The shale revolution and the advent of the US onto the global energy map have challenged the power of long-term oil exporters, OPEC þ Russia (Morse, 2014) , and Saudi Arabia tried, without success, to drive US shale producers out of the energy market by keeping crude prices low in the mid-2010s and by forging an alliance with Russia on output cuts in 2016 (Kotsev, 2020) .