sult of the dysregulation of several cellular pathways involving cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB), cytokines with inflammatory outcome: interleukins (IL-1, IL-6, IL-8), tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), cell adhesion molecules and chemokines, etc. Of note, the res