Normal differentiation of epithelial tissue; retinoic acid ↑ T and B cells with gut-homing specificity and array T cells and IgA + cells into intestinal tissues
Supporting the gut barrier; carotenoids; ↑immunoregulatory actions including ↓ toxic effects of ROS and regulating membrane fluidity and gap-junctional communication
Regulates number and function of NK cells,↑ to phagocytic and oxidative burst activity of macrophages
Downregulates IFN production
Helps to regulate the production of IL-2 and the pro-inflammatory TNF-γ, ↑ microbial action of macrophages; involved in phagocytic and oxidative burst activity of macrophages activated during inflammation
Development and differentiation of Th1 and Th2 cells; ↑ TGF- β-dependent conversion of naïve T cells into regulatory T cells; plays a role in acquisition of mucosal-homing properties by T and B cells
Development and differentiation of Th 1 and Th2 cells; maintains normal antibody-mediated Th2 response by suppressing IL-12, TNF-α, and IFN-γ production of Th1 cells
Normal functioning of B cells, necessary for generation of antibody responses to antigen; required for B cell-mediated IgA antibody responses to bacterial polysaccharide antigens