Carbohydrates (e.g., fructose, glucose maltose, trehalose, melibiose, ribose, and erlose) constitute 7.5–16% or royal jelly content [49]. Reducing sugars in royal jelly are thought to contribute to its epigenetic effect through the activation of insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling cascades. Thus, they stimulate caste differentiation of Apis mellifera larvae into queens by increasing intake of food and key nutrients [50].