Patient radiation doses

Radiation dose quantities and units
Various radiation dose parameters are used in diagnostic radiology, the most commonly being absorbed dose and effective dose. Absorbed dose, expressed in grays (Gy), is a measure of the energy per unit of mass deposited in the tissue and organs of the body. Radiation dose from ionising radiation is frequently quantified in terms of the effective dose. The effective dose, expressed in sieverts (Sv), is calculated from information about absorbed doses to the organ or tissue exposed to X-rays and the relative radiation risk assigned to each of these organs or tissues. Appropriate weighting factors related to radiogenic risk for body organs and tissues have been published by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) [19]. The effective dose was introduced to allow estimation of radiogenic risks when various organs receive different levels of dose. This commonly occurs with partial body exposures, which is always the case with DXA. The effective dose is a useful quantity for comparison among different sources of ionising radiation, such as that from DXA and QCT or DXA and natural background radiation. The worldwide average effective dose from natural background radiation is 2.4 mSv/year.
Two dosimetric quantities are utilised in CT, CT dose index (CTDI) and dose–length product (DLP) [20]. The CTDI represents the average absorbed dose, along the z axis, from a series of contiguous exposures. CTDI measurements are performed at the periphery (CTDIP) and at the centre (CTDIC) of cylindrical poly(methyl methacrylate) phantoms representing the human head and body by using a pencil ionisation chamber with a length of 100 mm. From these measurements, a weighted CTDI (CTDIW) representing the average dose to a single slice can be derived as follows:
To take into account the effect of pitch on radiation dose, CTDI volume (CTDIV) has been introduced for imaging performed in the spiral mode, which is defined as CTDI divided by pitch. CTDIV is the dose quantity displayed by the operator’s console of most CT systems. The DLP is defined as the CTDIV multiplied by the imaging length. The SI unit for DLP is mGy cm. Thus, DLP is an indicator of the integrated dose of an entire CT examination. Broad estimates of effective dose E can be derived from DLP values using conversion coefficients: E = DLP × k where k is the normalised effective dose (mSv mGy−1 cm−1) that is a function of body region [21].

Radiation doses from techniques used to assess low-energy fractures
VFA is a low-dose technique with doses reported to be from 0.002 to about 0.05 mSv [22–24]. Although spine radiography is the reference standard for the detection of vertebral fractures, VFA is associated with considerably lower exposure to the patient [25]. The dose from a lateral radiograph of the thoracic and lumbar spine is about 0.6 mSv [22]. Obviously, the advantage of VFA with respect to radiation dose is doubtful when the examination is used in combination with spinal radiographs. MDCT is not performed specifically for vertebral fracture diagnosis. However, fracture assessment of the spine is possible without any additional radiation burden by routinely performing sagittal reformations in 3D CT of the thorax and abdomen which have been performed for other clinical indications. In addition the lateral digital radiographs (scout views) may be used for fracture assessment. Radiographs are preferable to CT for routine diagnosis of vertebral fractures, partly because of the lower radiation dose. Bauer et al. [26] state that a low-dose CT protocol for visualisation of the spine is associated with a dose of 2.2 mSv for men and 3.3 mSv for women.

Radiation doses from DXA
Several studies have reported doses to children and adults from DXA [27–34]. For the first-generation pencil-beam devices the effective dose was negligible i.e. about 0.001 mSv for a spine and femur DXA. However, the doses are considerably higher for the fan-beam devices, especially for children and adolescents. Figure 1 shows effective doses to adult and paediatric patients from a spine and a hip DXA reported in a recent paper [33]. Dose figures were estimated by using the default adult imaging length of 20 cm for the spine and 15 cm for the hip. In general, the effective dose from a spine and hip DXA examination performed on a 5-year-old child is two to three times higher than the adult dose. This may be attributed to the fact that the exposure parameters and the image size are optimised for standard-sized adults. Paediatric doses can be reduced by adjusting image lengths to the size of the child’s body. Table 1 shows typical organ and effective doses from fan-beam DXA and spine radiographs. DXA values are for Hologic DXA devices (Hologic Inc, Bedford, MA) examined by Blake et al. [33]. The patient dose will vary between DXA systems of different models and manufacturers depending on a number of variables, including differences in acquisition techniques and X-ray tube filtration. Doses for spine radiography were calculated by using the Monte Carlo N-particle code (MCNP, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM) and a mathematical phantom of human anatomy constructed with the BodyBuilder software package (BodyBuilder, White Rock Science, NM). Table 2 shows doses associated with various diagnostic X-ray examinations derived from the literature [35, 36]. Patient effective doses from peripheral DXA are lower than 0.01 mSv [37]. Whole-body DXA is an established procedure for the assessment of skeletal mineral status of the whole body and the measurement of body composition [38]. Effective doses for whole-body DXA examinations were found to be 0.0052, 0.0048, 0.0042 and 0.0042 mSv for a 5-, 10-, 15-year-old child and adult respectively for an examination performed on the Hologic Discovery A device. Corresponding values for the Hologic Discovery W were 0.0105, 0.0096, 0.0084 and 0.0084 mSv [33].
Fig. 1 Effective doses from a single DXA of the spine (a) or hip (b) as a function of patient age (adapted from Blake et al. [33]). Patient dose was estimated for Hologic DXA using three imaging modes: Array mode (60-s data acquisition time); Fast mode (30-s data acquisition time); and Express mode (10-s data acquisition time)
Table 1 Effective and organ doses for DXA and spine radiographs
Examination Effective dose (mSv) Organ dose (mGy) Relevant organs
Adult spine DXA 0.013 0.003 BM, ovaries
Adult hip DXA 0.009 0.005 LLI
Paediatric spine DXA 0.027 0.008 Ovaries
(5-year-old child, scan length 11.7 cm) 0.007 Stomach
Paediatric hip DXA 0.022 0.015 Testes
(5-year-old child, scan length 9.0 cm) 0.009 LLI
Paediatric spine DXA 0.021 0.006 Ovaries
(10-year-old child, scan length 14.5 cm) 0.005 Stomach
Paediatric hip DXA 0.018 0.010 Testes
(10-year-old child, scan length 12.4 cm) 0.008 LLI
Thoracic spine AP radiograph 0.4 0.8 Lungs
Thoracic spine LAT radiograph 0.3 1.2 Lungs
Lumbar spine AP radiograph 0.7 2.5 Stomach
Lumbar spine LAT radiograph 0.3 2.3 Liver
Paediatric doses are given for scans lengths adjusted to the size of the child’s body
AP anterior-posterior, LAT lateral, BM bone marrow, LLI lower large intestine
Table 2 Typical effective and organ doses for various diagnostic X-ray examinations
Examination Effective dose (mSv) Organ dose (mGy) Relevant organs
Dental radiography (intraoral) 0.005 0.005 Brain
Chest radiography (posterior-anterior) 0.02 0.01 Lung
X-ray mammography 0.4 3 Breast
Adult abdominal CT 8 10 Stomach
The patient radiation dose from a DXA examination depends on a number of parameters. The most important are the number of images, the size of the patient, the specific design of the device, beam filtration, the tube current (mA), the tube potential (kVp), the imaging speed and the imaging length and width. Most of these parameters cannot be controlled by the operator performing the DXA examination. However, it is important for the user to know that patient dose varies depending on the imaging mode for a specific examination (Fig. 1). Special attention to imaging protocols and radiation dose is needed when imaging children and adolescents. The use of a standardised and fixed clinical protocol designed for adults leads to unnecessary overexposure of children.
Although rare, DXA is occasionally performed on pregnant patients for the diagnosis or the differential diagnosis of pregnancy-associated osteoporosis. Pregnant patients receiving heparin may require BMDa estimation. The maximum conceptus dose during the first trimester associated with DXA performed using a pencil-beam device was found to be 0.0034 mGy related to the scan of the hip [39]. In this study, conceptus doses from DXA performed during late pregnancy were found to be up to 0.0049 mGy. The highest dose was recorded for spinal imaging carried out during the third trimester of gestation. According to the ICRP, a dose to the conceptus below 100 mGy should not be considered a reason for terminating a pregnancy [40]. Because radiation dose to the unborn child from DXA is always less than 100 mGy, termination of pregnancy based on radiation risk is not justified. Although radiation dose to the conceptus is very low, DXA examinations on pregnant patients should be performed only when the expected benefits clearly exceed the reasonably suspected risks. When DXA is considered justified, the patient should be counselled before imaging on the actual dose received by the conceptus and the radiation risks involved.

Radiation doses from QCT
The patient dose from whole-body CT examination depends on a number of parameters including the technical features of the CT, the selected acquisition parameters and the size of the patient [41]. Thus, patient doses from CT differ significantly among study sites and CT systems. Dose depends strongly on the selected X-ray spectrum (i.e. the tube potential and the filtration), the tube current (mA) and examination time. Compared with CT as an imaging technique, spinal single-slice 2D QCT examinations use low-exposure parameters, i.e. 80-kV tube voltage and 120–140 mAs. This may be attributed to the fact that the high contrast between bone and surrounding structures allows BMD evaluation even with high noise levels. Table 3 shows radiation doses of optimised QCT protocols derived from the literature [9, 30, 42–44].
Table 3 Radiation doses associated with QCT protocols
Examination Voltage (kV) X-ray tube load (mAs) Effective dose (mSv) References
2D QCT spine, scout image and 3 slices of 10-mm thickness 80 125 0.06–0.3 [30, 41]
3D MDQCT spine, L1–L2, pitch 1 120 100 1.5 [9]
3D MDQCT hip, pitch 1 120 150–200 2.5–3.0 [9]
3D MDQCT radius, pitch 1 120 100 <0.01 [43]
Patient dose may differ significantly between institutions because of the variability in acquisition protocols and differences in the CT system characteristics

Radiation doses from high-resolution CT imaging (HRCT)
With helical MDCT, a volume of tissue is imaged to capture a texture of the trabecular bone at skeletal sites such as the spine and the hip. The advantage is that a full data set is obtained, providing important information about bone structure. However, HR CT is associated with a considerably higher radiation dose compared with the X-ray examinations commonly used in routine clinical practice for the estimation of bone status. Indeed, compared with the 0.06 to 0.3 mSv patient effective dose associated with QCT applied to 2D slices in the lumbar spine, studies show that protocols used to examine vertebral microstructure using HR MDCT provide an effective dose of about 3 mSv [45, 46]. This dose is similar to that delivered to the patient from 3D QCT of the hip (Table 3).

Radiation doses from pQCT
Peripheral QCT is associated with a low radiation dose because radiosensitive organs are distant from the primarily exposed area. Studies show that the effective dose from pQCT examinations is lower than 0.01 mSv [9, 14]. In a recent study of pQCT applied to imaging of microstructure of the distal tibia in adolescents, Burrows et al. reported an effective dose for HR pQCT (XtremeCT, Scanco) lower than 0.003 mSv [14]. Interestingly, these authors selected a measurement site so as to avoid primary irradiation of the growth plate. Dose optimisation is important even for low-dose methods as children and adolescents are more susceptible to the risk of radiation-induced biological effects than adults. However, the fact that both DXA and pQCT involve low radiation doses enables these techniques to be used to study the growth and development of the skeleton in normal children.