particles composed of viral proteins and HNMs can induce a strong immunological response activating dendritic cells, T cells, and stimulating B cells to produce specific antibodies.

Innate Immune Response
Innate immune response is the first response that takes place in the presence of any type of infection. During this early stage, interferon stimulating genes (ISGs) are upregulated in the infected cells.125 This self-defense mechanism slows down the viral replication and alerts sentinel immune cells that start producing proinflammatory cytokines and trigger inflammation.125 However, many viruses are able to escape this complex m