Article COVID-19 diagnosis Blood findings Auto-antibodies and screening for most common GBS causes CSF findings Electrophysiology: Neuropathy type and GBS electrophysiologic subtype MRI (brain and spinal) Management and therapy Outcome
GBS COVID-19
Agosti et al. [5] RT-PCR + chest CT Thrombocytopenia (101 × 109 /L, reference value: 125–300 × 109 /L), lymphocytopenia (0.48 × 109 /L, reference value: 1.1–3.2 × 109 /L) Negative ANA, anti-DNA, c-ANCA, p-ANCA, negative screening for Campylobacter jejuni, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Salmonella enterica, CMV, HSV 1 and 2, VZV, influenza virus A and B, HIV, normal B12 and serum protein electrophoresis Increased total protein (98 mg/dl), cell count: 2/106 L Demyelinating
AIDP NA IVIG 400 mg/kg/day (5 days) Antiviral drugs (not specifically mentioned) Improvement, discharged home after 30 days
Alberti et al. [6] RT-PCR + chest CT NA NA Increased total protein (54 mg/dl), 9 cells/µl, negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR Demyelinating
AIDP NA IVIG 400 mg/kg (5 days) + mechanical invasive ventilation Lopinavir/ritonavir, hydroxychloroquine 24 h after admission, death because of respiratory failure
Arnaud et al. [7] RT-PCR + chest CT NA Negative anti-ganglioside and antineural antibodies, negative Campylobacter Jejuni, HIV, syphilis, CMV, EBV serology Increased total protein (1.65 g/L), no pleyocitosis, negative oligoclonal bands, negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR, negative EBV and CMV RT-PCR Demyelinating
AIDP NA IVIG 400 mg/kg (5 days) Hydroxychloroquin, cefotaxime, azithromycine Progressive improvement
Assini et al. [8] RT-PCR Lymphocytopenia, increased LDH and inflammation markers; low serum albumin (2.9 mg/dL) NA Normal total protein level, increased IgG/albumin ratio (233), negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR, presence of oligoclonal bands (both in serum and CSF) Demyelinating with sural sparing
AIDP Brain: no pathological findings IVIG 400 mg/kg (5 days) Hydroxychloroquine, arbidol, ritonavir and lopinavir + mechanical invasive ventilation 5 days after IVIG, improvement of swallowing, speech, tongue motility, eyelid ptosis and strength
Assini et al. [8] RT-PCR + chest CT Lymphocytopenia, increased LDH and GGT, leucocytosis, low serum albumin (2.6 mg/dL) Negative anti-ganglioside antibodies Normal total protein level, increased IgG/albumin ratio (170), negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR, presence of oligoclonal bands (both in serum and CSF) Motor sensory axonal, muscular neurogenic changes
AMSAN NA IVIG 400 mg/kg (5 days) Hydroxychloroquine, antiretroviral therapy, tocilizumab + tracheostomy and assisted ventilation 5 days after IVIG, improvement of vegetative symptoms, persistence of hyporeflexia and right foot drop
Bigaut et al. [9] RT-PCR + chest CT Normal blood count, negative CRP Negative anti-ganglioside antibodies, negative HIV, Lyme and syphilis serology Increased total protein (0.95 g/L), cell count: 1 × 106/L, negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR Demyelinating
AIDP Spinal: Radiculitis and plexitis on both brachial and lumbar plexus; multiple cranial neuritis (in III, VI, VII, and VIII nerves) IVIG 400 mg/kg (5 days) + non-invasive ventilation NA Progressive improvement
Bigaut et al. [9] RT-PCR + chest CT Increased CRP Negative anti-ganglioside antibodies Increased total protein (1.6 g/L), cell count: 6 × 106/L, negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR Demyelinating
AIDP NA IVIG 400 mg/kg (5 days) NA Slow progressive improvement
Bracaglia et al. [10] RT-PCR (normal chest CT) Elevated CPK (461 U/L, normal < 145), CRP 5,65 mg/dL (normal < 0.5), lymphocyto- penia (0·68 × 109/L, normal 1·10–4), mild increase of LDH (284 U/L, normal < 248), GOT and GPT (549 and 547 U/L, normal < 35), elevation of IL-6 (11 pg/mL, normal < 5.9) Negative anti-ganglioside antibodies; negative microbiologic testing on CSF and serum for HSV1-2, EBV, VZV, CMV, HIV, Mycoplasma Pneumoniae and Borrelia. Increased total protein (245 mg/dL) and increased cell count: 13 cells/mm3, polymorphonucleate 61.5% Demyelinating
AIDP NA IVIG 400 mg/kg (5 days) Hydroxychloroquine, ritonavir, darunavir Improvement of UL and LL weakness, development of facial diplegia
Camdessanche et al. [11] RT-PCR + chest CT NA Negative anti-gangliosides antibodies; negative screening for Campylobacter jejuni, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Salmonella enterica, CMV, EBV, HSV1-2, VZV, Influenza virus A & B, HIV, and hepatitis E Increased total protein (1.66 g/L), normal cell count Demyelinating
AIDP NA IVIG 400 mg/kg (5 days) + mechanical invasive ventilation Oxygen therapy, paracetamol, low molecular weight heparin, lopinavir/ritonavir 400/100 mg twice a day for 10 days NA
Chan et al. [12] RT-PCR + chest CT Persistent thrombocytosis (maximum PC 688 ×109/L), elevated d-dimer (1.47 mg/L) NA Increased total protein (1.00 g/L), cell count: 4 × 106/L (normal), negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR Demyelinating
AIDP Brain: bilateral intracranial facial nerve enhancement IVIG 400 mg/kg (5 days) Empiric azithromycin and ceftriaxone Slight improvement of facial weakness, unchanged paraesthesia
Chan et al. [13] RT-PCR NA Negative anti-gangliosides antibodies Increased total protein (226 mg/dL), leucocytes: 3 cells/mm3, glucose: 56 mg/dL, negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR NA Lumbosacral spine: no pathological findings 5 sessions of plasmapheresis NA Resolution of dysphagia, ambulation with minimal assistance 28 days after symptoms onset
Chan et al. [13] RT-PCR NA Elevated GM2 IgG/IgM antibodies Increased total protein (67 mg/dL), leucocytes: 1 cells/mm3, glucose 58 mg/dL, negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR NA NA Mechanical invasive ventilation + 5 sessions of plasmapheresis (without benefit on ventilation) + IVIG NA Persistence of quadriparesis with intermittent autonomic dysfunction, slowly weaned from the ventilator
Coen et al. [14] RT-PCR + serology Normal (not specified) Negative anti-gangliosides antibodies; negative meningitis/encephalitis panel Albuminocytological dissociation, no intrathecal IgG synthesis, negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR Demyelinating with sural sparing
AIDP Brain: NA
Spinal: no pathological findings IVIG 400 mg/kg (5 days) NA Rapid improvement. From day 11 from hospitalisation
Rehabilitation
Ebrahimzadeh et al. [15] RT-PCR + chest CT Normal CRP (5 mg/L), normal serum protein immunoelectrophoresis Negative anti-GQ1b antibodies, negative screening for Campylobacter jejuni, HIV, EBV, CMV, influenza virus (type A and B), HCV, non-reactive VDRL Increased total protein (78 mg/dL), normal cell count (erythrocyte = 0/mm3, leukocyte = 4/mm3), normal glucose (70 mg/dL) Demyelinating
AIDP Brain: no pathological findings
Spinal: no pathological findings None Hydroxychloroquine for 5 days Improvement of muscle strength to near normal after 16 days
Ebrahimzadeh et al. [15] RT-PCR + chest CT Slightly elevated CRP (34 mg/L), normal serum protein immunoelectrophoresis Negative anti-GQ1b antibodies, negative screening for Campylobacter jejuni, HIV, EBV, CMV, influenza virus (type A and B), HCV, non-reactive VDRL NA Demyelinating
AIDP NA IVIG NA Improvement of muscle strength in all extremities after 14 days
El Otmani et al. [16] RT-PCR + chest CT Lymphocytopenia (520/ml) NA Increased total protein (1 g/L), normal cell count, negative PCR assay for
SARS-CoV-2 Motor sensory axonal
AMSAN NA IVIG 400 mg/kg/day (5 days) Hydroxychloroquine 600 mg/day; azithromycin 500 mg at the first day, then 250 mg per day At week 1 from admission no significant neurological improvement
Esteban Molina et al. [17] RT-PCR + chest X-ray Leucocyte 7400/mm3, lymphocyte 2400/mm3. Hb 14 g/dl. PC 408,000/mm3, d-Dimer 556 ng/ml. Ferritin 544 ng/ml, CRP 2.04 mg/dl, Fibrinogen 6.8 g/dl Negative bacteriological and viral tests Increased total protein (86 mg/dL), cell count: 3x106/L Demyelinating
AIDP Brain: leptomeningeal enhancement in midbrain and cervical spine IVIG 400 mg/kg/day (5 days) Hydroxychloroquine, azithromycin, ceftriaxon Motor improvement but persistence of paraesthesia
Farzi et al. [18] RT-PCR + chest CT Lymphopenia (WBC:5.9 × 109/L, neutrophils: 85%, lymphocyte:15%), elevated levels of CRP, ESR 69 mm/h NA NA Demyelinating
AIDP NA IVIG (2 g/kg over 5 days) Lopinavir/ritonavir and hydroxychloroquine Improvement after 3 days, favorable outcome
Fernández–Domínguez et al. [19] RT-PCR NA Negative anti-GD1b antibodies, negative other anti-ganglioside antibodies Increased total protein (110 mg/dL), albuminocytological dissociation Demyelinating
NA Brain: no pathological findings IVIG 20 g/day (5 days) Hydroxychloroquine, lopinavir/ritonavir NA
Finsterer et al. [20] NA NA NA NA Axonal
AMAN NA IVIG NA Recovery
Frank et al. [21] RT-PCR, + serology (IgG and IgM) WBC and CRP normal Negative hepatitis B and C, HIV and VDRL tests Two CSF analysis 2 weeks apart, both showing normal cell count and CSF biochemistry, negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR, negative PCR for HSV1, HSV2, CMV, EBV, VZV; Zika virus; Dengue virus and Chikungunya virus Axonal
AMAN Brain: no pathological findings
Spinal: no pathological findings IVIG 400 mg/kg/day (5 days) Methylprednisolone, azithromycin, albendazole Some improvement, weakness persisted
Gigli et al. [22] Chest CT + serology (negative RT-PCR) NA Negative anti-ganglioside antibodies, negative PCR for influenza A and B viruses (nasal swab) Increased total protein (192.8 mg/L), leucocytes: 2.6 cells/µL, positive Ig for SARS-CoV-2, negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR Demyelinating
AIDP NA NA NA NA
Gutiérrez-Ortiz et al. [23] RT-PCR Lymphocytes 1000 cells/UI, CRP 2.8 mg/dl Positive anti-GD1b antibodies, other anti-ganglioside antibodies negative Increased total protein (80 mg/dl), no leucocytes, glucose
62 mg/dl, negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR NA NA IVIG 400 mg/kg (5 days) NA After 2 weeks from admission complete resolution except anosmia, ageusia
Gutiérrez-Ortiz et al. [23] RT-PCR Leucopenia (3100 cells/µl) NA Increased total protein (62 mg/dl), WBC: 2/μl (all monocytes), glucose: 50 mg/dl, negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR NA NA None Paracetamol 2 weeks later complete neurological recovery with no ageusia, complete eye movements, and normal deep tendon reflexes
Helbok et al. [24] Chest CT + serology (repeated negative RT-PCR) WBC 8.1G/L (normal: 4.0–10.0G/L), CRP 2.3 mg/dL, (normal: 0.0–0.5 mg/dL), fibrinogen level 650 mg/dL (normal: 210–400 mg/dL), LDH 276 U/L (normal: 100–250 U/L), erythrocyte sedimentation rate 55 mm/1 h Negative PCR for CMV, EBV, influenza virus A/B, Respiratory Syncytial Virus and IgM antibodies for Chlamydia pneumoniae and Mycoplasma pneumoniae Increased total protein (64 mg/dl), cell count: 2 cells/mm3, serum/ CSF glucose ratio of 0.83, negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR, positive anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies (not determined if intrathecal synthesis or passive transfer from blood) Demyelinating with sural sparing
AIDP Spinal: no pathological findings IVIG 30 g + plasma exchange (4 cycles) + mechanical invasive ventilation None Improvement of muscle forces with recovery of mobility without significant help after 8 weeks
Hutchins et al. [25] RT-PCR + chest CT Lymphopenia (absolute lymphocyte count of 0.7 K/mm3) Serum HSV IgG and IgM. Respiratory viral panel PCR negative Negative GM1, GD1b, and GQ1b IgG and IgM), aquaporin-4 receptor (IgG), HIV 1/2, HSV 1/2 (IgG and IgM), CMV (IgM), Mycoplasma pneumoniae (IgG and IgM), Borrelia burgdorferi (IgG and IgM), Bartonella species (IgG and IgM), and syphilis (Venereal Disease Research Laboratory test) Increased total protein (49 mg/dL), normal glucose levels (65 mg/dL), no leukocytes Mixed demyelinating and axonal EMG subtype unknown Brain: enhancement of the facial and abducens nerves bilaterally, as well as the right oculomotor nerve
Spinal: no pathological findings Plasma exchange (5 cycles) NA Discharged to inpatient rehabilitation
Juliao Caamaño et al. [26] RT-PCR NA NA Normal total protein (44 mg/dL), no pleocytosis Absent blink-reflex
EMG subtype unknown Brain: no pathological findings Oral prednisolone Hydroxychloroquine and lopinavir/ritonavir for 14 days Minimal improvement of muscle weakness after 2 weeks
Khalifa et al. [27] RT-PCR + chest X-ray + chest CT WBC 5.5 × 103, PC 356 × 103, CRP 0.5 mg/dL (normal 0.0–0.5), serum ferritin 87.3 ng/ml (normal 12.0–150.0), elevated d-Dimer levels 0.72 mg/L (0.00–0.49) Negative screening for:  influenza A and B viruses; influenza A virus subtypes H1, H3, and H5 including subtype H5N1 of the Asian lineage; parainfluenza virus types 1, 2, 3, and 4; respiratory syncytial virus types A and B; adenovirus; metapneumovirus; rhinovirus; enterovirus; Coronavirus 229E, HKU1, NL63, and OC43 Cell count: 5 mm3, increased total protein (316.7 mg/dL) Demyelinating
AIDP Brain: no pathological findings
Spinal: enhancement of the cauda equina nerve roots IVIG 1 g/kg (2 days) Paracetamol, azithromycin, hydroxychloroquine Discharge to home after 15 days with clinical and electrophysiological improvement
Kilinc et al. [28] Fecal PCR + serology NA Negative anti-GQ1b antibodies, serologic tests on Borrelia burgdorferi, syphilis, Campylobacter jejuni, CMV, hepatitis E, Mycoplasma pneumoniae and CMV Normal cell count, normal proteins Predominantly demyelinating
AIDP Brain: no pathological findings IVIG 2 g/kg (5 days) None Persistence of mild symptoms at the discharge (after 14 days)
Lampe et al. [29] RT-PCR (negative chest X-ray) Slightly increased CRP (1.92 mg/dL) Negative anti-ganglioside antibodies; negative influenza and respiratory syncytial virus Increased total protein (56 mg/dL), normal cell count (2 cells/μL) Demyelinating
AIDP NA IVIG 400 mg/kg (5 days) None Improvement of GBS symptoms with persistence of generalized areflexia except for left biceps reflex, discharge after 12 days
Lantos et al. [30] RT-PCR NA GM1 antibodies in the equivocal range NA NA Brain: enlargement, prominent enhancement with gadolinium, and T2 hyperintense signal of the left cranial nerve III IVIG Hydroxychloroquine Improvement, discharge after 4 days
Lascano et al. [31] RT-PCR + chest X-ray + positive IgM (IgG positivity 2 weeks later) WBC 8900 cells/mm3; lymphocytes 1200 cells/mm3; PC 45,500 cells/mm3 Negative anti-ganglioside antibodies Increased total protein (60 mg/dL), leucocytes: 3 cells/μL, negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR Demyelinating
AIDP Spinal: no nerve root gadolinium enhancement IVIG 400 mg/kg (5 days) + mechanical
invasive ventilation Azithromycin Improvement of tetraparesis.
Able to stand up with assistance.
Lascano et al. [31] RT-PCR + chest X-ray WBC 3300 cells/mm3; lymphocytes 800 cells/mm3; PC 119,000 cells/mm3 NA Normal total protein (40 mg/dl), cell count: 2 cells/μL Mixed demyelinating (conduction blocks) and axonal with sural sparing pattern
Predominantly AIDP NA IVIG 400 mg/kg (5 days) Amoxicillin, clarithromycin Dismissal with full motor recovery. Persistence of LL areflexia and distal paraesthesia
Lascano et al. [31] RT-PCR + chest X-ray WBC 4000 cells/mm3; lymphocytes 600 cells/mm3; PC 322,000 cells/mm3 NA Increased total protein (140 mg/dL), cell count: 4 cells/μL, negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR Demyelinating with sural sparing pattern
AIDP Brain: no pathological findings
Spinal cord: lumbosacral nerve root enhancement IVIG 400 mg/kg (5 days) Amoxicillin Improvement of tetraparesis and ability to walk with assistance. Persistence of neuropathic pain and distal paraesthesia
Manganotti et al. [32] RT-PCR + chest CT NA Negative anti-ganglioside antibodies negative serum anti-HIV, anti-HBV, anti-HCV antibodies Increased total protein (74.9 mg/dL), negative CSF PCR for bacteria, fungi, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Herpes viruses, Enteroviruses, Japanese B virus and Dengue viruses NA Brain: no pathological findings IVIG 400 mg/kg (5 days) Lopinavir/ritonavir, hydroxychloroquine, antibiotic therapy, oxygen support (35%) Resolution of all symptoms except for minor hyporeflexia at the LL
Manganotti et al. [33] RT-PCR IL-1: 0.2 pg/ml (< 0.001 pg/ml), IL-6: 113.0 pg/ml (0.8–6.4 pg/ml), IL-8: 20.0 pg/ml (6.7–16.2 pg/ml), TNF-α: 16.0 pg/ml (7.8–12.2 pg/ml) Negative anti-ganglioside antibodies, negative HIV, HBV, HCV negative serological tests for autoimmune disorders Increased total protein (52 mg/dl), leucocytes: 1 cell/mm3, negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR Demyelinating
AIDP NA IVIG 400 mg/kg/day (5 days) Hydroxychloroquine, oseltamivir, darunavir, methylprednisolone and tocilizumab + mechanical invasive ventilation Improvement of motor symptoms
Manganotti et al. [33] RT-PCR IL-1: 0.5 pg/ml (< 0.001 pg/ml), IL-6: 9.8 pg/ml (0.8–6.4 pg/ml), IL-8: 55.0 pg/ml (6.7–16.2 pg/ml), TNF- α: 16.0 pg/ml (7.8–12.2 pg/ml) Negative anti-ganglioside antibodies, negative HIV, HBV, HCV negative serological tests for autoimmune disorders Normal total protein (40 mg/dl), leucocytes: 1 cell/mm3, negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR Mixed demyelinating and axonal   EMG subtype unknown Brain: no pathological findings IVIG 400 mg/kg/day (5 days) Hydroxychloroquine, lopinavir/ritonavir, methylprednisolone + mechanical invasive ventilation Improvement of motor symptoms
Manganotti et al. [33] RT-PCR NA Negative anti-ganglioside antibodies, negative HIV, HBV, HCV negative serological tests for autoimmune disordes Increased total protein (72 mg/dL), leucocytes: 5 cell/mm3, negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR Mainly demyelinating
Predominantly AIDP Brain: no pathological findings IVIG 400 mg/kg/day (5 days) Hydroxychloroquine, lopinavir/ritonavir, methylprednisolone Improvement
Manganotti et al. [33] RT-PCR NA NA NA Mixed demyelinating and axonal  EMG subtype unknown NA Methylprednisolone 60 mg for 5 days Methylprednisolone Stationary
Manganotti et al. [33] RT-PCR IL-1: 0.2 pg/ml (< 0.001 pg/ml), IL-6: 32.7 pg/ml (0.8–6.4 pg/ml), IL-8: 17.8 pg/ml (6.7–16.2 pg/ml), TNF- α : 11.1 pg/ml (7.8–12.2 pg/ml), IL-2R: 1203.0 pg/ml (440.0–1435.0 pg/ml), IL-10: 4.6 (1.8–3.8 pg/ml) Negative anti-ganglioside antibodies, negative HIV, HBV, HCV negative serological tests for autoimmune disordes Increased total protein (53 mg/dL), leucocytes: 2 cell/mm3, negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR Mixed demyelinating and axonal  EMG subtype unknown NA IVIG 400 mg/kg/day (5 days) Hydroxychloroquine, lopinavir/ritonavir, methylprednisolone, meropenem, linezolid, clarithromycin, fluconazole, doxycycline + mechanical invasive ventilation Improvement
Marta-Enguita et al. [34] RT-PCR + chest CT Thrombocytopenia, d-Dimer elevation NA NA NA NA NA NA Death after 10 days
Mozhdehipanah et al. [35] RT-PCR (negative chest CT) Normal WBC, CRP and ESR NA Increased total protein (139 mg/dL), normal cell count, negative CSF HSV serology and gram stain and culture Demyelinating
AIDP NA Plasma exchange (5 cycles) NA Significant improvement of muscle weakness after 3 weeks, persistence of mild bifacial paresis
Mozhdehipanah et al. [35] RT-PCR Normal WBC, CRP and ESR NA Albuminocytological dissociation NA NA IVIG 400 mg/kg/day (5 days) NA Complete recovery, except for the persistence of hyporeflexia
Mozhdehipanah et al. [35] RT-PCR + chest CT Leucocytosis lymphopenia, elevated ESR and CRP NA Increased total protein (57 mg/dL), normal cell count and glucose (not further specified) Axonal
AMSAN NA IVIG 400 mg/kg/day (3 days) Hydroxy chloroquine, lopinavir/ ritonavir Death after 3 days from starting treatment with IVIG
Mozhdehipanah et al. [35] RT-PCR + chest CT Leucocytosis, lymphopenia, elevated ESR and CRP NA Increased total protein (89 mg/dL), normal cell count and glucose (not further specified) Demyelinating
AIDP NA IVIG 400 mg/kg/day (5 days) Hydroxy chloroquine, lopinavir/ ritonavir No significant clinical improvement
Naddaf et al. [36] Positive SARS-CoV-2 IgG (index value: 8.2, normal < 0.8) and IgA + chest CT (negative RT-PCR) Normal completed blood count, elevated d-dimer (690 ng/mL), ferritin (575 mcg/L), ESR (26 mm/h), alanine aminotransferase (73 U/L) Negative anti-ganglioside antibodies negative HIV, syphilis, West Nile virus, Lyme disease testing, EBV and CMV serology consistent with remote infection, negative paraneoplastic evaluation Increased total protein (273 mg/dL), total cells count: 2/mm3, negative CSF SARS-CoV-2 RT-PCR, negative meningitis/encephalitis panel, negative oligoclonal bands and IgG index Demyelinating
AIDP Spine: smooth enhancement of the cauda equine roots Plasma exchange (5 sessions) Hydroxy chloroquine, zinc, methylprednisolone 40 mg bid for 5 days Improvement of motor and gait examination. Persistence of slight ataxia without requiring gait aid
Oguz-Akarsu et al. [37] RT-PCR + chest MRT + chest CT Mild neutropenia (1.49 cells/µL) and a high monocyte percentage (19.77) HIV test negative Normal total protein (32.6 mg/dL) with no leucocytes Demyelinating with sural sparing pattern
AIDP Cervical and lumbar and spine: asymmetrical thickening and hyperintensity of post-ganglionic roots supplying the brachial and lumbar plexuses in STIR sequences Plasma exchange (five sessions, one every other day) Hydroxychloroquine, azithromycin Marked neurological improvement after 2 weeks and she was able to walk without assistance
Ottaviani et al. [38] RT-PCR + chest CT Lymphopenia, increased d-dimer, CRP and CK Negative anti-ganglioside antibodies Increased total protein (108 mg/dL), cell count: 0 cells/μL Mainly demyelinating
Predominantly AIDP NA IVIG 400 mg/kg (5 days) Lopinavir/ritonavir, hydroxychloroquine Progressive worsening with multi-organ failure
Padroni et al. [39] RT-PCR + chest CT WBC 10.41 × 109/L (neutrophils 8.15 × 109/L), normal d-dimer Negative screening for Mycoplasma pneumonia, CMV, Legionella pneumophila, Streptococcus pneumoniae, HSV, VZV, EBV, HIV-1, Borrelia burgdorferi; auto-antibodies not performed Increased total protein (48 mg/dl), cell count: 1 × 106/L Motor sensory axonal
AMSAN NA IVIG 400 mg/kg (5 days) + mechanical invasive ventilation NA At day 6 from admission: ICU with mechanical invasive ventilation
Paterson et al. [40] Definite diagnosis (not specified) (normal chest CT) Increased neutrophils and CRP NA Increased total protein (0.5 g/L),
leucocytes: 3 cells/μL (0–5), Demyelinating
AIDP NA IVIG + mechanical invasive ventilation None 17 days of hospitalisation, at discharge able to walk 5 m (across an open space) but incapable of manual work/running
Paterson et al. [40] Definite diagnosis (not specified) (normal chest CT) Increased CRP and fibrinogen NA Increased total protein (0.6 g/L)
leucocytes: 2 cells/μL (0-5), Glucose 3.4 (mmol/L; 2.2-4.2) Demyelinating
AIDP Brain: no pathological findings IVIG Mechanical invasive ventilation 46 days (ongoing) of hospitalisation, still critical and requiring ventilation
Paterson et al. [40] Definite diagnosis (not specified) (normal chest CT) Not significant findings NA Increased total protein (0.9 g/L)
leucocytes: < 1 cells/μL (0-5), Glucose 3.7 (mmol/L; 2.2-4.2) Demyelinating
AIDP Brain: no pathological findings IVIG NA 7 days (ongoing) of hospitalisation, able to walk 5 m (across an open space) but incapable of manual work/running
Paybast et al. [41] RT-PCR NA NA Increased total protein (139 mg/dL), normal glucose and cell count, normal CSF viral serology, negative gram stain and culture Mixed demyelinating and axonal  EMG subtype unknown NA 5 sessions of therapeutic plasma exchange, intravenous bolus of labetalol to control sympathetic nervous system over-reactivity Hydroxychloroquine sulphate 200 mg two times per day for a week Persistence of generalized hyporeflexia, decreased light touch sensation in distal limbs, mild bilateral facial paresis, sympathetic over-reactivity successfully controlled with labetalol,
Paybast et al. [41] RT-PCR NA NA Albuminocytological dissociation NA NA IVIG 20 g (5 days) Hydroxychloroquine sulphate 200 mg two times per day for a week Persistence of generalized hyporeflexia and decreased light touch sensation in distal limbs
Pfefferkorn et al. [42] RT-PCR + chest CT NA Negative anti-gangliosides antibodies At admission: Normal total protein, cell count: 9/µL, negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR
At day 13th: increased total protein (10.231 mg/L), normal cell count Demyelinating
AIDP Spinal: massive symmetrical contrast enhancement of the spinal nerve roots at all levels of the spine including the cauda equina. Anterior and posterior nerve roots were equally affected IVIG 30 g (5 days) + mechanical invasive ventilation + plasma exchange NA At day 31 from admission: motor improvement with regression of facial and hypoglossal paresis but still needed mechanical ventilation
Rana et al. [43] RT-PCR NA NA NA Demyelinating with sural sparing
AIDP Thoracic and lumbar spine: no evidence of myelopathy or radiculopathy IVIG 400 mg/kg (5 days) Hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin On day 4 respiratory improvement, on day 7 rehabilitation
Reyes-Bueno et al. [44] Serology (negative RT-PCR) NA Negative anti-ganglioside antibodies Increased total protein (70 mg/dl), cell count: 5 cells/µl, albuminocytological dissociation Demyelinating with alteration of the Blink-Reflex. Further EMG: polyradiculoneuropathy with proximal and brainstem involvement
AIDP NA IVIG 400 mg/kg (5 days) + Gabapentin NA After the 18th day progressive improvement of  facial and limb paresis, diplopia and pain. Consequent neurological rehabilitation
Riva et al. [45] Chest CT + serology (negative RT-PCR) No pathological findings Negative anti-ganglioside antibodies Normal total protein and cells; negative PCR for SARS-CoV2, EBV, CMV, VZV, HSV 1–2, HIV Demyelinating with sural sparing
AIDP Brain: NA
Spinal: no pathological findings IVIG 400 mg/kg (5 days) None Slowly improvement after the 10th day
Sancho-Saldaña et al. [46] RT-PCR + chest X-Ray NA Negative anti-ganglioside antibodies Increased total protein (0.86 g/L), cell count: 3 leucocytes Demyelinating
AIDP Whole spine: brainstem and cervical meningeal enhancement IVIG 400 mg/kg (5 days) Hydroxychloroquine, azithromycin Recovering by day 7 after the onset of weakness.
Scheidl et al. [47] RT-PCR No pathological findings Negative Campylobacter Jejuni and Borrelia serology, negative ANA, anti-DNA, c-ANCA,p-ANCA Increased total protein (140 g/L), albuminocytological dissociation Demyelinating
AIDP Brain: NA
Cervical spine: no pathological findings IVIG 400 mg/kg (5 days) None Complete recovery
Sedaghat et al. [48] RT-PCR + chest CT Increased WBC 14.6 × 103 (neutrophils 82.7%, lymphocytes 10.4%) and CRP NA NA Motor sensory Axonal
AMSAN Brain: no pathological findings
Spinal: two cervical intervertebral disc herniations IVIG 400 mg/kg (5 days) Hydroxychloroquine, lopinavir/ritonavir, azithromycin Not reported
Sidig et al. [49] RT-PCR + chest CT NA NA None Demyelinating
AIDP Brain: no pathological findings NA NA Death after 7 days; because of progressive respiratory failure
Su et al. [50] RT-PCR + chest X-ray WBC 12,000 cells/µl Negative anti- ganglioside GM1, GD1b and GQ1b antibodies, acetylcholine receptor binding, voltage-gated calcium channel, antinuclear and ANCA Increased total protein (313 mg/dL), WBC: 1 cell Demyelinating
AIDP NA IVIG 2gm/kg (for 4 days) None On day 28 persistence of severe weakness
Tiet et al. [51] RT-PCR Elevated lactate on venous blood gas (3.3 mmo/L), mildly elevated CRP (20 mg/L). Normal WBC, sodium, potassium and renal function. NA Increased total protein (> 1.25 g/L), cell count 1x106/L Demyelinating
AIDP NA IVIG 400 mg/kg/day (5 days) None Resolution of facial diplegia, improved upper and lower limbs weakness; able to mobilize unassisted 11 weaks after neurorehabilitation
Toscano et al. [52] RT-PCR + Chest CT + serology Lymphocytopenia, increased CRP, LDH, ketonuria Negative anti-ganglioside antibodies Day 2: normal total protein, no cells, negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR
Day 10: increased total protein (101) mg/dl, cell count: 4/mm3, negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR Axonal with sural sparing
AMSAN Brain: no pathological findings
Spinal: Enhancement of caudal nerve roots IVIG 400 mg/kg (2 cycles) + temporary mechanical non-invasive ventilation Paracetamol At week 4 persistence of severe UL weakness, dysphagia, and LL paraplegia
Toscano et al. [52] RT-PCR (negative chest CT) Lymphocytopenia; increased ferritin, CRP, LDH NA Increased total protein (123 mg/dl), no cells, negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR Motor sensory axonal with sural sparing
AMSAN Brain: enhancement of facial nerve bilaterally
Spinal: no pathological findings IVIG 400 mg/kg Amoxycillin At week 4 improvement of  ataxia and mild improvement of  facial weakness
Toscano et al. [52] RT-PCR + chest CT Lymphocytopenia; increased CRP, LDH, ketonuria Negative anti-ganglioside antibodies Increased total protein (193 mg/dl), no cells, negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR Motor axonal
AMAN Brain: no pathological findings
Spinal: enhancement of caudal nerve roots IVIG 400 mg/kg (2 cycles) + mechanical invasive ventilation Azythromicin ICU admission due to respiratory failure and tetraplegia. At week 4 still critical
Toscano et al. [52] RT-PCR + serology (negative chest CT) Lymphocytopenia; increased CRP, ketonuria NA Normal protein, no cells, negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR Demyelinating
AIDP Brain: no pathological findings
Spinal: no pathological findings IVIG 400 mg/kg None At week 4 mild improvement in UL but unable to stand
Toscano et al. [52] Chest CT + serology (negative RT-PCR in nasopharyngeal swab and BAL) Lymphocytopenia; increased CRP, LDH Negative anti-ganglioside antibodies; negative screening for Campylobacter jejuni, EBV, CMV, HSV, VZV, influenza, HIV Normal total protein (40 mg/dL), white cell count 3/mm3; negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR Demyelinating
AIDP Brain: NA
Spinal: no pathological findings IVIG 400 mg/kg + plasma exchange + mechanical invasive ventilation + enteral nutrition None At week 4 flaccid tetraplegia, dysphagia, ventilation dependent
Velayos Galán et al. [53] RT-PCR + chest X-ray NA NA NA Demyelinating
AIDP NA IVIG 400 mg/kg (5 days) Hydroxychloroquine, lopinavir/ritonavir, amoxicillin, corticosteroids + low-flow oxygen therapy NA
Virani et al. [54] rt-pcr + chest mrt WBC 8.6 × 103; Hb 15.4 g/dl; PC 211 × 103; procalcitonin: 0.15 ng/ml NA NA NA Brain: NA
Spinal: no pathological findings IVIG 400 mg/kg (5 days) + mechanical invasive ventilation (4 days) Hydroxychloroquine 400 mg bid for first 2 doses, then 200 mg bid for 8 doses At day 4 of IVIG: liberation from mechanical ventilation, resolution of UL symptoms, persistence of LL weakness. Sent to a rehabilitation facility
Webb et al. [55] RT-PCR + chest X-ray + chest CT Lymphopenia (0.9 × 109/L), thrombocytosis (490 × 109/L) raised CRP (25 mg/L) Negative ANA, ANCA, anti-ganglioside antibodies, syphilis serology HIV, hepatitis B and hepatitis C Increased total protein (0.51 g/L), normal glucose and cell count, negative SARS-CoV-2 PCR, negative viral PCR Demyelinating
AIDP NA IVIG 400 mg/kg/day (5 days) + Mechanical invasive
ventilation Co-amoxiclav After 1 week in ICU: no oxygen requirement and ventilation
Zhao et al. [56] RT-PCR + chest CT WBC 0.52 × 109; PC 113 × 109/L NA Increased total protein (124 mg/dL), cell count 5 × 106/L Demyelinating
AIDP NA IVIG (dosing not reported) Arbidol, lopinavir/ ritonavir At day 30 resolution of neurological and respiratory symptoms