protein receptor recognition (Wong et al., 2004; Hofmann et al., 2006; Lu et al., 2013). The NTDs and CTDs of the S1 subunit can bind host receptors or function as receptor-binding domains (RBDs) (Lu et al., 2013; Hulswit et al., 2019). The entry of human CoVs relies on the interaction between viral and cellular membrane proteins. Recognition of S1 subunit with a receptor and/or sugar on the cell surface initiates the infection (Li, 2015). After the initial recognition and binding, the S protein undergoes conformational changes, followed by