al investment for food-related (beyond nutrition alone) research and development was $2.5 billion/y (105). A 2015 USDA report estimated that overall federal investment in nutrition research was $1.6 billion/y in 2009, increased from ∼$0.8 billion/y in 1985 (in constant 2007 dollars) (Figure 3) (108). The increase occurred primarily at NIH, while nutrition funding at USDA declined in real dollars during this period. However, total NIH research fu