2.1.2  Ceramic electrodes
Conducting and semiconducting ceramics, including indium tin oxide (ITO), polysilicon, and titanium dioxide (TiO2) have also been examined for pathogen detection. For example, Das et al. used a silicon electrode for Salmonella typhimurium (S. typhimurium) detection (Das et al. 2009). Barreiros dos Santos et al. developed an antibody-functionalized ITO electrode for the detection of E. coliwith a dynamic range of 10–106 CFU/mL (Barreiros dos Santos et al. 2015). In addition to high conductivity, ITO is transparent, which presents various measurement advantages, including the ability to accurately correlate biosensor response with pathogen surface coverage (Aydın and Sezgintürk, 2017; Yang and Li, 2005). Transparent electrodes also enable in situ verification of target binding via microscopic techniques and offer compatibility with optical approaches, such as those based on optical stimulation (Wenzel et al. 2018). Carbon electrodes based on various allotropes of carbon, such as graphite and glass-like carbon, can also be classified as ceramic materials due to their mechanical properties (e.g., brittleness).