In the early stages of coronaviruses infection, dendritic cells and epithelial cells are activated and express a cluster of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines including IL-1β, IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, both IFN-α/β, tumor necrosis factor (TNF), C—C motif chemokine 3 (CCL3), CCL5, CCL2, and IP-10, etc.