Additionally, polysaccharides or their derivatives, such as carrageenan oligosaccharide and fucoidan derived from marine algae with biodegradability, abundance, and non-toxicity, can be used as biocompatible reductants for green synthesis AuNPs [134,135]. Based on our previous works, we hypothesize that the S or N protein from coronavirus can be designed to be loaded onto polysaccharides capped AuNPs by protein corona formation for coronavirus nanoparticles vaccine application (Fig. 9 ).
Fig. 9 The proposed schematics illustrating the S or N protein from coronavirus loaded onto polysaccharides capped AuNPs.