Table 5  Therapeutic options that are available for the treatment of novel coronaviruses (cell line, animal, and human studies)
General treatment  Nutritional interventions, targets or function  Vit A  Measles virus, measles‐related pneumonia, HIV, avian CoV, IBV   Upregulating the elements of the innate immune, Making the cells refractory to infection
B vit  MERS‐CoV   Enhancing immune system, Inhibiting the of neutrophil infiltration into the lungs, Anti‐inflammatory effects during ventilator‐induced lung injury
Vit C  Avian CoV   Supporting immune functions, protecting against CoV infection, preventing of the lower respiratory tract infections
Vit D  Bovine CoV   Triggering the maturation of immune cells
Vit E  Coxsackievirus, bovine CoV   Antioxidant function
Omega‐3 PUFA  Influenza virus, HIV   Attenuating the replication of influenza virus
Selenium  Influenza virus, avian CoV   Antioxidant function, inducing immune response
Zinc  Influenza virus, avian CoV, SARS‐CoV   Maintenance/development of innate and adaptive immune systems simultaneously
Iron  Viral mutations   Enhancing the immune system
Immunoenhancers  IFNs  SARS‐CoV, MERS‐CoV   Acting as apart of the innate immune response, Inhibiting the replication of CoVs in animal and human
IVIg  SARS‐CoV   Increasing the viscosity in hypercoagulable states
Ta1  SARS‐CoV   Restoring the homeostasis of the immune system, Increasint the resistance glucocorticoid‐induced death of thymocyte
TP5, munox  Restore antibody production   Restoring antibody production, Enhancing the antibody response, As adjuvant treatment
Levamisole  Immunostimulant/immunosuppressive agent   Increasing the functions of cellular immunity, Act as immunostimulant agent or immunosuppressive agent through dose‐ and time‐dependent manner, reversing the depressed helper/inducer lymphocytes
Cyclosporine A  SARS‐CoV, avian infectious bronchitis virus   Both facilitating or inhibiting virus replication, blocking the all genera replication of CoV
CTM  Glycyrrhizin, Baicalin, Ginseng  SARS‐CoV, avian infectious bronchitis virus  Enhancing host immunity, Inhibiting the replication of SARS‐associated virus and SARS‐CoV, Enhancing the specific‐antibody responses
Specific treatments  Protease inhibitors  3C‐like inhibitors  Cinanserin,  SARS‐CoV  Act as serotonin receptor antagonist, Inhibiting the replication
Flavonoids  MERS‐CoV  Act as antioxidant and antiviral compound, blocking the enzymatic activity of MERS‐CoV/3CLpro
PLP inhibitors  SARS‐CoV  Inhibit PLP of SARS‐CoV
S protein‐ACE2 blockers  Human mAb  SARS‐CoV   Neutralizing SARS‐CoV, inhibiting syncytia formation between cells expressing the S protein and the SARS‐CoV receptor ACE2
Chloroquine  SARS‐CoV   Possess antiviral effect, inhibiting of SARS‐CoV infection via interfering with ACE2
Emodin  SARS‐CoV   Blocking the interaction between the S protein of virus and ACE2
Promazine  SARS‐CoV   Inhibiting the replication of virus, inhibiting the binding of S protein to ACE2
Nicotianamine    Inhibiting the ACE2
Antiviral treatments   Ribavirin  SARS‐CoV   Inhibiting the the replication of SARS‐associated CoV
LPV/RTV (Kaletra)  HIV, SARS‐CoV, MERS‐CoV   protease inhibitor
RDV  SARS‐CoV, MERS‐CoV   Improving the pulmonary function, reducing the lung viral loads and severe lung pathology
Nelfinavir  HIV, SARS‐CoV   Act as selective inhibitor of HIV protease, Inhibiting the replication virus
ARB  influenza A/B, hepatitis C virus   Blocking viral fusion, entry and replication
Nitric oxide  SARS   Antiviral effects
Other compounds   ALA  human CoV‐229E, HIV   Act as antioxidant, inhibiting the replication of HIV‐1
Estradiol and phytoestrogen  SARS‐CoV, MERS, influenza A   Reducing virus replication in primary human nasal epithelial cells
Mucroporin‐M1  influenza H5N1 viruses, and SARS‐CoV   Virucidal activity against viruses
Abbreviations: 3 CLpro, 3C‐like protease; Ab, antibody; ACE2, angiotensin converting enzyme 2; ALA, α‐lipoic acid; ARB, arbidol; CoV, coronavirus; CTM, Chinese traditional medicine; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; IBV, bronchitis virus; IFN, interferons; IVIg, intravenous gammaglobulin; LPV/RTV, lopinavir/ritonavir; mAb, monoclonal antibody; PLpro, papain‐like protease; PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acids; RDV, remdesivir; S, spike; Ta1, thymosin α‐1; TP5, thymopentin; Vit, vitamin.
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