Emerging transduction approaches associated with electrochemical biosensors for pathogen detection. a) A nanostructured Au microelectrode array with high curvature (De Luna et al. 2017). b) Cell-imprinted polymer (CIP) with ‘artificial’ biorecognition elements for detection of E. coli using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and the Fe(CN)63-/4- redox probe (Jafari et al. 2019).