Protects cell membranes from damage caused by free radicals and ↑ the integrity of epithelial barriers
↑ NK cell cytotoxic activity; ↓ PGE2 production by macrophages (thus indirectly protecting T-cell function)
Important fat-soluble antioxidant that hinders the chain reaction induced by free radicals (chain-breaking effect) and protects cells against them; ↑ IL-2 production; ↓ production of PGE2 (indirectly protecting T-cell function)
↑ Lymphocyte proliferation and T-cell-mediated functions; ↑ Th1 response; ↓ Th2 response; helps to form effective immune synapses between Th cells; ↑ proportion of antigen-experienced memory