2.3  Immobilization and surface passivation
Given biosensors are self-contained devices composed of integrated transducer-biorecognition elements, the immobilization of biorecognition elements on electrodes is central to the design, fabrication, and performance of electrochemical biosensors for pathogen detection. The goal of immobilization is to achieve a stable, irreversible bond between the biorecognition element and the electrode with suitable packing density and orientation that maintains high accessibility and binding affinity to target species. Electrochemical biosensors for pathogen detection have typically used established techniques for preparation of the biorecognition layer. A detailed discussion of immobilization and surface passivation techniques is provided in Supporting Information.