In addition, the gold nanoparticles (AuNPs)-based nanomaterials also have good application prospects in anti-novel coronavirus. An electrochemical immunosensor based on an array of AuNPs-modified carbon electrodes was used for the determination of MERS-CoV (Fig. 8 ) [131]. Highly sulfonated gold nanoparticles and heparin coated AuNPs with no cytotoxicity displayed broad-spectrum virucidal properties against HSV, HPV, RSV, dengue and lentivirus in vitro [132]. S protein plays a key role in the pathogenesis of coronavirus, and it is considered a primary target for vaccine preparation [8,133]. Virus like particles (sVLPs) were prepared by protein corona formation with IBV S protein as a model antigen and incubated with 100 nm AuNPs in a solution containing an optimized concentration of viral proteins [133]. As compared to inoculation with free proteins, vaccination with the sVLPs showed enhanced lymphatic antigen delivery, stronger antibody titers, increased splenic T-cell response, and reduced infection-associated symptoms in an avian model of coronavirus infection [133]. The study demonstrates a simple and reliable method in bridging viral antigens with synthetic nanoparticles for improved vaccine application [133].
Fig. 8 COV immunosensor array chip (a). The immunosensor fabrication steps (b), the detection process of the competitive immunosensor for the virus (c) [131].