Microarray analysis of MERS-CoV infected macaque samples identified a rapid innate immune activation with increased expression of genes involved in proinflammatory processes and cell recruitment including interleukin 6 (IL-6), chemokine C-X-C ligand 1 (CXCL1) and matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9) (deWit et al., 2013) .