H7N3, H7N4, H7N7, H7N9
Alphainfluenzavirus    Other animals  Pigs  H1N1, H1N2, H2N3, H3N1, H3N2, HPH5N1  Respiratory disease  HA  Neu5Acα2,6Gal > Neu5Acα2,3GalNeu5AcGM3, Neu5GcGM3  [4][38,39,40,41]
Horses  H7N7, H3N8  Respiratory disease  HA  Mainly Neu5Gcα2,3Gal, Sialyllacto-N-tetraose a, SiaLex  [42,43]
8 (−)ssRNA segments   Dogs  H3N8, H3N2, H3N1, H5N2, HPAI H5N1, H1N1  Respiratory disease  HA  Canine H3N8: 6-sulfo-3′SLN and Neu5Acα2,3Galβ-  [38][43,44,45,46]
Cats  H7N2, H3N2, HPH5N1  Respiratory disease  HA  Feline H7N2: Siaα2,3Gal  [38,47][48]
A  Ferrets(a model for human infection and transmission)  Triple reassortant H1N1 SIV, A(H1N1)pdm09  Respiratory disease  HA  Expected to bind to Neu5Acα2,6Gal  [49,50]
Occasionally in numerous species of mammals such as whales, seals, tigers, and minks  Seal H7N7 & whale H13N9Tiger HPH5N1 Mink H9N2  Respiratory disease  HA  Seal H7N7 & whale H13N9: Siaα2,3GalTiger HPH5N1 HA with Q226 and G228 (H3 numbering): predicted to prefer Siaα2,3GalMink H9N2 HA with 226L: increased binding to Siaα2,6Gal  [51,52,53,54,55,56]
Orthomyxoviridae     Zoonosis  Poultry, pigs and other animals  H1, H2, H3, H5 (HP & LP), H6, H7 (HP & LP), H9, H10  HP: severe systemic diseaseOther zoonotic infections: ranging from mild upper respiratory tract infection to severe pneumonia and death.Possible to cause conjunctivitis, GI symptoms, encephalitis and encephalopathy  HA  Most still retains previous host-receptor specificity  [16][57,58,59]
Humans   1918-derived H1N1 (extinct), 1957-derived H2N2 (extinct), 1968-derived H3N2, 2009-derived H1N1  Pandemic and continued as seasonal flu:Primarily cause respiratory disease (usually pdm more severe, including pneumonia)  HA  Terminal Neu5Acα2,6GalInternal 6′S(LN)nEarly human-adapted viruses: n = 1, 2, 3, etc.Long-term circulating viruses: n ≥ 3  [16,19][60,61]
Bats  Fruit-eating bats in Guatemala  Sl-BatH17N10Fruit-eating bats in Peru: Ap-batH18N11  H17: liver, intestine, lung and kidney tissues, and rectal swabsH18: intestine tissue and rectal swabs  HA  MHC-II HLA-DR  [62,63]
Fruit-eating bats in Egypt  Distinct from all known IAVs. HAs, closest to mallard H9 viruses with 73% aa identity  Viruses in bat oral swabs > in rectal swabsAble to replicate in mouse lungs  HA  TerminalNeu5Acα2,3Gal > Neu5Acα2,6Gal  [64]
Betainfluenzavirus  8 (-)ssRNA segments  B  Humans, sporadically in seals, pigs, horses, pheasants and dogs.  Influenza B viruses (IBVs)2 lineages- Victoria lineage B/Victoria/2/87-like viruses- Yamagata lineage: B/Yamagata/16/88-like viruses  Seasonal flu  HA  Wild types of both Yamagata (HA with F95 and N194) and Victoria (HA with G141, R162 and D196) lineages: Neu5Acα2,6Gal>Neu5Acα2,3Gal2001–2007 clinical isolates in Taiwan:83% of Yamagata-like strains prefer α2,6Sia; 17% prefer both α2,3Sia and α2,6Sia. 54% of Victoria-like strains prefer both α2,3Sia and α2,6Sia; 25% prefer sulfated glycan, either β-Gal-3-sulfate or 6-HSO3-Galβ1,4GlcNAc; 21% prefer α2,6Sia.Dual α2,3Sia and α2,6Sia-binding viruses seem to be associated with bronchopneumonia and gastrointestinal symptoms.  [65,66,67,68]
Gammainfluenzavirus  7 (−)ssRNA segments  C  Humans (particularly in infants and children), pigs, cattle  Influenza C viruses (ICVs)6 lineages: C/Taylor, C/Mississippi, C/Aichi, C/Yamagata, C/Kanagawa and C/Sao Paulo  Usually mild flu  HEF  TerminalC/Johannesburg/1/66 (C/Aichi lineage): Neu5,9Ac2α2,6Gal  [69,70,71,72]
Deltainfluenzavirus  7 (−)ssRNA segments  D  Pigs, cattle,91% seropositivity found among persons working with cattle  Influenza D viruses (IDVs)3 lineages: D/OK, D/660 and D/JapaneseD/Japanese lineage contains 2 sublineages: D/Yama2016 and D/Yama2019  Usually mild flu  HEF  TerminalD/OK: Neu5,9Ac2 and Neu5Gc9Ac either linked to α2,6Gal or α2,3GalD/660: Neu5,9Ac2α2,6Gal, Neu5Gc9Acα2,6Gal and Neu5Gc9Acα2,3Gal  [15,72][73]
3′SLN: 3′sialyllactosamine (Neu5Acα2,3Galβ1,4GlcNAcβ1); 6′SLDN: Neu5Acα2,6GalNAcβ1,4GlcNAcβ1; GI: gastrointestinal; HA: hemagglutinin; HEF: hemagglutinin-esterase-fusion; HLA-DR: human leukocyte antigen DR isotype; HP: highly pathogenic virus; IAV: influenza A virus; IBV1: influenza B virus; ICV: influenza C virus; IDV: influenza D virus; LP: low pathogenic virus; LSTb: lactoseries tetrasaccharide b (Galβ1,3(Neu5Acα2,6)GlcNAcβ1,3Galβ1,4Glcβ1); MHC-II: major histocompatibility complex II; NA: neuraminidase; Neu5,9Ac2: 5-N-acetyl-9-O-acetylneuraminic acid; Neu5Ac: 5-N-acetylneuraminic acid; Neu5AcGM3: Neu5Acα2,3Galβ1,4Glcβ1-1′Ceramide; Neu5Gc: 5-N-glycolylneuraminic acid; Neu5GcGM3: Neu5Gcα2,3Galβ1,4Glcβ1-1′Ceramide; Sia: sialic acid; SiaLea: sialyl-Lewisa (Neu5Acα2,3Galβ1,3(Fucα1,4)GlcNAcβ1); SiaLec: sialyl-Lewisc (Neu5Acα2,3Galβ1,3GlcNAcβ1); SiaLex: sialyl-Lewisx (Neu5Acα2,3Galβ1,4(Fucα1,3)GlcNAcβ1); Sialyllacto-N-tetraose a: Neu5Acα2,3Galβ1,3GlcNAcβ1,3Galβ1-4Glcβ1; SIV: swine influenza virus.