Results and Discussion A total of 392 articles were found after preliminary screening of the databases. After title and abstract screening, a total of 230 articles were excluded. Full-text screening of the remaining 154 articles was done. Among these studies, after full-text screening, a total of 122 articles were included in the final review. The PRISMA flowchart of the study is shown in Figure 3. Thirty-two articles were excluded after full-text screen (review articles = 7, articles not specifying drug targets against CoV = 22, articles in other language other than English = 3). Details of studies with important structural and functional target proteins are summarized in Table 1. Figure 3 Flowchart Table 1 Details of studies representing protein database structures of major targets in coronavirus and their structures PDB ID Details Inhibitor IC50 Reference N protein 4KXJ Interaction between PJ34 and NTD of N protein of HCoV-OC43 PJ34 - [26] 3V3P Structure not released [30] 4LM7 Interactions of NTD of N protein of HCoV-OC43 with UMP - [26] 4LI4 Interactions of NTD of N protein of HCoV-OC43 with AMP - [26] Protease 4TWY 3CLPro of SARS-CoV with an inhibitor 3BL [27] 4TWW 3CLPro of SARS-CoV with an inhibitor 41 63 µM [27] 4WY3 3CLPro of SARS-CoV with an inhibitor 3X5 240 µM [27] 4OVZ CoV PLPro complexed with inhibitor P85 490 nM [31] 3MJ5 SARS-CoV PLPro complexed with inhibitor GRM 320 nM [32] 2FE8 SARS-CoV PLPro - - [33] 1UK4 SARS-CoV 3CLPro and its interactions with an inhibitor Substrate analog hexapeptidyl CMK inhibitor IC50 ca. 2 mM [34] 1UJ1, 1UK3, 1UK2 SARS-CoV M-pro, apo-enzyme at different pH - - [34] 3VB6 SARS-CoV 3CLPro in complex with C6Z C6Z 39 µM [35] 3VB5 SARS-CoV 3CLPro with C4Z C4Z 1.3-4.6 µM [35] 3TLO HCoV-NL63 3CLPro - - [3637] 6LU7 Main protease of 2019-nCoV and its complex with N3 (inhibitor) - - [38] Spike protein 5ZUV HR1 motif of HCoV-229E in complex with EK1 Modified OC43-HR2P peptide (EK1) 0.19-0.62 µM [39] 5ZVM EK1 in complex with SARS HR1 motif [39] 5X4S NTD of SARS-CoV S protein [40] 5WRG SARS-CoV S protein [41] 6Q05 MERS-CoV S structure in complex with Sialyl-Lewis [42] 6ACG SARS-CoV S protein: ACE-2 (conformation 1) complex [43] 6ACK SARS-CoV S protein: ACE-2 (conformation 3) complex [43] 3SCI RBD of S protein interaction with ACE-2 [44] to be published NTD=N-terminal domain, CoV=Coronovirus, 3CLPro=3C-like protease, PLpro=Papain-like protease, MERS=Middle East respiratory syndrome, SARS=Severe acute respiratory syndrome, ACE-2=Angiotensin converting enzyme-2, RBD=Receptor-binding domain, nCoV=Novel coronavirus, S protein=Spike protein Spike protein The spike protein is a clove-shaped, type I-TM protein.[2] The spike protein has three segments that are ectodomain (ED) region, TM region, and intracellular domain, which comprises the intracellular short tail part.[2] The receptor-binding S1 domain (three S1 heads) and the membrane fusion subunit S2 (trimeric stalk) on C-terminal together comprise the ED. Spike proteins gather in the trimeric form on the outer surface of the virion, giving it the appearance of a crown, due to which it is called CoV.[2] The spike protein plays an important role in virus entry into the host.[10] Initial interactions between the S1 domain and its host receptor (ACE2 in case of SARS-CoV and PP 4 In case of MERS-CoV) and subsequent S2 segment mediated fusion of the host and viral membranes allow the CoV- RNA genome to enter inside the host cells and thus, these proteins represent as important targets from drug discovery side.[10] The spike protein also activates the immune response of the host cell toward CoV.[10] S1 domain The main components of the S1 domain are the N-terminal domain (NTD) and the C-terminal domain (CTD). The S1 domain acts as a major antigen on the surface of the virus[40] and has a receptor-binding domain (RBD).[25] The 18 residues of ACE-2 interact with the RBD (contain 14 amino acids) of SARS-CoV spike protein,[45] and for this contact, K341 of ACE-2 and R453 residue of RBD play the most important role. If point mutated on the D454 or R441 of RBD, it disturbs the binding activity with ACE-2.[25] The S1 domain interacts with the ACE-2 or DPP-4 receptors of the host. Anti-ACE-2 antibody blocked viral entry and replication in Vero E6 cells.[1445] One another mechanism of virus for binding to host cell is using dendritic cell-specific intercellular adhesion molecule-3 grabbing non-integrin (DC-SIGN receptor) or L-SIGN in lymph nodes or in liver.[4647] S protein has seven (109, 118, 119, 158, 227, 589, and 699) glycosylation asparagine-linked sites, which is pivotal for both L-SIGN- or DC-SIGN-based virus entry into the host.[48] S2 subunit The S2 subunit has two heptad repeat regions (HR 1 and 2) and hydrophobic fusion peptide.[25] Drug designing strategies targeting S protein and its interactions The RBD is targeted in many drug designing studies.[25] A peptide sequence with sequence similarity to the RBD of S protein hampered S1-RBD: ACE-2 interaction and prevented entry of SARS-CoV into Vero cells (IC50 around 40 μM).[254950] A SARS-CoV RBD-specific antibody (FM6) failed to inhibit the occurrence of infection.[39] OC43-HR2P, a peptide derived from heptad repeat 2 regions of S2 domain of HCoV-OC43 and its optimized form EK1, showed pan-CoV fusion inhibition property.[39] The structure (protein data bank [PDB] ID 5ZUV and 5ZVM) shows a stable 6-helix bundle structure with α-HCoV and long β-HCoV-HR1 domain.[39] Chloroquine, an antimalarial agent, inhibits SERS-CoV by elevation of endosomal pH and alters the terminal glycosylation of ACE-2, which ultimately interferes with the virus receptor binding.[51] Other inhibitors SSAA09E2 block the S-ACE2 interaction, SSAA09E1 inhibits the host protease cathepsin L (which is important for viral entry), and SSAA09E3 prevents fusion of host and viral cell membrane.[52] Kao et al. identified 18 small molecules that targeted the S-ACE-2-mediated entry of virus into human cell.[53] In 293T cells expressing ACE-2, one of these agents (VE607) showed a significant inhibition of SARS-pseudovirus entry.[53] In Vero E6 cells, two other molecules tetra-O-galloyl beta-D-glucose and luteolin also inhibited SARS-pseudovirus and SARS-CoV infection.[53] In virus-infected Vero E6 cells, a siRNA against the S sequences of SARS-CoV inhibited SARS-CoV replication.[2554] The S230 antibody (origin: memory B-cells of SARS-CoV-infected persons) neutralizes wide spectrum of isolates of SARS-CoV.[55] S230 antibody Fab fragment binds to the SARS-CoV complex to neutralize it, and their structures are also available (PDB IDs: 6NB6, 6NB7, and 6NB8.[55] The monoclonal antibody, m396, has a competitive role for RBD binding (PDB ID: 2DD8).[56] Monoclonal antibody can be generated by immunizing the spike protein of SERS-CoV (transgenic mice) or from the B-cells of CoV-infected persons.[25] Spike-specific monoclonal antibodies 80R and CR301 block the S-ACE-2 interactions and thus neutralize infection by human SARS-CoV (HKu39849 and Tor2) and palm civet strain (SZ3).[25] Mice vaccinated with SARS-n DNA showed T-cell immune response (both induction and proliferation),[57] and cytotoxic T-cell response was seen against SARS-DNA-transfected alveolar epithelial cells. Envelop protein (E) The E protein is the smallest (8.4–12 kDa size) TM structural protein of CoV.[5859] Two distinct domains comprise the E protein: the hydrophobic domain and the charged cytoplasmic tail. However, the structure is highly variable among different members of the CoV family.[59] The E protein has a special role in viral morphogenesis, especially during assembly and egress.[59] CoVs lacking E protein show lower viral titer, immature, and inefficient progenies.[5860] Oligomerization of E proteins leads to the formation of ion channels.[61] However, the importance of these ion channels is still not clear. Many other studies infer that the E protein acts in coordination with other intracellular proteins and modulates the activity of those proteins.[59] E protein also acts as a virulence factor.[59] E protein has an important role in CoV assembly and budding formation.[24] Apart from this, E protein found around the ER and Golgi body regions.[60] Hexamethylene amiloride blocks this E protein-associated ion channel activity in the mammalian cells expressing SERS-CoV envelop protein.[62] Membrane protein Maintenance of the shape of the viral envelope is the most important function of the M protein,[60] and the M protein performs this job by interacting with other CoV proteins,[63] incorporation of Golgi complex into new virions,[60] and stabilization of nucleocapsid protein.[60] The M protein is characterized by three TM domains[64] with C-terminal inside (long) and N-terminal (short) outside.[63] The details of the protein structure is available in UniProt.[65] Through multiple protein–protein interactions, the M protein plays a crucial role in viral intracellular homeostasis.[60] Interaction between M–M, M–S, and M–N proteins takes a special part in viral assembly.[60] The M–S interactions are necessary for the interaction of spike protein in the ERGIC complex, also known as the Golgi complex, which is later incorporated into new viral progenies.[60] The M–N interactions are crucial for the stabilization of the RNP complex (nucleocapsid–RNA complex), which forms the viral core.[60] The M protein and the N protein are the major viral envelope proteins, defining viral shape, but it also takes part in the formation and release of virus-like particles.[60] M protein also takes part in the sensitization of the host by the virus.[66] The M protein of SARS-CoV activates the nuclear factor kappa pathway and IFN-beta pathway, through a Toll-like receptor-dependent mechanism. Again, a mutated M protein (V-68) failed to illicit an IFN-beta response.[66] Mice vaccinated with SARS-M DNA showed T-cell immune response (both induction and proliferation),[57] and cytotoxic T-cell response was seen against SARS-DNA-transfected alveolar epithelial cells. Nucleocapsid protein (N) The structure of nucleocapsid protein (N protein) is conserved across different members of the CoV family. The three characteristic intrinsically disordered regions (IDRs) of the nucleocapsid (N) protein are the N-arm, central linker (CL), and the C-tail.[4] The NTD and the CTD are the major structural and functional domain of the nucleocapsid protein. The most important function of the N protein NTD is RNA binding, while the primary job of the CTD is dimerization.[49] As the CL region is rich in arginine and serine residue content, it also contains a large number of phosphorylation sites.[26] The C-terminal IDRs take an important part in nucleocapsid protein oligomerization and N–M protein interactions.[67] Formation and maintenance of the RNP complex are the most important functions of the N protein.[9] It also regulates the replication and transcription of viral RNA, and in the host, it inhibits protein translation through EF1α-mediated action,[9] alteration of host cell metabolism, host cell cycle (N proteins are reported to inhibit CDK4), and apoptosis.[39] In human peripheral blood, N protein inhibits cell proliferation through the inhibition of cytokinesis.[68] The NTD contains sites for RNA binding. The RNA-binding sites on the NTD of N protein were identified by observing its interactions with ribonucleoside 5'-monophosphates (AMP, UMP, CMP, and GMP).[26] Using the information about interaction between AMP and UMP binding to the NTD of nucleocapsid protein, inhibitors of RNA binding were designed. Three-dimensional structure with all complex can see from PDB that is 4LMC, 4LM9, 4LM7, and 4LI4, respectively.[26] One such molecule which was designed with this strategy is N-(6-oxo-5,6-dihydrophenanthridine-2-yl) (N, N dimethyl amino) (PJ34), which was designed using the HCoV-OC43 model.[26] Binding of PJ34 on NTD affects the genome binding and replication process of CoV.[26] The crystal structure of COV-OC43 N-NTD with inhibitor PJ34 complex is given in PDB ID: 4KXJ.[26] On the basis of interactions between PJ34 and NTD of nucleocapsid protein, another inhibitor was designed that is H3 (6-chloro-7-(2-morpholin-4-yl-ethylamino) quinoxaline-5,8-dione), which also inhibits RNA binding.[2669] This highlights the importance of NTD in RNA binding. Some of the herbal products, such as catechin gallate and gallocatechin gallate (both are polyphenolic compounds), have shown the inhibitory action against SARS-CoV.[70] The CTD of N protein has a primary role in oligomerization, especially the C-terminal end. A C-terminal tail peptide sequence N377–389 competes with the oligomerization process and significant inhibition of viral titer was seen at 300 μM concentration.[71] N220, which is a nucleocapsid protein peptide, showed a high binding affinity to human MHC-1 in T2 cells, and the peptide sequence was successful in activating T-cells (cytotoxic). In transgenic animals, the peptide further showed potential to selective killing of nucleocapsid protein expressing cells and is a potential candidate for DNA vaccine.[72] Other N protein-targeted peptides of importance are NP111, NP331, and NP351.[7273] Proteases The SERS-CoV genome encodes a number of proteins. The replicase gene, which is a major component of the CoV genome encoded for 16 NSPs in the form of two large PPs (PP1a and PP1ab).[74] Two types of cysteine proteases act on these PPs to release the NSPs. The C-terminal end of these PPs is cleaved by chymotrypsin-like cysteine protease (main protease [Mpro] or 3C-like protease [3CLpro]) and the N-terminal end is processed by the Mpro (also known as papain-like protease [PLpro]).[74] The first three cleavage sites of the PPs is cut by PLpro while the rest 11 sites are cleaved by CLpro, and this cleavage results in release of 16 NSPs.[75] 3C-like protease The 3CLpro is present in homodimer form and has cys-his dyad on active site which shows protease activity.[27] If mutated on the Ser139 and phe140 positions, it abolishes the dimerization of 3CLPro (PDB ID: 3F9G).[76] This protease can cleave 11 sites in the p1 position of PP1a and PP1ab and can produce a mature protein that anchors the replication/transcription complex[377] and also releases the mature NSPs.[78] N-(benzo[1,2,3]triazol-1-yl)-N-(benzyl) acetamido) phenyl) carboxamides are also found to be important inhibitors of CLPro. The structure of CLPro inhibitor is with ML188 (IC50 1.5 μM) is reported (CID: 46897844, PDB ID: 3V3M).[7980] Another structure with CLPro inhibitor ML300 (PDB ID: 4MDS, IC50: 6.2 μM) is reported.[79] Some metal-conjugated and peptidomimetic compounds showed inhibitory activity against 3CLpro.[77] Some of the small molecules also act as an inhibitor that is arylboronic acids, quinolinecarboxylate derivatives, thiophenecarboxylate, and phthalhydrazide-substituted ketoglutamine analogs.[77] Some flavonoids are also reported to inhibit Mpro.[75] GC376 also has protease inhibitor activity.[81] A crystal structure of Mpro with small molecule inhibitor N3 is also reported (PDB ID: 2AMQ).[82] Lopinavir and ritonavir, which are the inhibitors of HIV protease, also inhibit Mpro.[83] In silico studies directed that among commercially available drugs, colistin, valrubicin, icatibant, bepotastine, epirubicin, epoprostenol, vapreotide, aprepitant, caspofungin, and perphenazine also bind to the lopinavir/ritonavir-binding site on CoV.[83] Papain-like protease The PLpro cleaves the N-terminal region of the PP to generate three NSPs (NSP 1, 2, and 3).[374] PLpro has a catalytic core domain that contains 316 amino acid, which is responsible for cleaving replicase substrates, and a consensus sequence LXGG was required for cleavage.[78] Higher doses of zinc and zinc conjugates were found to inhibit both types of SARS protease (CLpro and PLpro).[84] Benzodioxole can inhibit the PLpro enzyme. The crystal structure of interaction is shown in PDB ID: 4OVZ, 4OWZ.[31] Through in silico approach, another new lead was identified (6577871) which was further optimized, and compound 15h (S configuration, enzyme IC50 =0.56 μM, antiviral EC50 =9.1 μM) and 15g (R configuration, enzyme IC50 =0.32 μM; antiviral EC50 =9.1 μM) were found to be the most important inhibitors.[32] The crystallized structural details of these interactions can be visualized in the PDB database (PDB ID: 2FE8 and 3E9S).[32] Many of the protease inhibitors are being used in the treatment of COVID-19, e.g., lopinavir–ritonavir combinations.[85] Hemagglutinin esterase This HE enzyme is present in the envelope of CoV, more specifically among beta-coronaviridiae.[86] The HE is a marker of CoV and influenza virus evolution.[86] HE mediates reversible attachment to O-acetylated-sialic-acids by acting both as lectins and as receptor-destroying enzymes.[86] Interactions between HE in complex with sialic acid can be visualized in PDB ID: 3CL5.[86] NTPase/helicase NTPase/helicase plays an important role in the central dogma of the virus.[87] SARS-CoV helicase enzyme is a member of the SF1. This enzyme prefers ATP, dATP, and dCTP as substrates; it also hydrolyzed all NTPs.[88] Toxicity issues are main obstacles in the development of inhibitors of helicase, and nonspecificity of inhibitors may cause serious toxicity.[87] However, despite theoretical limitations, helicase is being increasingly recognized as a druggable target for different disease conditions.[89]