Table 2 Preclinical reports regarding the relationship between carbohydrate intake and inflammation.
Diet Species Treatment Observed effects References
Carbohydrate-restricted diet Senescence-accelerated prone mice (SAMP8) 8-week treatment:➢ Control: standard chow
➢ High fat diet group (HFD)
➢ Carbohydrate-restricted diet group (CRD) CRD: ↑ IL-6 and IL-1β, ↓cecum short-chain fatty acids He et al. (2019)
Scandinavian low-carbohydrate high-fat (LCHF) diet Female C57BL/6J mice (n = 7/group) 4-week treatment:➢ standard chow
➢ LCHF diet (75% fat 20% protein, and 5% carbohydrates) LCHF: no change in glycemia, TG, insulin, or non-esterified fatty acid plasma levels Nilsson et al. (2016)
Ketogenic diet Sprague-Dawley Rats with spinal cord injury (n = 18/group) 4-week treatment:➢ ketogenic diet (KD)
➢ standard diet (SD)
➢ control (C) KD: ↓ IL-1β, TNF-α, IFN-γ expression Lu et al. (2018)
Ketogenic diet Male C57BL/6J mice 22-weeks diet intervention:➢ Control: standard chow
➢ Ketogenic diet group KD: ↑ triglycerides, cholesterol, leptin, MCP-1, IL-6, IL-1β,↓ α- and β-cell mass Ellenbroek et al. (2014)
Ketogenic versus Western diet C57BL/6J mice 12-week treatment:➢ very low-carbohydrate, low-protein, and high-fat ketogenic diet (KD)
➢ high-simple-carbohydrate, high-fat Western diet (WD)
➢ low-fat, polysaccharide-rich control (C) KD: euglycaemia and hypoinsulinemia + liver lipid accumulation (different pattern compared to WD)KD: systemic glucose intolerance, steatosis, cellular injury, endoplasmic reticulum stress (in liver), and macrophage accumulation, maintaining whole-body insulin responsiveness Garbow et al. (2011)
High-saturated fat diet (HFD) male C57BL/6J mice 3-week treatment:➢ standard chow
➢ HFD (60% fat 20% protein, and 20% carbohydrates)
➢ Very HFD (80% fat 16% protein, and 4% carbohydrates) HFD: ↑ leptin, IL-1β Andre et al. (2017)
Diet supplemented with ketones Knockout mice model for Muckle-Wells Syndrome and Familial Cold Autoinflammatory syndrome 1-week treatment:➢ Control: normal chow with 4.5% fat
➢ Study group: normal chow supplemented with 20% 1,3-butanediol ketone diesters Study group: ↓ IL-1β release and caspase-1 activity Youm et al. (2015)
High fat high sucrose diet (HFD) C57BL/6 J (wild type; WT) male mice 8-week treatment:➢ Young + normal diet (YND)
➢ Young + HFD (YHFD)
➢ Old + normal diet (OND)
➢ Old + HFD (OHFD) HFD led to β-cell failure in aged mice, enhanced expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and macrophage transformation to a more pro-inflammatory phenotype He et al. (2018)